Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

English-language learner

An English-language learner (ELL), also termed an English learner (EL), refers to an individual aged 3 through 21 enrolled or preparing to enroll in elementary or secondary school, whose difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding English may deny the individual the ability to meet the state's proficient level of achievement on state assessments, and whose native language is a language other than English. This designation triggers requirements under federal education law for specialized language support services to facilitate academic participation and English proficiency development. In the United States, ELLs represent 10.6 percent of public school enrollment, equating to approximately 5.3 million students in fall 2021, with the highest proportions in southwestern states such as Texas (20.2 percent) and California.^[1] Predominantly Hispanic and from Spanish-speaking homes, these students confront substantial academic hurdles, evidenced by persistent achievement gaps on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), including 36-point deficits in fourth-grade reading and 44-point deficits in eighth-grade reading relative to non-ELL peers as of earlier assessments, gaps that widen with grade level due to compounding language barriers.^[2]^[3] Instructional models for ELLs encompass English as a second language (ESL) programs, structured English immersion, sheltered content instruction, and bilingual education variants, with federal policies like the No Child Left Behind Act and its successor, the Every Student Succeeds Act, mandating annual progress monitoring and accountability for English acquisition. Empirical evaluations reveal mixed outcomes across models, but evidence indicates that approaches prioritizing rapid English proficiency through immersion correlate with stronger long-term academic gains, whereas extended native-language instruction often delays mainstream integration without proportionally closing gaps, amid debates influenced by institutional inclinations toward biliteracy preservation over accelerated assimilation.^[4]^[5] Challenges in ELL education include teacher shortages, flawed identification and exit criteria from services, and implementation inconsistencies, underscoring causal factors like insufficient explicit academic language training in prevailing curricula.^[6]^[7]

Definition and Demographics

Definition and Terminology

An English-language learner (ELL), interchangeably termed English learner (EL), refers to a student whose primary or home language is not English and who lacks the proficiency to engage effectively in academic tasks delivered through English-only instruction. Under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015, this category encompasses individuals aged 3 through 21 enrolled in elementary or secondary schools who meet specific criteria: they were either born outside the United States or come from a non-English-dominant environment (including certain Native American, Alaska Native, or Pacific Islander students or migratory children), and their English comprehension deficits in speaking, reading, writing, or listening impede meeting state academic standards or succeeding in mainstream classrooms.^[8] Proficiency is assessed via standardized tests aligned to state English language development standards, with exit from ELL status requiring demonstrated competence across the four domains to perform ordinary classroom work.^[8] The terminology evolved from "limited English proficient" (LEP), used in prior laws like the Elementary and Secondary Education Act amendments, which emphasized proficiency shortfalls, to ELL under ESSA to underscore the developmental aspect of acquiring English skills rather than a fixed limitation.^[9] This change sought to avoid deficit-oriented framing while maintaining focus on measurable language barriers. More recent alternatives like "emerging bilingual" or "multilingual learner" promote an asset-based view by highlighting potential for biliteracy, but such labels risk underemphasizing the imperative of English fluency in a society where it serves as the primary medium for economic participation, governance, and higher education advancement.^[10] English dominance in the U.S. labor market underscores the causal priority of rapid proficiency: immigrants with strong English skills earn 10-20% higher wages on average and exhibit narrower gaps in employment and income relative to native-born workers, outcomes tied directly to communication efficacy rather than sustained dual-language dependency.^[11]^[12] Thus, ELL classification prioritizes functional thresholds—verified through empirical assessments—over broader cultural or potential-based descriptors, ensuring targeted support addresses verifiable proficiency gaps without conflating language needs with indefinite bilingual maintenance.^[8]

Current Demographics and Trends

In fall 2021, English learners (ELs) comprised 10.6 percent of U.S. public K-12 students, totaling approximately 5.3 million individuals.^[1] This population is disproportionately concentrated in states with high immigration inflows, such as California (home to over 1 million ELs) and Texas (where ELs exceed 20 percent of enrollment in many districts).^[13] Spanish remains the dominant home language among ELs, spoken by 76.4 percent (about 4 million students), followed distantly by Arabic and other languages, with over 400 distinct languages represented overall.^[14] The growth of the EL population correlates directly with patterns of immigration and birth rates among immigrant families, having risen more than 50 percent between 1997-98 and 2007-08 alone, with continued expansion into "new destination" states outside traditional gateways like the Southwest.^[15] Projections from the early 2020s anticipated ELs reaching 25 percent of K-12 enrollment by 2025, though recent analyses suggest this may overstate due to stabilizing immigration trends post-2010s.^[16] This expansion has imposed measurable strains on school systems, including increased demand for multilingual staff, translated materials, and specialized programs, exacerbating resource allocation challenges in underfunded districts.^[17] Post-COVID-19 assessments indicate ELs experienced steeper declines in proficiency, with WIDA data showing persistent drops in English language scores through 2023-24 compared to pre-pandemic baselines, compounding vulnerabilities tied to disrupted instruction and home-language barriers.^[18] While 72 percent of ELs aged 5-17 are U.S.-born, the cohort's demographic momentum remains linked to parental immigration status, influencing long-term enrollment pressures without guaranteed offsets in academic infrastructure.^[19]

Historical Development

Early Approaches and Immigration Waves

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, during the peak of European immigration to the United States—encompassing over 30 million arrivals between 1850 and 1913—non-English-speaking children were typically integrated directly into regular English-medium classrooms without specialized instruction, a practice known as "sink or swim" immersion.^[20] This approach relied on total exposure to English, with no federal mandates or dedicated programs for language support, leaving assimilation to local schools and family efforts.^[21] European immigrants from linguistically and culturally proximate regions, such as Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia, faced strong economic incentives to acquire English proficiency rapidly, as industrial labor markets demanded it for employment and social mobility.^[22] Empirical data indicate high rates of English acquisition under these conditions. By 1910, only 23% of foreign-born individuals aged 10 and older—roughly 3 million out of 13 million—reported being unable to speak English, reflecting effective immersion driven by necessity rather than structured aid.^[23] Census records from 1900 to 1930 show that 86% of immigrants spoke English to some degree, with over two-thirds applying for citizenship by 1930 and most demonstrating basic proficiency.^[24] Children's immersion in schools and peer environments accelerated this process, often yielding functional fluency within a few years, as parental investment in education and community pressures favored linguistic convergence over heritage language maintenance.^[25] Following World War II, U.S. immigration began shifting toward non-European sources, though numbers remained modest until the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act; even so, informal immersion persisted with limited institutional support.^[26] Non-European arrivals, including early waves from Asia and Latin America, encountered similar sink-or-swim placements in schools, where labor market demands and intergenerational transmission—particularly through children—fostered self-driven proficiency.^[27] Critiques of this era's "neglect" overlook evidence that economic imperatives, such as factory work and urban integration, compelled acquisition without formal programs, sustaining high overall assimilation until civil rights advocacy in the 1960s prompted formalized interventions.^[28] This transition marked a departure from decentralized, market-led approaches toward federally influenced structures.^[29]

Key Legislation and Court Cases

The Bilingual Education Act, enacted on January 2, 1968, as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, provided the first federal funding for programs addressing students with limited English proficiency, authorizing competitive grants to develop bilingual education initiatives aimed at integrating native-language support with English instruction.^[30] This legislation responded to growing awareness of language barriers among immigrant children but prioritized transitional bilingual models over rapid English immersion, setting a precedent for federal involvement that expanded services without mandating proficiency timelines.^[30] In the landmark Supreme Court case Lau v. Nichols (1974), the Court unanimously held that the San Francisco Unified School District's failure to offer supplemental English instruction to over 1,800 non-English-speaking Chinese students violated Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as equal access to education required affirmative remedies for language deficiencies rather than identical curricula alone.^[31] The ruling, grounded in disparate impact rather than intent, compelled schools nationwide to identify and serve English learners, influencing subsequent Office for Civil Rights guidelines that emphasized overcoming language barriers to prevent denial of meaningful participation.^[32] Despite its intent to enforce equity, implementation often favored maintenance-oriented bilingual programs, correlating with slower English acquisition in some districts.^[33] The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), signed into law on December 10, 2015, as a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, mandates states to establish uniform processes for identifying English learners, monitoring their annual progress toward proficiency, and including language acquisition metrics in school accountability frameworks.^[34] ESSA shifted emphasis toward evidence-based interventions for English proficiency while allowing flexibility in program models, requiring former English learners to be tracked for up to four years post-reclassification to assess sustained outcomes.^[34] At the state level, California's Proposition 227, approved by voters on June 2, 1998, with 61% support, effectively curtailed bilingual education by requiring nearly all instruction for English learners to occur in English via structured immersion for one year or until proficiency, with parental waivers needed for alternatives; this policy correlated with a sharp rise in English learner reclassification rates, from 6.7% in 1998-1999 to over 40% by 2002-2003, indicating accelerated proficiency gains.^[35]^[36] In contrast, Proposition 58, passed on November 8, 2016, repealed key restrictions of Proposition 227, permitting schools greater latitude for dual-language and native-language programs without mandatory waivers, amid claims of bilingual benefits despite limited causal evidence linking such models to superior long-term English outcomes.^[37] Federal mandates since 1968 have substantially increased specialized services for English learners, with per-pupil funding and identification requirements expanding access, yet national assessments reveal enduring achievement gaps, such as eighth-grade English learners scoring 42 points lower in reading on the 2013 NAEP compared to non-learners, suggesting that expanded services alone have not closed disparities tied to instructional efficacy.^[38] State variations, exemplified by California's immersion mandate yielding faster proficiency than federal bilingual emphases, underscore how local policies prioritizing English exposure can better align with causal pathways to academic integration, rather than perpetuating native-language dependency.^[35]^[38]

Instructional Models

Structured English Immersion

![Professional Development SIOP][float-right] Structured English Immersion (SEI) is an instructional approach in which English language learners (ELLs) receive nearly all classroom instruction in English, with the curriculum adapted through sheltered techniques to ensure comprehensibility for students still acquiring proficiency in the host language.^[39] This model limits native language use to minimal clarification, typically one year of intensive immersion followed by transition to mainstream English classrooms, emphasizing rapid acquisition of English for academic content delivery. Sheltered instruction in SEI employs strategies such as visual aids, simplified language, and contextual supports to make subject matter accessible without diluting standards.^[40] SEI programs feature high-quality teachers trained in explicit English language development integrated with content areas, clearly defined proficiency objectives, and systematic assessment of progress toward fluency.^[40] Unlike transitional bilingual models, SEI prioritizes English as the primary medium from the outset, grounded in the causal necessity of host-language dominance for long-term integration into English-based curricula and societal participation.^[41] Implementation often includes structured daily routines focusing on vocabulary building, grammar reinforcement, and comprehensible input aligned with grade-level standards.^[41] In California, following the passage of Proposition 227 on June 2, 1998, which mandated SEI over primary-language instruction, ELL enrollment in English immersion rose sharply, with native-language use dropping from 30% to 8% statewide.^[42] Post-implementation data from the California Department of Education indicated accelerated English proficiency gains, as measured by state assessments like the California Standards Tests (CST), where ELL scores in English language arts improved at rates comparable to non-ELL peers.^[43] Reclassification rates from ELL to fluent English proficient status increased in the initial years, reflecting quicker exit from special services.^[44] While SEI facilitates prompt language acquisition, some studies note potential short-term challenges, including initial frustration or emotional strain for beginners due to the high English demand without extensive native-language scaffolding.^[45] Empirical evaluations, however, underscore its alignment with outcomes favoring sustained academic engagement once basic proficiency thresholds are met.^[46] Arizona's adoption of similar SEI mandates in 2000 via Proposition 203 further institutionalized the model, requiring 90-100% English instruction for ELLs determined by standardized proficiency tests like AZELLA.

Bilingual and Dual-Language Programs

Bilingual education programs for English-language learners (ELLs) employ both the student's native language and English for instruction, with the native language used to deliver content-area subjects such as mathematics and science during initial stages to facilitate comprehension.^[47] These models aim to build foundational knowledge in the primary language while introducing English, contrasting with English-only approaches by prioritizing native language support to bridge linguistic gaps.^[48] Transitional bilingual education (TBE), also termed early-exit programs, provides primary language instruction for 2-3 years, gradually reducing its use as students demonstrate English proficiency, with the goal of full transition to mainstream English classrooms by third grade.^[49] In TBE, content lessons begin predominantly in the native language—such as Spanish for Spanish-speaking ELLs—while English is taught separately through structured activities, enabling students to maintain academic progress without immediate English fluency demands.^[50] Maintenance bilingual education, or late-exit models, extends native language use beyond transitional phases, often through elementary school, to foster sustained proficiency in both languages alongside content mastery.^[47] Dual-language immersion programs, frequently structured as two-way immersion, integrate ELLs with native English speakers in mixed classrooms, allocating roughly equal time to both languages—typically 90% native/10% English in early kindergarten, shifting to 50/50 by later grades—for subjects like reading and social studies.^[51] These programs emphasize biliteracy development, with examples including Spanish-English models in California districts or Mandarin-English programs in urban schools, where students alternate language immersion blocks to promote mutual language acquisition among peers.^[52] Proponents highlight such models for preserving cultural heritage and native language skills, yet empirical analyses note that the division of instructional time reduces English exposure, leading to slower initial English proficiency gains relative to structured English immersion.^[53]^[52]

ESL Pull-Out and Push-In Programs

ESL pull-out programs entail the temporary removal of English language learners (ELLs) from mainstream classrooms to receive targeted English as a second language (ESL) instruction in small groups, often for 30 to 60 minutes per day.^[54] This approach prioritizes intensive skill-building in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, free from the pace and distractions of general education content delivery.^[55] Pull-out models gained traction in U.S. schools following the influx of non-English-speaking immigrants after the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, serving as a supplementary service under Title I and later ESL frameworks to address language barriers without full segregation.^[56] Proponents argue that the controlled environment enables error correction and scaffolded practice, fostering faster foundational proficiency compared to diluted in-class exposure.^[57] Critics of pull-out highlight drawbacks, including missed instructional time in core subjects like mathematics or science, which can exacerbate academic gaps if not offset by coordination between ESL and classroom teachers.^[55] A 2007 study of Mississippi elementary schools found ESL students in pull-out programs showed reading growth but lagged in content integration, attributing this to fragmented scheduling rather than inherent inefficacy.^[58] Resource demands are high, requiring dedicated ESL staff and space, which strains budgets in districts with high ELL concentrations—nationally exceeding 5 million students as of 2023 data from the U.S. Department of Education.^[59] Despite these trade-offs, pull-out avoids over-reliance on students' native languages, aligning with English-immersion principles by emphasizing direct language input and output.^[60] In contrast, push-in programs deliver ESL support directly within mainstream classrooms, typically via co-teaching where the ESL specialist collaborates with the content teacher to adapt lessons for ELLs.^[61] This model promotes seamless integration, allowing ELLs to access grade-level content in context while receiving real-time language scaffolding, such as vocabulary previews or visual aids.^[62] Developed as an evolution of pull-out in the 1980s and 1990s amid inclusion mandates under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) expansions, push-in seeks to minimize stigma and maximize peer modeling of English use.^[63] Advantages include preserved class time and culturally responsive adjustments, but effectiveness hinges on pre-planned collaboration; without it, ESL input may become superficial amid large class sizes averaging 25-30 students.^[64] Empirical comparisons reveal practical trade-offs rather than clear superiority, with hybrid pull-out/push-in (POPI) models often recommended for balancing intensity and inclusion.^[60] A review of intervention research indicates pull-out yields stronger gains in discrete language skills due to focused repetition, while push-in better supports content comprehension but risks diluting proficiency-building if ESL time is not ring-fenced.^[57] Teacher surveys report push-in's logistical challenges, such as mismatched expertise between ESL and general educators, potentially undermining causal links to outcomes.^[65] Districts like those in Massachusetts implement both based on proficiency levels, pulling beginners for basics and pushing advanced ELLs for refinement, reflecting resource realities over ideological preferences for full mainstreaming.^[54]^[61]

Effectiveness and Empirical Outcomes

Short-Term Language Acquisition Data

Structured English immersion programs facilitate faster short-term English proficiency gains for English language learners (ELLs) compared to bilingual approaches, as measured by standardized assessments and reclassification rates from EL status. In California following the 1998 implementation of Proposition 227, which mandated immersion over bilingual instruction, the percentage of ELLs scoring at advanced levels on the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) rose from 4.3% in the 2001-02 annual test to 9.6% by 2003-04, reflecting accelerated initial acquisition amid increased English exposure.^[66] Reclassification rates, serving as a proxy for reaching proficiency thresholds sufficient for mainstream placement, averaged 7.9% statewide from 2002-04 under immersion-dominant models, up from pre-Proposition 227 estimates around 5% annually that critics attributed to bilingual delays.^[66] ^[67] Comparative analyses confirm immersion's short-term edge, particularly in elementary years. Among Latino ELLs, structured English immersion yielded approximately 40% reclassification by the end of fifth grade, outpacing transitional bilingual, maintenance bilingual, and dual immersion programs, which exhibited slower elementary progress due to divided instructional time.^[68] Median time to reclassification across environments stands at 8 years, but immersion prioritizes rapid oral and basic academic English via concentrated exposure, aligning with causal mechanisms of language learning where maximal target-language input drives quicker comprehension and production milestones.^[68] WIDA ACCESS for ELLs data similarly indicate that immersion-aligned cohorts achieve higher composite proficiency levels (e.g., bridging from levels 1-2 to 3-4 within 1-2 years) in speaking and listening domains when prior native-language interference is minimized.^[69] Influencing factors include age of arrival and pre-migration education; younger ELLs (under 8 years) acquire conversational proficiency in 6-12 months under immersion, versus 1-2 additional years in bilingual settings per exposure-based models, while those with stronger home-language literacy transfer skills more efficiently to English decoding.^[70] Recent newcomer cohorts in immersion environments show rapid proficiency development, with average gains placing 70% at intermediate levels within one year on state ELPA assessments.^[70] However, systemic undercounting of short-term metrics in bilingual-favoring studies—often from academia—may understate immersion's velocity, as reclassification prioritizes verifiable English thresholds over maintenance of heritage languages.

Long-Term Academic and Economic Impacts

English language learners (ELLs) in the United States exhibit significantly lower high school graduation rates compared to their native English-speaking peers, with federal data indicating a four-year adjusted cohort graduation rate of 71 percent for ELLs versus 86 percent overall in the 2019-20 school year.^[71] This disparity persists even after accounting for demographic factors, as long-term English learners (LTELs)—defined as ELLs remaining classified for six or more years—demonstrate substantially lower academic performance across subjects, including reading and mathematics, relative to shorter-term ELLs and non-ELL students.^[72]^[73] LTEL status, often associated with prolonged exposure to native-language-heavy instruction, correlates with reduced postsecondary enrollment and completion, as delayed English proficiency hinders access to college-preparatory curricula and standardized testing requirements.^[74] Empirical reviews of instructional models reveal that structured English immersion accelerates reclassification to English proficiency, yielding superior long-term academic integration over transitional bilingual programs. A comprehensive analysis of 72 methodologically rigorous studies found no evidence that bilingual education outperforms immersion or English-as-a-second-language approaches in fostering English acquisition or academic gains, with immersion-linked districts showing faster progress toward fluency and higher eventual content mastery.^[75] Following California's Proposition 227 in 1998, which mandated immersion-style instruction, English learner achievement gaps narrowed over time, with third-grade proficiency rates improving and LTEL proportions declining in compliant districts, contrasting with stagnant outcomes in bilingual-dominant systems.^[76] These patterns underscore that prioritizing rapid English dominance mitigates risks of LTEL entrapment, which entrenches academic deficits into adulthood. Economically, sustained English proficiency causally enables greater labor market access and mobility in the English-dominant U.S. economy, where limited proficiency restricts immigrants to low-wage, manual sectors. Studies estimate that English-proficient immigrants earn 17 to 135 percent more than limited-English-proficient counterparts, depending on metropolitan context, with proficiency directly boosting employment probabilities by over 100 percent in initial post-arrival years and narrowing native-immigrant wage gaps through enhanced job matching.^[77]^[12]^[78] Persistent deficiencies, conversely, perpetuate intergenerational poverty by limiting occupational advancement and entrepreneurial opportunities, as evidenced by lower homeownership and investment returns among non-proficient groups, independent of education or origin effects.^[79] Thus, instructional delays in English mastery impose enduring opportunity costs, prioritizing native-language preservation over fluency undermines economic self-sufficiency in host-country markets.

Comparative Studies on Models

A series of quasi-experimental studies exploiting policy changes have compared structured English immersion with bilingual programs, revealing that immersion often yields faster gains in English proficiency and core academic skills for English language learners (ELLs) in English-dominant contexts. For instance, a 2013 analysis of Texas data following a mandate shift found that exposure to bilingual education reduced LEP students' English and math test scores by 0.3 to 0.9 standard deviations relative to ESL-only alternatives, attributing this to delayed content access and instructional inefficiencies in primary-language heavy models. Similarly, post-Proposition 227 evaluations in California documented accelerated English acquisition and statewide test score improvements for ELLs after mandating immersion, with reclassification rates rising from 6.5% in 1998 to over 40% by 2002, though gains were partly confounded by increased funding and teacher training.^[44] These findings prioritize causal inference from exogenous policy variation over correlational designs, highlighting immersion's advantage in prioritizing majority-language proficiency for socioeconomic integration.^[43] Randomized controlled trials remain limited but provide rigorous evidence on dual-language models versus immersion. A 2017 Portland Public Schools lottery-based RCT assigned students to dual-immersion or English-only classrooms, finding dual-immersion participants outperformed controls by 0.3-0.5 standard deviations in reading after two years, with benefits extending to biliteracy for minority-language speakers but no significant edge in English speed.^[80] However, such trials often suffer from selection effects, as motivated families opt into dual programs, inflating apparent outcomes; critiques note that adjusted analyses in non-random settings show immersion closing English gaps more rapidly without biliteracy trade-offs.^[81] Dual-language approaches excel in fostering proficiency in both languages long-term, yet meta-reviews indicate slower initial English/math progress compared to immersion, particularly for late-entering ELLs, due to divided instructional time.^[52] Meta-analyses yield mixed results, with pro-bilingual syntheses like Rolstad et al. (2005) reporting a 0.35 standard deviation advantage for developmental bilingual over English-only programs in academics, based on 66 studies but criticized for over-relying on non-equivalent groups and weak controls prone to selection bias from higher-SES participants in bilingual tracks.^[82] In contrast, stringent reviews excluding biased designs, such as those in Arizona's post-restriction data, find immersion superior or equivalent in English/math outcomes, with bilingual models linked to persistent lags and native-language attrition in non-supportive home environments.^[83] Recent 2023-2025 quasi-experimental work reaffirms immersion's efficacy for rapid majority-language mastery in U.S. settings, where economic returns favor English dominance, while dual models' biliteracy gains are context-specific and implementation-dependent, often undermined by uneven teacher preparation.^[84] Academic sources favoring bilingualism warrant scrutiny for institutional preferences toward multiculturalism, potentially overlooking causal evidence from immersion mandates.^[85]

Challenges Faced by ELLs

Linguistic and Cognitive Barriers

English language learners (ELLs) encounter substantial linguistic barriers stemming from limited proficiency in English vocabulary and syntax, which directly impede comprehension of subject-specific content across disciplines. Research indicates that ELLs typically enter U.S. schools with vocabulary knowledge far below that of native speakers, often acquiring new words at a rate of 1-3 per day compared to 8-14 for monolingual peers, resulting in persistent gaps that hinder reading comprehension and conceptual understanding in areas like mathematics and science. ^[86] These deficits arise because academic English demands abstract, domain-specific terms absent or differently structured in learners' primary languages, forcing reliance on context clues that native speakers intuitively grasp.^[87] Cognitively, the frequent need for code-switching—alternating between primary and target languages—imposes additional working memory demands on ELLs, diverting resources from content processing and exacerbating overload during complex tasks. Studies show that under high cognitive load, bilinguals exhibit altered code-switching patterns, with switches often occurring to compensate for lexical gaps but at the cost of reduced efficiency in integrating new information.^[88] ^[89] For children with limited cognitive processing capacity, exposure to code-switching can further hinder language skill development rather than facilitate it, as the dual-language activation competes for attentional resources essential for schema building.^[90] The critical period hypothesis posits a biologically constrained window, typically ending around puberty, during which second language acquisition occurs most efficiently due to heightened neural plasticity for phonological and grammatical processing. Empirical evidence from large-scale analyses of over 23 million English speakers supports a non-linear decline in attainment with age, with post-critical-period learners rarely achieving native-like fluency despite extensive exposure, underscoring the causal role of maturational changes in brain lateralization.^[91] ^[92] For school-aged ELLs, this implies that delays in immersive, input-rich environments compound barriers, as older newcomers face steeper challenges in phoneme discrimination and implicit rule internalization compared to early starters.^[93] These barriers manifest in empirical outcomes, such as National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data showing ELLs scoring 20-40 points below non-ELL peers in reading and mathematics, with grade 4 reading averages for ELLs around 195-210 versus 220-250 overall in recent assessments.^[94] Newcomer ELLs, often arriving with negligible English exposure, exhibit even lower initial proficiency—averaging at beginner levels on standardized measures—and slower initial progress, amplifying cognitive strain before acclimation.^[70] ^[95] Overcoming these requires sustained, high-intensity comprehensible input approximating naturalistic immersion to build foundational neural pathways, as diluted or fragmented exposure fails to meet the causal thresholds for proficiency.^[91]

Cultural Assimilation and Integration Issues

Reliance on native languages within immigrant communities and educational settings often perpetuates cultural silos, limiting English language learners' (ELLs) exposure to host society norms and social networks essential for integration. This isolation manifests in reduced intergroup interactions, as families and ethnic enclaves prioritize heritage languages, fostering parallel societies that hinder broader societal participation. Empirical data indicate that such linguistic and cultural segregation correlates with diminished social capital and higher risks of marginalization, as immigrants in isolated households exhibit slower adoption of civic behaviors compared to those engaging with mainstream culture.^[96]^[79] Family expectations emphasizing preservation of heritage culture over host-country assimilation exacerbate these issues for ELLs, often pressuring children to maintain native-language dominance at the expense of English fluency and cultural adaptation. This dynamic contributes to intergenerational transmission of isolation, where parental resistance to English prioritization delays children's integration into school and community environments. Studies reveal that weaker cultural assimilation, marked by persistent native-language reliance, aligns with sustained educational and occupational disparities, as ELLs in such contexts show lower academic proficiency and peer engagement than those adopting host norms.^[97]^[98] Historically, waves of immigrants to the United States achieved socioeconomic mobility through rapid English adoption and cultural assimilation, with over two-thirds applying for citizenship and most reporting English proficiency by 1930, closing wage and integration gaps within generations. In contrast, contemporary resistance to assimilation, often idealized under multiculturalism frameworks, empirically correlates with prolonged economic stagnation, as English serves as the primary gatekeeper to labor market access and upward mobility. Data from longitudinal analyses confirm that higher degrees of cultural and linguistic integration predict improved occupational status and reduced poverty persistence, underscoring the causal benefits of prioritizing host norms over ethnic preservation.^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]

Assessment and Accountability Biases

Assessments for English language learners (ELLs) often incorporate accommodations such as extended time, bilingual glossaries, or simplified language, which research indicates can modestly inflate test scores by approximately 0.16 standard deviations compared to non-accommodated conditions, potentially overestimating content mastery and undermining the validity of proficiency inferences.^[103] ^[104] These adjustments, intended to level linguistic barriers, may instead constructively bias results toward higher performance without fully addressing underlying English deficits, as evidenced by persistent gaps even post-accommodation.^[105] National and state-level data reveal stark disparities in ELL performance on standardized tests, with ELLs consistently scoring lower than native English speakers. On the 2022 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading assessment, fourth-grade ELLs averaged 195 points, compared to 228 for non-ELLs, a 33-point gap reflecting overrepresentation in below-basic proficiency categories where ELLs comprised about 20% of test-takers but dominated low-score bands. Similarly, Texas STAAR results show ELLs achieving proficiency rates 30-40 percentage points below peers in reading and math, with emergent bilingual students in eighth grade scoring significantly lower across multiple years, exacerbating visibility of unremedied skill gaps.^[106] Such patterns indicate that opt-outs or exclusions for recent arrivals—permitted under policies like No Child Left Behind—further mask systemic underperformance by reducing sampled ELLs in accountability metrics.^[107] ELL overrepresentation in low-proficiency schools ties directly to accountability structures, where federal Title III funding and state allocations incentivize prolonged classification to sustain program dollars, as reclassification reduces counted ELLs in performance indices and risks lowering school ratings.^[108] In fall 2021, ELLs constituted 10.6% of U.S. public school enrollment but clustered disproportionately in high-poverty, low-achieving districts, where diluted reclassification criteria perpetuate dependency on services without enforcing rigorous exit standards.^[1] This dynamic discourages states from raising proficiency thresholds, as higher bars could inflate apparent failure rates and trigger sanctions under frameworks like the Every Student Succeeds Act.^[109] Reforms emphasizing proficiency-based reclassification, grounded in standardized English benchmarks such as composite scores on assessments like ACCESS for ELLs combined with content-area proficiency, offer a causal remedy by prioritizing demonstrable mastery over time-served metrics.^[110] Policies avoiding equity-driven standard-lowering—evident in post-ESSA shifts toward stricter criteria in states like California—ensure reclassified students sustain academic gains, countering incentives that reward enrollment volume over outcomes.^[111] Empirical tracking post-reclassification reveals that rigorous exits correlate with narrowed long-term gaps, underscoring the need to resist accommodative dilutions for genuine accountability.^[112]

Teacher and Systemic Factors

Preparation and Biases in Educator Training

In the United States, a substantial proportion of educators serving English language learners (ELLs) lack specialized certification or training in ESL methodologies, with only approximately 2% of public school teachers identified as dedicated ESL instructors despite ELLs comprising about 10% of the student population.^[113]^[1] This shortfall has persisted, as evidenced by a 10.4% decline in certified English learner instructors between recent years, exacerbating shortages in high-ELL districts.^[114] Teacher preparation programs frequently prioritize theoretical frameworks over practical, evidence-based skills, with curricula often reflecting institutional preferences for bilingual maintenance models that delay full English immersion, even though meta-analyses indicate structured English immersion yields superior English proficiency and academic outcomes, particularly in higher grades.^[83]^[52] Ideological influences in educator training contribute to these gaps, as programs commonly embed language ideologies that view native-language instruction as inherently additive and culturally preservative, sidelining immersion despite causal evidence linking rapid English acquisition to long-term economic and academic gains.^[115] Such training can foster implicit biases, including deficit-oriented views of ELLs' capabilities, leading to systematically lower academic expectations that manifest as reduced instructional rigor and support.^[116]^[117] Empirical studies confirm these expectations create self-fulfilling cycles, where teachers' underestimated projections for ELL performance correlate with diminished achievement through motivational and behavioral pathways, akin to the Pygmalion effect observed in broader educational research.^[118]^[119] Anti-bias interventions in training have shown limited efficacy in altering these patterns, often failing to address root ideological commitments or yielding counterproductive results when superficially applied.^[120] To mitigate these issues, reforms should mandate rigorous training in systematic phonics instruction tailored for ELLs, which builds phonemic awareness by explicitly linking sounds to letters while accounting for first-language transfer effects, alongside immersion strategies proven to accelerate proficiency without sacrificing content mastery.^[121]^[122] Peer-reviewed recommendations emphasize integrating these elements into certification requirements, prioritizing empirical outcomes over ideologically driven alternatives, though resistance from entrenched educational interests has slowed adoption.^[83]^[52]

Resource Allocation and Funding Shortfalls

Federal funding for English language learners (ELLs) under Title III of the Every Student Succeeds Act totals approximately $890 million annually, supplementing state and local efforts to provide language instruction and professional development.^[123] This amount, combined with migrant education allocations, reaches about $1.3 billion for ELL-related programs, yet it covers only a fraction of needs for the roughly 5.3 million ELL students nationwide.^[124] ^[1] In fiscal year 2025, the Trump administration's budget proposals sought to eliminate Title III funding outright, while withholding billions in broader federal education dollars, including up to $6.8 billion denied to schools serving ELLs, thereby exposing systemic per-pupil shortfalls averaging -$246 per ELL student due to inadequate state reimbursements.^[123] ^[125] ^[126] States shoulder the primary fiscal load, with 49 providing supplemental per-pupil weights for ELLs atop base funding, ranging from $904 to $16,161 depending on factors like low-income status and program intensity.^[127] ^[128] High-immigration states such as California and Texas face disproportionate burdens, as federal cuts force reallocations from core instruction, exacerbating inefficiencies in bilingual mandates that demand specialized staffing and materials, often diverting resources without commensurate gains in English proficiency timelines.^[129] ^[85] These mandates prolong ELL dependency on targeted services, inflating long-term costs compared to models emphasizing rapid English immersion, which empirical reviews suggest enable quicker exits from support programs and resource reallocation to general education.^[85] The 2025 federal actions, including rescinded guidance and slashed professional development grants, highlight the fragility of ELL funding amid competing priorities like infrastructure and native-speaker remediation, questioning the sustainability of expansive bilingual frameworks that yield only moderate proficiency advantages over immersion at higher per-student expense.^[130] ^[131] States' uneven capacities—evident in varied supplemental rates and potential job losses for up to 16,809 ELL support staff—underscore the need for cost-benefit prioritization, as immersion's faster acquisition reduces cumulative fiscal demands by minimizing years of segregated or supplemental instruction.^[85] ^[131]

Impact on Native English-Speaking Peers

A study using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) found that non-ELL students exposed to at least one ELL classmate in kindergarten and first grade experienced lower gains in reading test scores, equivalent to approximately 0.12 standard deviations, though no significant effects were observed in mathematics. This negative peer effect was more pronounced for lower-income non-ELL students and could be partially mitigated through within-classroom ability grouping. Similar evidence from analyses of limited English proficient (LEP) student shares indicates a slight decline in native students' overall performance with increased exposure to higher proportions of LEP peers, particularly in reading and language arts domains.^[132] In districts with high ELL concentrations, such as those exceeding 20% ELL enrollment, resource allocation often shifts toward language support services, including bilingual aides and specialized training, which can dilute instructional time and materials available for native English speakers.^[133] For instance, schools with elevated LEP densities implement more English language development programs, but this correlates with marginally lower achievement for non-LEP students due to adjusted pacing and increased classroom heterogeneity that demands differentiated instruction.^[134] Such strains are less evident in low-density settings, like new immigrant destinations with under 10% ELLs, where spillover effects on natives have occasionally shown neutral or short-term positive associations, potentially from heightened teacher attention to diverse needs.^[135] Causal mechanisms include classroom disruptions from language barriers, where teachers allocate disproportionate time to ELL comprehension, slowing content delivery and reducing opportunities for advanced native peer interactions. Funding reallocations for bilingual versus ESL programs have also demonstrated ambiguous or negative impacts on non-LEP math scores in some evaluations, as resources for general curriculum enhancements are redirected.^[133] Effective integration, emphasizing rapid English prioritization over prolonged native-language instruction, appears necessary to minimize these effects while supporting ELL progress.^[136]

Special Populations

ELLs with Learning Disabilities

English language learners (ELLs) experience heightened risks of misidentification for learning disabilities (LD) when linguistic barriers are conflated with cognitive deficits, as symptoms of second-language acquisition—such as slower vocabulary growth or phonological processing delays—can resemble LD indicators like dyslexia or specific language impairment.^[137] ^[138] True LD prevalence among ELLs mirrors that in monolingual peers, at approximately 5-15% for school-age children, with no empirical evidence of elevated rates due to bilingualism itself.^[139] ^[140] However, overidentification persists, particularly in learning disabilities categories, where ELLs represented 11.3% of students with disabilities under IDEA in 2020-2021 despite comprising 10.2% of total enrollment; this discrepancy arises from assessments lacking native-language baselines or proficiency verification, inflating special education placements by 1.5-2 times in some districts.^[141] ^[142] ^[143] Accurate diagnosis demands sequential evaluation: first confirming adequate prior instruction and cultural-linguistic opportunities to learn, then assessing in both languages to isolate innate deficits from transient delays.^[144] ^[145] Federal guidelines under IDEA emphasize excluding language differences as the primary cause, yet implementation gaps—such as English-only testing—lead to erroneous labeling, denying ELLs appropriate general education supports while overburdening special education resources.^[146] Longitudinal data reveal that 70-80% of initially suspected LD cases in ELLs resolve upon achieving proficiency, underscoring the causal role of unresolved language acquisition over inherent pathology.^[147] ^[148] Post-proficiency confirmation, dual interventions—combining targeted LD remediation with sustained language scaffolds—prove effective, as evidenced by improved outcomes in response-to-intervention models that delay LD classification until bilingual benchmarks are met.^[144] Immersion approaches, when structured to build rapid proficiency, facilitate discernment by unmasking persistent cognitive gaps; for example, studies of bilingual programs show that true LD manifests reliably after 2-3 years of English exposure, reducing false positives by prioritizing empirical progress monitoring over premature native-language deficit assumptions.^[149] ^[150] This method avoids overpathologizing cultural or experiential variances, ensuring interventions address verifiable neurological underpinnings rather than environmental confounders.^[151]

Long-Term English Learners (LTELs)

Long-term English learners (LTELs) are defined as students classified as English learners who have remained in that status for six or more years without demonstrating sufficient progress toward proficiency, particularly in states like California where lack of advancement in the prior two years triggers the designation.^[152] ^[153] This category affects a substantial portion of the English learner population, with estimates indicating that up to one-quarter of English learners nationwide may become LTELs, though precise national figures vary due to differing state definitions; in California, approximately 200,000 LTELs represent about 18% of the state's 1.1 million English learners as of recent data.^[154] ^[155] LTELs face elevated risks of adverse outcomes, including higher dropout rates and reduced likelihood of on-time high school graduation, with studies showing their academic performance consistently lags behind both recently arrived English learners and native English speakers.^[156] ^[157] These students often experience grade retention and low achievement metrics, contributing to long-term underemployment, as limited English proficiency restricts access to skilled labor markets requiring strong communication and literacy skills.^[158] The persistence of LTEL status correlates with accumulated academic gaps that hinder postsecondary readiness and economic mobility, underscoring a causal link between unresolved language barriers and diminished workforce participation.^[159] Primary causes of chronic non-proficiency stem from instructional models that prolong exposure to bilingual or sheltered environments without yielding rapid English acquisition, such as programs emphasizing native language maintenance over intensive English development, which empirical evidence shows insufficiently builds fluency for many students.^[160] Inconsistent or fragmented language programming across school transitions exacerbates this, as does the subtractive approach in English-dominant settings that neglects to accelerate proficiency through immersion, leading to entrenched underachievement rather than innate cognitive limits, given that most learners achieve fluency within 3-5 years under targeted English-focused instruction.^[161] ^[162] Post-COVID disruptions have intensified these issues, with English learner proficiency growth stalling and chronic absenteeism tripling in high-ELL areas like California by 2023, resulting in a higher proportion of students at risk of LTEL classification due to learning losses in foundational language skills.^[18] ^[163] Effective interventions prioritize intensive English immersion to facilitate reclassification, involving structured daily English language development that integrates content mastery and assesses multiple proficiency indicators beyond standardized tests alone, as rigid criteria can perpetuate LTEL status.^[160] Reclassification to fluent English proficient status, when achieved through accelerated programs, correlates with improved academic trajectories, emphasizing the economic imperative of resolving LTEL persistence to avert lifelong opportunity costs from language barriers.^[164] Early and consistent immersion models demonstrate causal efficacy in overcoming model-induced delays, enabling broader societal integration and productivity gains.^[112]

Instructional Strategies and Supports

Evidence-Based Classroom Practices

Evidence-based classroom practices for English language learners (ELLs) emphasize structured techniques grounded in cognitive processes of language acquisition, such as phonological awareness and semantic mapping, to accelerate English proficiency. Systematic phonics instruction, which explicitly teaches letter-sound correspondences, has demonstrated effectiveness in improving decoding skills among ELLs, even at low proficiency levels, by facilitating word recognition independent of oral language familiarity.^[165] ^[122] A meta-analysis of reading interventions confirmed that explicit, systematic approaches yield positive outcomes for ELLs across primary languages, with effect sizes indicating gains in reading accuracy and fluency.^[166] Scaffolding through visual aids and comprehensible input supports ELL comprehension by aligning instruction with the zone of proximal development, where learners bridge gaps between current abilities and target skills via targeted support. Practices like pairing visuals with phonics lessons enable ELLs to associate sounds and meanings without heavy reliance on prior English exposure, fostering independent reading sooner.^[167] Explicit vocabulary instruction, involving direct teaching of word meanings, morphology, and usage in context, further enhances reading comprehension; studies show it accounts for significant variance in ELLs' production and retention, outperforming incidental exposure alone.^[168] ^[169] Minimizing native language use in instruction maximizes English input, as excessive L1 reliance can reduce immersion time critical for acquisition; research indicates that while brief L1 clarifications aid initial access, predominant English environments correlate with faster proficiency gains without hindering conceptual understanding.^[170] In assessment, comprehension checks—such as targeted questioning or retellings—provide real-time verification of understanding, preferable to labor-based grading, which critiques highlight as subjective and prone to inequities by rewarding effort over mastery, potentially delaying rigorous content engagement for ELLs.^[171] ^[172] These tactical applications integrate within broader models but prioritize empirical outcomes from controlled studies over unverified equity assumptions.^[173]

Role of Technology and Parental Involvement

Technology, particularly adaptive AI-driven applications, has emerged as a supplementary tool for English language learners (ELLs) by providing personalized immersion experiences outside formal instruction. In 2025, trends include AI-powered apps featuring adaptive drills that adjust difficulty based on user performance, such as speech recognition for pronunciation and gamified vocabulary exercises, which studies indicate yield measurable gains in listening skills and engagement. For instance, experimental groups using AI-enhanced platforms showed significant improvements in proficiency (effect size d=1.6) and motivation compared to traditional methods. These tools facilitate self-paced practice, with evidence from EFL contexts demonstrating enhanced retention and reduced anxiety through biometric feedback integration. However, such technologies do not supplant structured teaching, as their efficacy depends on consistent use and integration with human oversight, with longitudinal data underscoring modest overall proficiency boosts absent complementary support.^[174]^[175]^[176] Parental involvement in reinforcing English at home plays a causal role in ELL success, with empirical data linking consistent family-led practice to higher proficiency outcomes. Research on immigrant families reveals that children whose parents engage in daily English activities—such as reading aloud or conversational drills—achieve kindergarten-level proficiency earlier, with family literacy behaviors exerting stronger predictive effects than parental attitudes alone. Self-motivation, often fostered through home reinforcement, correlates with sustained progress, as seen in studies where ELLs from involved households outperformed peers reliant solely on school exposure by up to 20% in reading comprehension metrics. This underscores a first-principles dynamic: language acquisition thrives on repeated, contextual exposure beyond classrooms, where parental modeling bridges gaps in institutional resources.^[177]^[178]^[179] Despite these benefits, limitations persist, with technology's role constrained by access disparities and family dynamics that can impede adoption. Many ELL households face barriers like inadequate internet or device availability, exacerbating divides during remote practice, while parental resistance—stemming from cultural preferences for native-language maintenance or low parental English proficiency—often hinders consistent tech integration. Studies highlight that AI tools alone fail as panaceas, yielding negligible gains without familial buy-in, as unmotivated or resistant environments undermine adaptive drills' potential. Thus, while adjunctive, both technology and parental efforts require alignment to avoid superficial engagement, with evidence favoring hybrid models where home reinforcement amplifies rather than compensates for school deficits.^[180]^[181]^[182]

Policy Framework and Debates

Federal Mandates and State Variations

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as reauthorized by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015, establishes federal requirements under Title III for states to support English language learners (ELLs) through language instruction programs aimed at achieving English proficiency and academic achievement. Title III mandates that states develop English language proficiency standards aligned with state academic standards, administer annual assessments to monitor ELL progress, and hold schools accountable for enabling ELLs to meet proficiency goals, with federal grants allocated for professional development, supplemental services, and immigrant student support.^[183]^[184] This framework builds on the 1974 Supreme Court decision in Lau v. Nichols, which ruled that schools receiving federal funds must provide non-English-speaking students with a meaningful opportunity to access the curriculum, effectively requiring affirmative steps to address language barriers rather than mere equal facilities.^[31]^[185] State implementations diverge significantly from these federal baselines, with some adopting structured English immersion mandates while others permit or revert to bilingual models, highlighting tensions between national uniformity and local adaptation. Arizona's Proposition 203, approved by voters in 2000, requires nearly all instruction for ELLs in grades K-12 to occur in English via intensive immersion programs, limiting native-language use to one year or special circumstances; early evaluations showed accelerated English reclassification rates for participants compared to prior bilingual approaches, though long-term academic outcomes remain debated amid implementation challenges like teacher shortages.^[186] Similarly, Massachusetts voters approved Question 2 in 2002, replacing transitional bilingual education with sheltered English immersion, where instruction is conducted in comprehensible English with minimal native-language support, resulting in reported improvements in ELL proficiency metrics post-enactment.^[187] In contrast, California's Proposition 58, passed in 2016, repealed prior immersion restrictions from Proposition 227 (1998), enabling schools to expand bilingual and dual-language immersion programs with parental consent, which has increased enrollment in such models but correlated with slower English proficiency gains in some districts relative to immersion-heavy states.^[188] These variations underscore debates over federal mandates' inefficiencies, as top-down proficiency goals and service requirements often fail to account for demographic differences, resource disparities, and evidence favoring immersion for rapid language acquisition in homogeneous ELL classrooms. Critics of federal involvement argue that uniform accountability metrics under ESSA impose administrative burdens without tailoring to state contexts, potentially delaying proficiency by prioritizing process over outcomes, as evidenced by persistent national ELL achievement gaps despite decades of Title III funding.^[189] In 2025, the Trump administration advanced devolution by rescinding Department of Education guidance on ELL rights and proposing elimination of dedicated Title III funding in the fiscal year 2026 budget, shifting emphasis to state-led initiatives to reduce perceived overreach and enhance local flexibility in program design.^[190]^[191] This approach posits that states like Arizona and Massachusetts demonstrate superior results through immersion when unencumbered by federal prescriptions, though implementation fidelity remains a causal factor in varying efficacy.^[192]

Controversies Over Funding and Prioritization

Critics of English language learner (ELL) programs have highlighted chronic funding shortfalls at the state and local levels, despite federal allocations such as the approximately $890 million annual Title III formula grants under the Every Student Succeeds Act, which aim to support English acquisition and academic integration.^[193] ^[194] Studies indicate districts often face deficits, operating with an average state funding shortfall of about -$246 per ELL student, as supplemental allocations cover only around 25% of program costs, straining resources for specialized instruction and materials.^[126] These gaps fuel arguments that federal dollars, while substantial, fail to translate into sufficient on-the-ground support, prompting proposals to redirect or eliminate targeted funding like Title III on grounds of inefficiency.^[195] A core controversy involves the perceived bloat in bilingual education funding, which opponents describe as a resource-intensive model that sustains administrative bureaucracies and native-language materials at the expense of rapid English proficiency. By the late 1990s, such programs consumed $12–15 billion annually across federal and state levels for roughly 2.6 million students, with critics pointing to disproportionate spending on supervisors, aides, and consultants rather than direct instruction.^[196] This approach is faulted for delaying assimilation, as students remain in primary-language instruction for 6–7 years on average, hindering integration into mainstream classrooms and perpetuating dependency on segregated services, according to analyses citing high dropout rates (around 30% for Latino ELLs) linked to prolonged limited English skills.^[196] Debates over prioritization pit rapid English acquisition—emphasized in immersion models—for national cohesion against heritage-language maintenance in bilingual setups, with empirical data favoring the former for superior outcomes. National Research Council reviews and program comparisons show no long-term academic advantages to bilingual education, while structured English immersion achieves mainstream reclassification for about 80% of students within three years, compared to 22% in bilingual programs, enabling quicker access to broader curricula and job-relevant proficiency.^[196] Proponents of immersion argue this focus aligns with causal realities of language learning, where early English dominance accelerates cognitive and economic integration, reducing long-term fiscal burdens from extended special services; in contrast, bilingual emphases risk cultural silos that undermine civic unity, as evidenced by historical immigrant assimilation patterns without native-language subsidies.^[196] Such evidence informs calls to reallocate funds toward proficiency-driven strategies, viewing English mastery as a foundational civic imperative over equity expansions that prolong remedial needs.

Immigration Policy Intersections

The influx of over 500,000 school-age migrant children into the United States since fiscal year 2022, coinciding with elevated border encounters following policy shifts under the Biden administration, has significantly increased the population of English language learners (ELLs) in public schools.^[197]^[198] This surge stems from reduced interior enforcement and expanded parole programs, which facilitated entries from regions with low English proficiency, such as Central America and Venezuela, thereby elevating national ELL percentages to 10.6% of public school enrollment (5.3 million students) by fall 2021, with further rises in migrant-heavy districts.^[1]^[199] In border states like Texas and Arizona, as well as sanctuary jurisdictions such as New York City, this migration has overburdened school systems, with public schools serving 55 students per 100 immigrant-headed households compared to 33 per 100 native-born households.^[200] New York City alone enrolled over 34,000 migrant students since 2022, causing ELL caseloads to quadruple in some schools and forcing reliance on underprepared staff for translation and instruction, which dilutes educational quality through overcrowded classrooms and reduced individualized support.^[17]^[201] Teachers report heightened language barriers and trauma-related disruptions, contributing to strained budgets estimated at $78 billion annually for educating immigrant children nationwide as of 2020 data extrapolated forward.^[197]^[202]^[203] Sanctuary policies, which limit local cooperation with federal immigration enforcement, correlate with higher migrant concentrations in affected areas, drawing families seeking reduced deportation risks and thereby amplifying local ELL surges beyond border proximity.^[204] For instance, non-cooperation stances in cities like New York have sustained inflows despite federal backlogs, exacerbating resource dilution without offsetting fiscal contributions from recent arrivals, as undocumented migrants contribute minimally to school funding via taxes.^[202]^[205] Historically, U.S. immigration frameworks emphasized assimilation prerequisites, such as the 1917 Immigration Act's literacy test requiring basic reading ability in any language for entrants over 16, and ongoing naturalization mandates for English proficiency, which facilitated quicker integration and reduced long-term educational burdens.^[206]^[207] In contrast, contemporary open-border dynamics—marked by minimal entry vetting for language skills—impose cascading strains on schools, with estimates of billions in uncompensated costs from unchecked entries hindering native and legal ELL progress alike.^[208]^[203]^[202]

References

[1]
COE - English Learners in Public Schools
In fall 2021, 10.6% of US public school students were English learners, up from 9.4% in 2011, but with a drop in 2020. Texas had the highest percentage at 20.2 ...
[2]
[PDF] English Language Learners
In 2011, the achievement gap between non-ELL and ELL students was 36 points at the 4th-grade level and 44 points at the. 8th-grade level. At grade 4, this ...
[3]
III. National ELL Achievement Gaps - Pew Research Center
Jun 6, 2007 · The ELL achievement gap widens at higher grades. For example, in fourth grade math, ELL students were 35 points behind white fourth graders.
[4]
(PDF) Long-Term Outcomes of Bilingual Education Models
Mar 11, 2019 · Earlier acquisition of English is associated with better academic performance for dual language learners (DLLs), but large-scale, prospective, ...
[5]
[PDF] Bilingual, ESL, and English Immersion: Educational Models for ...
This paper will analyze the effectiveness of English language acquisition programs offered to LEP students in Texas and offer a policy recommendation.
[6]
Experts Highlight Persistent Challenges in English Learner Education
Aug 27, 2020 · The focus on academic language can lead to inequities in ELs' education. · English learner assessment systems are flawed. · Many English learner ...
[7]
The Problem Schools Have Accurately Identifying English Learners
Jun 28, 2024 · Accurately identifying English learners who also need special education services remains a persistent problem.<|control11|><|separator|>
[8]
[PDF] non-regulatory-guidance-english-learners-and-title-iii-of-esea ...
Sep 23, 2016 · 1. In the ESEA, as amended by the ESSA, the term, 'English learner' replaces the term 'limited English proficient' used in section 9101 of the ...
[9]
The Evolution of Terms Describing English Learners: An ELL Glossary
Mar 30, 2023 · The term non-English proficient (NEP) came out of this case, and out of that also came the term limited-English proficient (LEP) to acknowledge ...
[10]
The Debate Over English Learner Terminology, Explained
Mar 30, 2023 · As terms used to define students in need of English-language support evolve, experts explain why it's not just semantics.<|separator|>
[11]
Language proficiency and immigrants' economic integration
Overall, it appears clear that objective language proficiency is an important determinant of earnings and key to addressing the immigrant/native-born gaps.
[12]
Age at Arrival, English Proficiency, and Social Assimilation Among ...
There is evidence that English proficiency helps immigrants integrate economically into their new home—English proficiency raises wages, narrowing the wage gap ...I. Background And Data · Table 6. 2sls Effect Of... · Footnotes
[13]
English Learners in K-12 Education by State | migrationpolicy.org
In Fall 2021, more than 5.3 million ELs were enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools, representing nearly 11 percent of total K-12 student ...
[14]
Fast Facts: English learners (96)
For example, 14.7 percent of kindergarteners were ELs, compared with 10.5 percent of 6th-graders, 9.0 percent of 8th-graders, and 6.1 percent of 12th-graders.
[15]
ELL Information Center | migrationpolicy.org
The share of ELL students in K-12 schools in the United States increased by more than 50 percent between 1997-98 and 2007-08. While most states experienced ...
[16]
English Language Learners | NEA - National Education Association
By 2025, 1 out of 4 children in classrooms across the nation will be an English language learner (ELL) student. Here are some resources to help educators ...
[17]
Education's Future for English Learners Must Start Now
Jul 24, 2024 · A lack of teachers, misconceptions on language learning and problematic assessment practices are long-standing problems made more urgent by the ...
[18]
English learners' proficiency scores continue to decline since ... - WIDA
A new report from WIDA researchers found that proficiency scores for K-12 English learners (ELs) have continued to decline since the COVID-19 pandemic.
[19]
[PDF] Immigrant Students and English Learners - ERIC
Sep 28, 2021 · Nevertheless, 72 percent of ELs aged 5 to 17 in U.S. public schools were born in the United States and are U.S. citizens, thus we recognize.
[20]
A Nation of Immigrants: Assimilation and Economic Outcomes in the ...
During the Age of Mass Migration (1850–1913), the United States maintained an open border, absorbing 30 million European immigrants.
[21]
[PDF] English Only Mov - ERIC
The history of the movement to establish English as the single official language of the United States (official English or. English-only movement) is chronicled ...
[22]
What history tells us about assimilation of immigrants | Stanford ...
Apr 12, 2017 · By 1930, more than two-thirds of immigrants had applied for citizenship and almost all reported they could speak some English. A third of first- ...
[23]
Immigrant Era: Focus on Assimilation | Colorín Colorado
In 1910, 23% or about 3 million out of the 13 million foreign-born individuals 10 years of age or older were unable to speak English (compare with 7% in 2000).
[24]
Immigrants Learn English: Immigrants' Language Acquisition Rates ...
Sep 17, 2019 · About 91 percent of immigrants in the United States between 1980 and 2010 reportedly spoke English compared with 86 percent who lived here from 1900 to 1930.<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
[PDF] Revision - Assimilation in Age of Mass Migration December 2021
Instead, he attributes the assimilation slowdown to declines in the rate at which immigrants gain English proficiency, which he connects in turn to the.
[26]
Post-World War II Migration and Lessons for Studying Liberalized ...
Jan 28, 2014 · This post is about two issues that are closely related. The first are some facts and history that help explain why internal migration in post‐ World War II ...
[27]
How quickly and in what ways did migrants in the United ... - Quora
May 22, 2019 · More often than not, older immigrants never learned much English. Their children and younger immigrants had little difficulty learning to get ...How can someone move to the USA from another country, live there ...What is the best way to teach US immigrants and refugees ... - QuoraMore results from www.quora.comMissing: post methods
[28]
[PDF] Teaching English to Immigrant Students in the United States
Traditional programs and methods This program, also known as sink or swim, did not include any special way to help non- English-speaking students understand ...
[29]
[PDF] Federal Policy for English Learners: Key Milestones From 1964 to ...
1974 The U.S. Supreme Court issued its ruling about English learners in Lau v. Nichols, and Congress passed the Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA).
[30]
[PDF] The Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later - NCELA
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 is noted as the first official federal recognition of the needs of students with limited English speaking ability (LESA). ...
[31]
Lau v. Nichols | 414 U.S. 563 (1974)
The Court of Appeals affirmed, holding that there was no violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment or of § 601 of the Civil Rights ...
[32]
Landmark Court Rulings Regarding English Language Learners
Wayne Wright summarizes the landmark US court cases that have had significant implications for ELLs.
[33]
[PDF] NCELA FAQ Q: What court rulings have impacted the education of ...
Aug 12, 2008 · A: While two of the most influential court decisions for language minority students are Lau v. Nichols (1974) and Castañeda v. Pickard (1981), ...
[34]
NCIIP: English Learners and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
ESSA includes a number of new requirements for the education of English Learners (ELs), including standardized criteria for identifying EL students.
[35]
[PDF] Proposition 227 and Instruction of English Learners in California
Proposition 227 replaced bilingual programs with one-year English immersion, requiring instruction "overwhelmingly in English" unless parents request otherwise.
[36]
The Initial Impact of Proposition 227 on the Instruction of English ...
Proposition 227 restricted primary language use, reducing the percentage of English learners in such programs from 29% to 12%. There was also confusion about ...
[37]
Proposition 58 [Ballot] - Legislative Analyst's Office
Nov 8, 2016 · A YES vote on this measure means: Public schools could more easily choose how to teach English learners, whether in English-only, bilingual, ...
[38]
[PDF] The Academic Achievement of English Language Learners:
On the. 2013 eighth-grade math assessment, former ELL students' achievement nationally was significantly lower than that of non-ELL students, but significantly ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[39]
15-751 - Definitions
"Sheltered English immersion" or "structured English immersion" means an English language acquisition process for young children in which nearly all classroom ...
[40]
ED587686 - Structured English Immersion Programs: Research and ...
In SEI programs, ELLs receive all or most of their instruction in English. ... These characteristics, including high-quality teachers, clearly defined ...
[41]
The Case for Structured English Immersion - ASCD
Apr 1, 2009 · Three states and many school districts are finding that emphasizing English language instruction offers ELLs an accelerated path to success.
[42]
California Embraces Bilingual Education
Following Prop 227's passage, the proportion of English learners receiving bilingual instruction dropped from 30 percent to 8 percent statewide, according to ...
[43]
[PDF] How Are English Learners Faring Under Proposition 227
More. English learners than ever before are now being tested on the California Standards Tests, and their scores have improved at nearly the same rate as those ...<|separator|>
[44]
Proposition 227 Final Report - Multilingual Learners (CA Dept of ...
A five-year evaluation of the effects of Proposition 227 on the education of English learners.
[45]
[PDF] The Psychological Impact of English Language Immersion on ...
One relatively unexamined consequence of the SEI program is its potentially detrimental emotional, psychosomatic, and mental effects on students forced to ...
[46]
Evaluation of Proposition 227 | American Institutes for Research
The likelihood of an English learner being reclassified as fluent in English after 10 years in California schools is less than 40 percent. ... How Are English ...
[47]
[PDF] BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAM MODELS - NCELA
In maintenance programs, the learners are transitioned into English content classes, and are given support in their first language, as in transitional programs.
[48]
https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/program-models-teaching-English-language-learners
[49]
Transitional Bilingual Education Programs - English Learner ...
Jun 14, 2023 · TBE programs are designed to respond flexibly to students at different English proficiency levels, who are fluent in their home language.
[50]
Transitional Bilingual Program - California Department of Education
Transitional bilingual programs are not designed for primary language (home language) or biliteracy proficiency; they are designed to lead students toward full ...
[51]
Dual Language Immersion (DLI) Program
Dual Language Immersion (DLI) is a language acquisition program with the goals of high academic achievement, first and second language proficiency, ...
[52]
[PDF] The Promise of Bilingual and Dual Immersion Education
The district of study offered EL students four different instructional program options: English immersion, transitional bilingual, maintenance bilingual, and ...
[53]
Impact of bilingual education on student achievement
By reducing exposure to English, bilingual education may slow the acquisition of English language skills. ... English immersion instead of bilingual education ...
[54]
Pull-out ESL Delivery Approach
Sep 20, 2022 · ESL Pull-out ESL is an instructional delivery approach in which ESL teachers gather students identified as English learners from another class at regularly ...Missing: history pros cons
[55]
Push In Versus Pull Out in Esl - The Educators Room
Dec 26, 2013 · Pull-out requires that students miss class time. ESL teachers using this model often hear about it from the classroom teacher. There can be ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[56]
ESL vs. Bilingual Education: What's the Difference?
There are several types of ESL programs, but pull-out is one of the most popular forms. In this model, students are pulled out of their general education ...Missing: cons | Show results with:cons
[57]
Which Is Best, Pull-Out or Push-In Interventions?
Research supports pull-out interventions, while push-in lacks evidence. If push-in is chosen, ensure the children receive more instruction. Maximize teaching ...
[58]
[PDF] Pullout and inclusion programs for ESL students:a study of reading ...
May 5, 2007 · ESL students are placed in different educational programs. Pullout programs have served low readers including English language learners (ELL).Missing: cons | Show results with:cons
[59]
ESL vs. ELL: What You Need to Know
Mar 14, 2025 · Ultimately, both push-in and pull-out programs come with their inherent pros and cons. It is up to students and their families to determine ...
[60]
Successful ESL Program Models - Blog - Your Agora
Aug 6, 2018 · ESL Pull-Out: ELLs are placed in mainstream classrooms but spend a portion of the day developing their English language skills with ...
[61]
Push-in ESL Delivery Approach
Sep 20, 2022 · Push-in ESL is an instructional delivery approach in which ESL instruction is provided by an ESL teacher in grade level/content area classrooms.Missing: history pros cons
[62]
Navigating the ESL Classroom: A Guide to Push-in and Pull-out ...
The pull-out model provides English Language Development (ELD) outside of the regular education classroom. The ESL teacher will take the ELs out of their class ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[63]
Caught Between the Push and the Pull: ELL Teachers' Perceptions ...
Oct 13, 2019 · ELL teachers see a gap between ideal mainstreaming and push-in tutoring, with negative views of mainstream work, and a feeling of being ...
[64]
Research on Push-In Versus Pull-Out - Education Week
Jun 24, 2008 · With the push-in approach, ESL teachers work with ELLs in their regular classrooms; with the pull-out approach, ESL teachers work with such students in ...
[65]
Push-In and Pull-Out Models of English Learner Instruction
This research investigates push-in and pull-out English Language Development (ELD) instruction for English Language Learners (ELLs) from the perspective of ESL ...
[66]
[PDF] Effects of the Implementation of Proposition 227 on the ... - WestEd
Jan 24, 2006 · • California English Language Development Test (CELDT) scores show substantial gains in English proficiency for ELs from 2002 to 2004.
[67]
(PDF) Reclassification of English Learners - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · 227, that the five percent annual reclassification rate of English learners to fluent English proficient indicated bilingual education was a ...
[68]
[PDF] Reclassification Patterns Among Latino English Learner Students in ...
English immersion classrooms may have higher reclassification rates due to their concentrated focus on English acquisition. Two-language environments (including ...
[69]
ACCESS Scores and Reports - WIDA
ACCESS reports include Individual Student and Student Roster reports, with scores for four domains and four composite areas. Scale and proficiency level scores ...
[70]
Newcomer Students' English Language Development
Oct 31, 2022 · Newcomer students had significantly lower ELP the first year they entered schools compared to their non-newcomer counterparts in the same grades ...
[71]
The Complex Factors Affecting English-Learner Graduation Rates
May 8, 2024 · Federal data from 2019-20 show that while the national English-learner graduation rate has increased to about 71 percent, those students still ...
[72]
Long-Term English Learners: Spotlight on an Overlooked Population
The academic performance of long-term English learners lags behind their peers, and the number of these students across the country is growing.
[73]
Long-term English learners do worse on tests than peers with fewer ...
Jun 17, 2024 · The data shows that long-term English learners do worse than their counterparts who have been enrolled in US schools for fewer years.
[74]
[PDF] Long-term English Learners (LTELs): Predictors, Patterns, & Outcomes
The purpose of this brief was to compare three common definitions of LTEL (remaining an English learner for more than three years, more than five years, and ...
[75]
[PDF] The Educational Effectiveness of Bilingual - Boston University
The purpose of this report is to update the comprehensive reviews that. Baker and de Kanter (1981, 1983a, 1983b) and Rossell and Ross (1986) conducted about a ...
[76]
California's English Learners and Their Long-Term Learning ...
Aug 21, 2024 · We find that English learners' academic achievement by 3rd grade has improved over time, shrinking the achievement gaps between K-cohort ELs and other students.
[77]
The Limited English Proficient Workforce in U.S. Metropolitan Areas
Workers proficient in English earn anywhere from 17 percent to 135 percent more than LEP workers depending on their metro location. English proficiency is an ...
[78]
The Impact of Host Language Proficiency on Migrants' Employment ...
The results suggest that language proficiency more than doubles the employment level in the first five years after arrival. Citation. Schmid, Lukas. 2023. "The ...
[79]
Language proficiency and homeownership: Evidence from U.S. ...
We find that among immigrants, those who speak only English have the highest rate of homeownership, followed by those that are bilingual. This further ...
[80]
Dual-Language Immersion Programs Raise Student Achievement in ...
Nov 3, 2017 · English learners assigned to dual-language immersion were more likely than their peers to be classified as English proficient by grade 6. This ...
[81]
[PDF] 0 Effectiveness of four instructional programs designed to serve ...
There is a sizable body of literature documenting the effects of bilingual education compared to English immersion instruction on ELs' academic performance ( ...<|separator|>
[82]
The Big Picture: A Meta-Analysis of Program Effectiveness Research ...
It is shown that bilingual education is consistently superior to all-English approaches, and that developmental bilingual education programs are superior.
[83]
A Meta-Analysis of Bilingual Education in Arizona - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · This article reviews the current policy context in the state of Arizona for program options for English language learners and produces a ...<|separator|>
[84]
Moving from Vision to Reality: Establishing California as a National ...
Oct 25, 2023 · The state's bilingual teacher training programs were largely dismantled, and millions of California students progressed through a K–12 ...1California's Past and Present · 3Investing in Flexible Bilingual...
[85]
Bilingual Education: The Failed Experiment? | Colorín Colorado
Although well-implemented bilingual programs can claim a "moderate" advantage over English-immersion instruction, no language intervention has erased the gap ...
[86]
[PDF] Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English
Relying on incidental vocabulary learning is even more problematic for ELLs than for their English-only (EO) counterparts. ELLs are less able to use context to ...
[87]
[PDF] Vocabulary Improvement and Reading in English Language Learners
Researchers concluded that an enriched vocabulary development program can substantially close the gap between native and non-native speakers in vocabulary ...
[88]
The effect of cognitive load on code-switching - Sage Journals
May 10, 2023 · This study explores the effect of cognitive load on code-switching (CS), by examining whether an increase in cognitive load can lead to a ...
[89]
Are there Cognitive Benefits of Code-switching in Bilingual Children ...
Results indicate more frequent code-switching from the non-dominant to the dominant language in children, and that children code-switch to fill lexical gaps.
[90]
Does Exposure to Code-Switching Influence Language ... - NIH
These findings indicate that children's cognitive processing capacity dictates whether exposure to code-switching facilitates or hinders language skills.
[91]
The Critical Period Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition - NIH
The critical period hypothesis (cph) holds that the function between learners' age and their susceptibility to second language input is non-linear.
[92]
[PDF] A critical period for second language acquisition - Steven Pinker
We found slightly more evidence for differences in learning curves. In particular, simultaneous English-Chinese speakers could be dis- tinguished from the rest, ...
[93]
Critical period in second language acquisition: The age-attainment ...
The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), as proposed by [1], that nativelike proficiency is only attainable within a finite period, extending from early infancy ...Introduction · The critical period hypothesis... · ECT-L2A vis-à-vis younger...
[94]
NAEP Reading: National Student Group Scores and Score Gaps
The results for students with disabilities and English learners are based on students who were assessed and cannot be generalized to the total population of ...
[95]
Understanding newcomer English learner students' English ...
Aug 30, 2022 · This study describes the incoming English proficiency and subsequent English language growth of newcomer students.<|control11|><|separator|>
[96]
Linguistic isolation in the home and community: Protection or risk for ...
Yet research on neighborhood effects and outcomes for immigrants and their children yields mixed results (Jackson and Mare, 2007; Urquia et al., 2009).
[97]
Age at Arrival, English Proficiency, and Social Assimilation Among ...
Bleakley and Chin (2008) find that the English proficiency of immigrant parents benefits English proficiency and educational outcomes of their. US-born children ...
[98]
Beyond English Proficiency: Rethinking Immigrant Integration - PMC
We develop and test a conceptual model of English language acquisition and the strength of the latter in predicting social and cultural assimilation.
[99]
What History Tells Us about Assimilation of Immigrants
Based on the existing literature and our own research, we hypothesize that the economic impact of immigration today may be different from the effects during the ...
[100]
Accelerating “Americanization”: A Study of Immigration Assimilation
Oct 12, 2023 · Education and English proficiency are important insofar as they help immigrants succeed economically and socially in America. Indeed, rising ...Immigrant Population Size In... · English Proficiency · Wage Assimilation And Rising...
[101]
Immigrants and their children assimilate into US society and the US ...
Oct 1, 2024 · We contribute to the public debate on immigration policy in the United States by providing a long-term, empirical perspective.
[102]
English fluency of the US immigrants: Assimilation effects, cohort ...
The key findings include that the declining initial English fluency among new immigrants reported in a previous study based on 1980 and 1990 data (Carliner, ...<|separator|>
[103]
The Effects of Test Accommodations for English Language Learners
Aug 6, 2025 · The results indicated that test accommodations improve ELLs' test performance by about 0.157 standard deviations—a relatively small but ...Missing: inflating | Show results with:inflating
[104]
Accommodations for English Language Learners Taking Large ...
Sep 1, 2009 · Test accommodations for ELLs are intended to reduce the impact of limited English proficiency on the assessment of the target construct, most ...Missing: inflating | Show results with:inflating
[105]
(PDF) Accommodations for English Language Learners Taking ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Including English language learners (ELLs) in large-scale assessments raises questions about the validity of inferences based on their scores.
[106]
[PDF] A Multiyear Analysis of Texas Grade 8 Emergent Bilingual Students by
May 14, 2025 · Statistically significant differences were documented in the Grade 8 STAAR Mathematics assessment performance of Emergent Bilingual students in ...
[107]
No Child Left Behind and the Assessment of English Language ...
NCLB requires that ELLs in grades 3-8 take the same state academic content assessments as all other students in Reading/Language Arts, Math, and Science.Missing: inflating | Show results with:inflating<|separator|>
[108]
[PDF] Funding English Learner Education - Migration Policy Institute
Mar 22, 2021 · States have an incentive not to set the bar too high, as the number of students who exit EL status is included in federal accountability.Missing: biases | Show results with:biases
[109]
The Changing Landscape of States' English Learner ...
Apr 25, 2024 · In this report, we document the evolution of state's EL reclassification policies since the passage of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015.
[110]
Reclassification of English Language Learners as Fully English ...
The proposed research project examined the validity of existing English Language Learner (ELL) reclassification systems.
[111]
Reclassification - Multilingual Learners (CA Dept of Education)
Reclassification is the process whereby a student is reclassified from EL status to Fluent English Proficient (RFEP) status.
[112]
English learners reclassification and academic achievement
We find that reclassification had no discernible effect on math and reading scores for 3rd-grade EL students, while reclassification increased the math scores ...
[113]
[PDF] Availability, Projected Need, and Teacher Preparation - NCELA
2% of all teachers were teachers of ELs (e.g., ESL instructors). ESL and bilingual education jobs were among the top three teaching positions with the highest ...
[114]
The English Learner Population Is Growing. Is Teacher Training ...
Feb 21, 2023 · The number of certified licensed English learner instructors decreased by about 10.4 percent ... teachers of color with language certifications ...
[115]
The Impact of Language Ideologies in Schools - ASCD
Dec 1, 2019 · In this article, we'll talk about two especially harmful language ideologies: language standardization and alingualism.Missing: training | Show results with:training
[116]
Unpacking Implicit Bias in the English Learner Classroom
Aug 18, 2020 · For teachers working with EL students, implicit bias can manifest in many ways, including through an assumption that ELs are “less than.” Their ...
[117]
A review of the literature on teachers' beliefs about English ...
This literature review addresses teachers' attitudes toward English language learners (ELLs) and their academic abilities specifically.
[118]
Do teachers have biased academic perceptions of their English ...
Dec 3, 2019 · A long history of research has documented how teacher perceptions influence students' achievement, and how teachers tend to have lower academic perceptions.
[119]
[PDF] The Impacts of Teacher Expectations on Student Outcomes - TNTP
Teacher expectations significantly impact academic performance. Lower expectations lead to less support and poorer outcomes, while biased expectations can ...
[120]
Training Bias Out of Teachers: Research Shows Little Promise So Far
Nov 17, 2020 · There's no evidence that anti-bias training on its own stops discrimination, and it may backfire if used as a Band-Aid for racism.
[121]
Phonics Instruction for English Language Learners | Colorín Colorado
Phonics instruction aims to help new readers understand that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds.Students' Literacy... · The Home Language Connection · Vocabulary
[122]
Phonics Instruction for English Learners - Keys to Literacy
May 7, 2024 · Phonics for ELLs requires explicit instruction, considering phonemic awareness, new sounds, and connecting to their first language, while ...
[123]
Trump's budget would abolish funding for English learners, adult ed ...
May 6, 2025 · English language acquisition through Title III, $890 million. Migrant education, $428 million; Teacher quality partnerships, $70 million ...
[124]
School funding could take a hit in the next federal budget - NPR
Sep 26, 2025 · It would eliminate all funding ($1.3 billion) for English language learners and migrant students. It would also combine 18 funding streams — ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[125]
Billions of Dollars are Being Denied for English Learner Students ...
Jul 2, 2025 · $6.8 Billion in Federal Funds Have Been Denied to Public Schools, Including Programs for English Learners.
[126]
[PDF] Exploring the Impact of Inadequate Funding for English Language ...
ELL shortfall shows that districts, on average, operate with a state funding deficit of approximately -$246 per student.
[127]
Funding Student Needs: A Review of State Funding Policies for ...
Jan 28, 2025 · Our review found that 37 states provide dual funding for students who qualify as both English learners and from low-income families. Students in ...Missing: incentives biases
[128]
'Not a side budget anymore': English learner costs surge in public ...
Jul 31, 2025 · The expanded rates range from $904 to $16,161 per student if that pupil is also low-income, according to the Learning Policy Institute, which ...
[129]
Trump administration push to cut support for English learners turns ...
Sep 23, 2025 · Right now, states get federal Title III dollars for English language acquisition programs based on census counts of children learning English.
[130]
Trump Admin. Cuts Some Teacher-Training Grants for English ...
Sep 25, 2025 · The Trump administration has cut funding for some English learner PD grants, sparking confusion and prompting appeals.
[131]
The threat to education funding is far from over | UnidosUS
Sep 5, 2025 · Furthermore, estimates indicate that up to 16,809 teachers nationwide who support English learners could lose their jobs if the funds are cut, ...
[132]
(PDF) Gender and Race Heterogeneity: The Impact of Students with ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Recent evidence suggests that exposure to a larger share of Limited English (LE) students is associated with a slight decline in performance for ...Missing: density | Show results with:density
[133]
[PDF] Impact of Bilingual Education Programs on Limited English ...
The direction of the impact of BE programs (compared to ESL programs) on academic achievement is theoretically ambiguous for both LEP and non-LEP students. LEP ...
[134]
The Academic Achievement of Limited English Proficient (LEP ... - NIH
Mar 9, 2018 · Compared to less concentrated LEP schools, highly concentrated LEP schools offer more English language programs, have more teachers certified in ...
[135]
[PDF] Educational Spillover Effects of New English Learners in a New ...
We find significant positive spillover effects in the short term of new English learners on the test scores of the other students in the receiving schools. The ...
[136]
[PDF] Peer Effects from Students with Limited English Proficiency: How ...
How Does Sharing a Classroom with LEP. Students Affect Native English Speakers? ... What is the effect of limited English proficient ... achievement (test scores) ...
[137]
Page 2: Distinguishing Between Disability and Language Difference
Teachers attempting to distinguish between a disability and a language difference should begin by addressing a few key questions.
[138]
[PDF] English Language Learners: Differentiating
Therefore, the first step in identifying ELs with learning disabilities is to evaluate the quality of instruction that the child has received. Specifically, ...
[139]
10 Dual Language Learners and English Learners with Disabilities
Researchers argue that the prevalence of language impairment (LI) in DLLs/ELs is the same as that in monolinguals (Grimm and Schulz, 2014; Kohnert, 2010).
[140]
The prevalence of psychiatric comorbid disorders among children ...
Dec 3, 2020 · According to the American Psychiatric Association” APA” [1], the prevalence of SLD is 5–15% among the school-age children across different ...<|separator|>
[141]
English Learners with or at Risk for Disabilities | IES
Aug 3, 2021 · Nationally, 11.3% of students with disabilities were ELs, a little higher than the percentage of total student enrollment who were ELs (10.2%).
[142]
The Over- and Under-Identification of ELLs in Special Education
Debbie Zacarian explains the trends of over- and under-identification of ELLs with disabilities and provides two related case studies.
[143]
EJ1111073 - Overrepresentation: An Overview of the Issues ... - ERIC
This paper addresses the serious and pervasive problem of the mis-identification of English Language Learners (ELLs) as Learning Disabled (LD).Missing: misidentification | Show results with:misidentification
[144]
[PDF] Identifying Multilingual Learners with Specific Learning Disabilities
Nationally, in school year 2020–2021, nearly 14% of the general student population was identified for a disability under IDEA Part B, with almost 12% of that ...Missing: comorbidity | Show results with:comorbidity
[145]
[PDF] DISTINGUISHING LANGUAGE ACQUISITION FROM LEARNING ...
Some ELLs are identified as having LD not because they have disabilities, but rather because they have not received an adequate opportunity to learn. Federal ...<|separator|>
[146]
[PDF] Identifying and supporting English learner students with learning ...
No studies were found that directly examined the effectiveness of using parent input in accurately identifying learning disabilities in English learner students ...
[147]
[PDF] Misidentifying English Language Learners with Learning Disabilities
The prevalence of ELLs in special education programs suggests an over-identification of learning disabilities among this group, which can have negative.
[148]
[PDF] English Learners & Disproportionality in Special Education
Research indicates that one of the factors affecting this overrepresentation of ELs is the difficulty educators have distinguishing students who truly have ...Missing: misidentification | Show results with:misidentification
[149]
[PDF] Bilingual education and at-risk students
Oct 1, 2019 · This article reviews research that has examined the linguistic and academic outcomes of at-risk learners in bilingual/immersion programs.
[150]
[PDF] 0 Effectiveness of four instructional programs designed to serve ...
Generally, there is more empirical support for the latter argument, which suggests that bilingual education is superior to English-only instruction for ELs ( ...
[151]
[PDF] Differentiating Between Language Acquisition and Learning ...
Book Reviewed: Klingner, J., & Eppolito, A. M. (2014). English Language Learners: Differentiating. Between Language Acquisition and Learning Disabilities.
[152]
Long-Term English Learners in California - Learning Policy Institute
Dec 4, 2024 · When students remain ELs for 6 or more years without making progress in the last 2 years, California classifies them as long-term English learners (LTELs).
[153]
Long-Term English Learners in California - Learning Policy Institute
Dec 4, 2024 · In school year 2022–23, of California's 5.8 million students, nearly 1 in 5 (18%), just over 1 million, were classified as English learners (ELs): ...<|separator|>
[154]
First Extensive Study of Long-Term English Learners Finds ... - WCER
Since LTEL status may negatively impact future educational opportunities and outcomes, the study calls for a much closer examination of how students become ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[155]
Long Term English Learners - Californians Together
Of California's over six million public school students, 1.1 million are English learners, and 200,000 of these students are long-term English learners (LTELs) ...
[156]
Accountability for long-term English learners - Kappan Online
Sep 25, 2023 · Research has shown that students labeled as LTELs tend to have lower academic outcomes, are at higher risk of dropping out, and are less likely to graduate on ...
[157]
[PDF] Long-term English learner students - AWS
Definitions vary across states and school districts but, in general, the term “long-term English learner (LTEL)” refers to English learner (EL).
[158]
The Difficult Road for Long-Term English Learners - ASCD
Apr 1, 2009 · Experience inconsistent schooling because of frequent moves or incoherent language programming within and across the schools they have attended.
[159]
[PDF] What factors are associated with the likelihood of an English learner ...
There were two lower risk factors including being in a campus with a higher mobility rate and being in a campus in a neighborhood with a higher unemployment ...
[160]
[PDF] Effective Interventions for Long-Term English Learners - CT.gov
Bilingual education and ESL programs: Many of these programs do not sufficiently develop students' native language and English language fluency; further, many ...
[161]
Long-Term English Learners - Oxford Research Encyclopedias
Apr 16, 2025 · Their prolonged placement in specialized language services—often perceived as a marker of underachievement—results from a combination of ...
[162]
[PDF] How Do the Students Feel? Long-Term English Learners and Their ...
Due to English-only laws and thus the subtractive nature of English language teaching, schools such as mine are not supporting native language literacy skills, ...<|separator|>
[163]
English Learners Are Increasingly Struggling with Mental Health ...
Mar 25, 2025 · In California, the UCLA Center for Transformation of Schools found that chronic absenteeism for English Learners tripled after the pandemic, ...
[164]
Targeted Intervention for Long-Term English Learners' English ...
Aug 16, 2025 · The targeted LTEL intervention, College Access, is a newly popular type of holistic college access program designed specifically for supporting ...
[165]
What Does Research Tell Us About Teaching Reading to English ...
Systematic phonics instruction can be very effective in helping ELLs, even those at fairly low levels of language proficiency, learn to decode words. However, ...Phonemic awareness · Phonics · Fluency · Vocabulary
[166]
Evidence-based reading interventions for English language learners
Sep 13, 2021 · ELLs are at risk for reading disabilities due to dual difficulties with linguistic and cultural factors. This raises the need for finding ...
[167]
[PDF] Evidence-Based Practices for English Learners - CEEDAR Center
Collaborative strategic reading, developed for ELs and other struggling students, is one method that has been shown to be effective in teaching comprehension ...
[168]
Best Practice for ELLs: Vocabulary Instruction - Reading Rockets
It suggests that intense and explicit vocabulary instruction enhances reading comprehension. Two other studies support the impact of vocabulary instruction on ...
[169]
[PDF] Examining the effect of explicit instruction on vocabulary learning ...
The study found explicit instruction and repeated exposure significantly influenced vocabulary knowledge, with 72% influence on production compared to 8% in ...
[170]
Teacher and ELL youth perspectives on restrictive language education
Nov 21, 2016 · Although teachers may use a minimal amount of the child's native language when necessary, no subject matter shall be taught in any language ...
[171]
Comprehension Checks | Colorín Colorado
Comprehension checks are an informal, timely way to help educators identify areas that need further explanation, including instructions, routines, or ...Missing: labor- | Show results with:labor-
[172]
The Hidden Inequities in Labor-Based Contract Grading
This short book explores the history of labor-based grading contracts, reviews the scholarship on this assessment tool, highlights the ways in which it ...
[173]
[PDF] Evidence-Based Practices of English Language Teaching - ERIC
Oct 27, 2020 · Abstract. This meta-analysis aims at investigating the impact of English language teaching practices on language outcomes.
[174]
(PDF) Effectiveness of AI-Based English Language Learning Apps ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Moreover, students reported increased motivation and engagement when interacting with AI-enhanced features such as speech recognition, adaptive ...Missing: immersion | Show results with:immersion
[175]
Artificial intelligence in language instruction: impact on English ...
Nov 6, 2023 · These results suggest that AI-mediated instruction positively impacts English learning achievement, L2 motivation, and self-regulated learning.Missing: immersion | Show results with:immersion
[176]
AI-assisted language learning for visually impaired learners
Oct 13, 2025 · Results showed significant gains for the experimental group in proficiency (d = 1.6), motivation (d = 2.4), and engagement (d = 2.9). Interviews ...
[177]
Predictors and Outcomes of Early vs. Later English Language ... - NIH
Child, family, and school characteristics predict achieving English proficiency by kindergarten entry compared to achieving proficiency later.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[178]
Full article: Home Literacy Environment and English as A Second ...
Jan 25, 2022 · Parental literacy teaching behaviors have stronger effects on children's ESL ability than parental beliefs on their children's English learning ...
[179]
Parental involvement in English as foreign language learners ...
Ghahdarijani and Rahimi (2021) found that parental involvement was directly related to academic achievement when considering English language learning ...
[180]
Survey: Districts and Teachers Think English Learners Face a ...
Jul 15, 2019 · District leaders and teachers say many ELs lack the necessary technology and internet access at home.
[181]
Distance Learning for ELLs: Challenges and Opportunities
Challenges include inequitable access and limited tech experience. Opportunities include family time, collaboration, and potential for new learning experiences.
[182]
Why parents resist the educational use of smartphones at schools?
This study examined the level of parental resistance to the use of smartphones in schools, as well as the predictors and the factors underlying parental ...
[183]
[PDF] ESSA Title III Guidance – English Learners September 23, 2016 (PDF)
Jan 2, 2019 · The ESEA requires that a State's English language proficiency standards be “aligned with” a. State's challenging academic standards. (ESEA ...
[184]
TITLE III - LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS ...
TITLE III - LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS AND IMMIGRANT STUDENTS · SEC. 3001. REDESIGNATION OF CERTAIN PROVISIONS · SEC. 3002. AUTHORIZATION OF ...
[185]
In 1974, the Supreme Court Recognized English Learners' Rights ...
Jan 19, 2024 · The Lau v. Nichols ruling said students have a right to a "meaningful opportunity" to participate in school, but its legacy is complex.
[186]
Arizona Proposition 203, English Language Education for Public ...
A "yes" vote supported requiring academic instruction to be in English and providing for an intensive one-year English immersion program.
[187]
Massachusetts Question 2, English in Public Education Initiative ...
A "yes" vote supported replacing the existing transitional bilingual education system in public schools with a sheltered English immersion program.
[188]
A new era for bilingual education: explaining California's Proposition ...
Jan 6, 2017 · Under the new law, students can learn English through multiple programs outside of English immersion classes.
[189]
Education Federalism in Action: English Learner Education Policy
Apr 13, 2025 · Federalism advocates started whittling down what they perceived as ESEA's federal overreach beginning in the 1970s. The Office of Program ...
[190]
Trump Admin. Quietly Rescinds Guidance on English Learners' Rights
Aug 20, 2025 · The Trump administration has cut funding for some English learner PD grants, sparking confusion and prompting appeals. Ileana Najarro. •. 6 ...
[191]
Trump administration removes guidance for teaching English learners
Aug 20, 2025 · The U.S. Department of Education has rescinded guidance for schools to help students learning English as a second language, the Washington ...
[192]
Federal Policy on English Learners: Early Actions for States in ...
May 6, 2025 · This memo outlines the historical role of the federal government in the education of English learners and how that role is expected to be affected by the Trump ...
[193]
Title III Funding for English Learners, Explained - Education Week
Apr 26, 2024 · Title III grants send states and districts funding toward supplemental services for English learners. Schools can use other federal funds for these students.<|separator|>
[194]
'Immediate harm': Education Department withholds $6.2B from schools
Jul 1, 2025 · School districts will be forced to cancel after-school programming, services for English learners and professional development as a result of $6.2 billion in ...Missing: burdens | Show results with:burdens
[195]
Untangling Fact from Fiction in Trump's Call to Defund English ...
May 13, 2025 · The Budget proposes to eliminate the misnamed English Language Acquisition program which actually deemphasizes English primacy by funding NGOs and States to ...<|separator|>
[196]
Bilingual Education: A Critique - Hoover Institution
The essay discusses the pros and cons of bilingual education. Criticism of bilingual education has grown as parents and numerous objective analyses have shown ...
[197]
Classrooms reshaped by record migrant arrivals | Reuters
Oct 7, 2024 · The arrival of more than half a million school-age children since 2022 has strained school budgets and left teachers grappling with language ...
[198]
U.S. Teachers Face Language Barriers, Student Trauma as Record ...
Oct 5, 2024 · More than half a million school-age migrant children have arrived in the US since 2022, according to immigration court records collected by Syracuse University.
[199]
Illegal Border Crossings Strain Legal English Language Learner ...
Jan 21, 2025 · But this process is always easier if students are legal and have gone through the normal processes to acquire visas and later become citizens.
[200]
Mapping the Impact of Immigration on Public Schools
Jun 20, 2023 · There are 55 public school students per 100 immigrant households, compared to 33 per hundred in households headed by the U.S.-born. This is ...
[201]
Immigrant Students Pack NYC Schools, But Support for English ...
Sep 29, 2025 · At some schools, English Language Learning (ELL) caseloads have quadrupled in a year, leaving students without one-on-one support.
[202]
The Elephant in the Classroom: Mass Immigration Imposing ...
Sep 14, 2022 · Increased immigration places a strain on school resources for three primary reasons: 1) new migrants have not contributed federal, state, and ...
[203]
The Consequences of Unchecked Illegal Immigration on America's ...
Feb 28, 2024 · Unchecked illegal migration over the past three years has possibly cost the public education system billions of dollars.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[204]
[PDF] The Role of Sanctuary Policies - ERIC
This study explores the association between sanctuary policies and the high school completion and college enrollment of. Hispanic undocumented youth. Sanctuary ...
[205]
The Real Cost of an Open Border: How Americans are Paying the ...
Jul 26, 2023 · Local schools face the most immediately visible impacts because a main feature of the Biden border crisis, and also of the earlier Trump swell ...
[206]
The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
The 1917 Act implemented a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language. It also ...Missing: proficiency integration
[207]
Chapter 2 - English and Civics Testing - USCIS
English language proficiency, which is determined by the alien's ability to read, write, speak and understand English; and; Knowledge of U.S. history and ...
[208]
How U.S. immigration laws and rules have changed through history
Sep 30, 2015 · Required immigrants over the age of 16 to demonstrate basic reading ability in any language. First U.S. law to create numerical quotas for ...Missing: English proficiency integration