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Eye injury

An eye injury is any damage to the eye or its surrounding structures, such as the eyelid, orbit, or adnexa, resulting from mechanical trauma, chemical exposure, thermal agents, or foreign bodies, which can range from minor irritations to severe threats of vision loss or blindness.^[1] Globally, eye injuries represent a significant burden, with approximately 60 million incident cases reported in 2019, an increase of 24% since 1990; they are a leading cause of preventable monocular vision loss.^[2] In the United States, about 2.5 million eye injuries occur annually as of the late 1990s, with over half affecting individuals under 30 years old and a male-to-female ratio of about 4.6:1.^[3]^[4] Common types of eye injuries include corneal abrasions, foreign body embedment, blunt trauma, penetrating wounds, and chemical or thermal burns.^[1]^[5] Symptoms often involve acute pain, redness, swelling, blurred vision, light sensitivity, or a sensation of something in the eye, with severe cases presenting hyphema, pupil irregularities, or eyeball protrusion.^[5]^[1] Causes are diverse and frequently preventable, including household accidents (e.g., over 125,000 serious injuries annually in the U.S. from cleaning chemicals or power tools), workplace hazards like flying debris (20.5% of cases), and sports activities (nearly 40,000 emergency visits yearly in the U.S.).^[3]^[4] Only about 2% of injured patients were wearing appropriate protective eyewear at the time.^[4] Immediate professional evaluation is essential, with first aid such as flushing chemical exposures with water for 15-20 minutes and avoiding rubbing for foreign bodies or trauma.^[5]^[1] Treatment may involve antibiotics, patching, surgery, or anti-inflammatories to prevent complications like infection or retinal detachment.^[5]^[4] Prevention emphasizes protective eyewear compliant with ANSI/ISEA Z87.1 standards during high-risk activities, education on hazards, and public health initiatives to reduce incidence.^[3]^[4]

Overview

Definition and Scope

Eye injury refers to any physical, chemical, thermal, or other form of damage to the eye or its surrounding tissues, potentially compromising structures such as the cornea, sclera, lens, retina, or orbit.^[6] This damage can range from minor disruptions to severe threats to visual function, often resulting from blunt force, penetrating objects, or environmental exposures.^[7] The scope of eye injuries is extensive, spanning superficial conditions like corneal abrasions, which affect the outer layers without breaching deeper tissues, to penetrating injuries that create full-thickness defects in the globe.^[8] These injuries may involve external elements, such as the eyelids and conjunctiva, or extend to internal intraocular components, including the vitreous and optic nerve.^[1] Recognition of eye injuries in medical literature dates back to ancient times, with early descriptions appearing in Egyptian papyri around 2500 BCE and in the writings of Hippocrates in the 5th century BCE.^[9] Globally, eye injuries contribute significantly to vision loss, with an estimated 1.6 million cases of blindness attributable to them annually, based on World Health Organization data.^[10] This burden underscores the need for preventive measures, particularly in high-risk settings involving trauma or foreign bodies.^[11]

Clinical Significance

Eye injuries represent a major public health concern due to their potential to cause irreversible vision loss, contributing to an estimated 1.6 million cases of blindness and 2.3 million cases of low vision annually worldwide.^[10] Recent estimates as of 2025 indicate approximately 1.6 million cases of blindness and 19 million cases of partial permanent vision loss attributable to eye injuries annually.^[12] In severe cases, such as penetrating trauma or open-globe injuries, there is a high risk of vision loss, with studies showing poor visual outcomes in approximately 50% of cases even with treatment.^[13] This high risk highlights the critical need for rapid diagnosis and treatment to preserve visual function, as eye injuries are a leading cause of unilateral blindness, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.^[14] The socioeconomic burden of eye injuries is substantial, as part of the broader vision impairment which incurs annual global productivity losses estimated at US$411 billion.^[11] These expenses are amplified in low-resource settings, where limited access to specialized care results in higher rates of complications, prolonged disability, and increased long-term morbidity compared to high-income regions.^[2] For instance, workplace-related injuries alone account for millions of cases yearly, driving up indirect costs through absenteeism and reduced workforce participation.^[15] Beyond physical consequences, eye injuries profoundly affect mental health, with survivors frequently reporting elevated levels of anxiety, depression, and diminished quality of life due to fear of further loss, social isolation, and altered self-perception.^[16] Studies on traumatic ocular injuries, including open-globe cases, show strong associations between injury severity and psychological distress, often exacerbated by visible disfigurement or dependency on others.^[17] These impacts can persist long-term, necessitating integrated support that addresses both ocular and emotional recovery.

Causes and Types

Mechanical and Traumatic Injuries

Mechanical and traumatic injuries to the eye result from physical forces or objects impacting the ocular structures, encompassing blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, and foreign body embedding. These injuries often lead to immediate vision impairment and require urgent evaluation to prevent complications such as infection or permanent loss of sight. Unlike chemical injuries, which involve corrosive agents detailed elsewhere, mechanical trauma stems from direct kinetic energy transfer.^[18] Blunt trauma occurs when a non-penetrating force, such as a fist or ball, deforms the globe through mechanisms like coup (direct impact), countercoup (opposite-side pressure waves), or anteroposterior compression leading to horizontal expansion. This can cause contusions, hyphema (blood accumulation in the anterior chamber from iris or ciliary body damage), or retinal detachment in approximately 10% of cases due to vitreoretinal traction. Orbital fractures, often involving the floor, and eyelid lacerations are common associated injuries, particularly from high-impact blows. Risk scenarios include sports like racquetball, where projectiles or racquets strike the eye, assaults with fists or blunt objects, and motor vehicle accidents, accounting for about 23.6% of blunt ocular traumas.^[18]^[18]^[8]^[19] Penetrating trauma involves sharp or high-velocity objects breaching the ocular surface without exit (penetrating) or with exit (perforating), resulting in full-thickness wounds to the cornea or sclera and potential globe rupture. Examples include glass shards or knives causing lacerations, often seen in workplace accidents with power tools or assaults involving sharp implements. These injuries pose a high risk of intraocular damage and are more prevalent in males, who face 5.5 times the incidence due to occupational exposures or violence.^[8]^[8]^[8] Foreign body injuries typically arise from small particles embedding in the cornea or conjunctiva, such as metal shards dislodged during grinding or welding without protective eyewear. These can lead to corneal abrasions, rust ring formation in metallic cases, and secondary infections if not removed promptly. In workplace settings, mechanical and traumatic injuries, including foreign bodies from blunt or sharp sources, constitute approximately 60% of industrial eye injuries, predominantly in manufacturing and construction. Sports-related incidents, assaults, and motor vehicle collisions further elevate risks, with assaults and recreational activities each contributing significantly to overall ocular trauma epidemiology.^[20]^[21]^[19]

Chemical, Thermal, and Radiation Injuries

Chemical, thermal, and radiation injuries to the eye arise from non-mechanical exposures that disrupt ocular tissues through chemical reactions, heat transfer, or electromagnetic energy, distinct from physical impacts like blunt trauma. These injuries often affect the cornea, conjunctiva, and deeper structures, leading to inflammation, necrosis, and potential vision loss due to their ability to penetrate protective barriers. Unlike mechanical injuries, which primarily cause immediate structural disruption, these forms involve progressive pathophysiological processes that can extend over hours to weeks. Chemical injuries occur when acids or alkalis contact the ocular surface, initiating rapid tissue damage based on the agent's pH and reactivity. Alkali burns, such as those from lye (sodium hydroxide), penetrate deeply by saponifying cell membrane lipids, causing liquefaction necrosis and allowing further invasion into the stroma and anterior chamber. In contrast, acid burns, exemplified by sulfuric acid, coagulate surface proteins to form a barrier that limits deeper penetration, though exothermic reactions can exacerbate thermal damage. The severity correlates strongly with pH; alkalis with pH exceeding 11.5 induce profound corneal damage by disrupting collagen and glycosaminoglycans, leading to opacification and vascular compromise. Chemical injuries account for 11.5% to 22.1% of ocular traumas and may exhibit delayed effects, including persistent inflammation and limbal stem cell loss, manifesting up to weeks post-exposure. Thermal injuries result from extreme heat or cold, denaturing proteins and disrupting cellular integrity in the anterior eye. Heat from flames or hot objects causes conjunctival necrosis through coagulative damage, where temperatures above 44°C lead to protein unfolding and ischemic sloughing of the epithelium and underlying tissues. Cold-induced frostbite, often from cryogenic agents or prolonged exposure, forms ice crystals that mechanically rupture corneal epithelial and endothelial cells, resulting in edema, opacity, and potential scarring. These mechanisms highlight the vulnerability of the avascular cornea to thermal extremes, with recovery complicated by secondary infection or fibrosis. Radiation injuries encompass ultraviolet (UV), ionizing, and laser exposures, each targeting specific ocular components via photochemical or photothermal effects. UV radiation, particularly UVB from sources like welding arcs, induces photokeratitis—a painful, temporary corneal inflammation akin to sunburn—through DNA damage and reactive oxygen species generation in epithelial cells. Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, causes cataracts by ionizing lens proteins, leading to posterior subcapsular opacities after cumulative doses as low as 0.5-2 Gy. Laser injuries often involve retinal photocoagulation, where focused beams (e.g., Nd:YAG) thermally coagulate retinal pigment epithelium and photoreceptors, creating scars that can impair central vision if the macula is affected. Dose-response relationships are critical; for UV, indices greater than 8 signify very high risk of acute photokeratitis and chronic lens changes with unprotected exposure.

Classification

Anatomical Classification

Eye injuries are classified anatomically based on the specific structures affected, which aids in determining the extent of damage, potential complications, and appropriate management strategies. This classification encompasses injuries to the external adnexa, anterior segment, posterior segment, and orbital structures. For mechanical globe injuries, the Birmingham Eye Trauma Terminology (BETT) system provides a standardized framework, distinguishing between open globe injuries—characterized by a full-thickness laceration of the sclera or cornea allowing communication between intraocular contents and external environment—and closed globe injuries, which involve no such breach but may include contusions or partial-thickness lacerations.^[22]^[23] External injuries primarily affect the eyelids, conjunctiva, and cornea's superficial layers. Eyelid lacerations occur when sharp or blunt trauma disrupts the skin and underlying structures, potentially involving the tarsal plate or lacrimal system if full-thickness, leading to functional deficits like ectropion or exposure keratopathy.^[24]^[25] Conjunctival lacerations, often from foreign bodies or minor trauma, present as tears in the thin membrane covering the sclera and inner eyelids, typically self-limiting but at risk for infection if contaminated.^[26] Corneal abrasions, superficial epithelial defects from trauma or foreign bodies, and embedded corneal foreign bodies represent common external insults, with the latter risking deeper penetration if metallic or organic.^[27]^[28] Injuries to the anterior segment involve the iris, ciliary body, and lens. Iris and sphincter damage, such as iridodialysis—the traumatic disinsertion of the iris root from the ciliary body—typically results from blunt force causing radial tears, leading to irregular pupil shape and glare.^[29]^[30] Lens subluxation or dislocation arises from zonular fiber rupture due to trauma, shifting the lens from its normal position and potentially causing astigmatism, aphakia, or secondary glaucoma.^[31]^[32] Posterior segment injuries affect the vitreous, retina, and choroid, often from contusive forces transmitted through the globe. Vitreous hemorrhage involves bleeding into the vitreous cavity from ruptured retinal vessels, obscuring vision and complicating retinal assessment.^[33]^[34] Retinal tears and detachments occur when blunt trauma induces vitreous traction on the retina, creating full-thickness breaks or separation from the underlying pigment epithelium, with higher risk in closed globe contusions.^[26]^[35] Orbital injuries extend beyond the globe to the bony confines and neurovascular elements. Blowout fractures, commonly of the orbital floor or medial wall, result from increased intraorbital pressure against a blunt object, causing herniation of orbital contents into adjacent sinuses and potential entrapment of extraocular muscles.^[36]^[37] Optic nerve contusion, a form of traumatic optic neuropathy, stems from direct compression or shearing forces during head trauma, leading to axonal damage and vision loss without initial globe rupture.^[38]^[39] The BETT system further zones open globe injuries anatomically: Zone I (cornea/limbus), Zone II (anterior sclera up to 5 mm posteriorly), and Zone III (posterior sclera), guiding prognostic and surgical considerations.^[35]^[8] For chemical and thermal injuries, classification focuses on the extent of anatomical damage to the ocular surface and anterior segment. The Roper-Hall classification grades chemical burns from I (good prognosis, minimal epithelial defect, no limbal ischemia) to IV (poor prognosis, total corneal opacity, complete limbal and conjunctival ischemia).^[40] The Dua classification assesses percentage of limbus involved (e.g., Grade I: <30% ischemia) and conjunctival involvement to predict outcomes and guide therapy.^[41] Thermal burns are similarly graded by depth (superficial, partial-thickness, full-thickness) affecting eyelids, conjunctiva, and cornea.^[42]

Severity and Urgency Classification

Eye injuries are classified by severity and urgency to guide prognosis and prioritize care, with the Ocular Trauma Score (OTS) serving as a primary tool for predicting visual outcomes in mechanical injuries. Developed by Kuhn et al. through analysis of over 2,500 cases involving more than 100 variables, the OTS assigns raw points to six key factors: initial visual acuity, presence of rupture, endophthalmitis, perforating injury, retinal detachment, and relative afferent pupillary defect.^[43]^[44] These points are summed and categorized into scores from 1 (worst prognosis) to 5 (best prognosis), enabling clinicians to estimate final visual acuity at six months post-injury, such as a score of 1 predicting no light perception in most cases while a score of 5 anticipates 20/40 or better.^[45] This system applies to both open- and closed-globe injuries, including anatomical types like open globe ruptures, and supports rapid prognostic assessment without advanced imaging.^[43] Urgency classification systems, such as the Australasian Triage Scale (ATS) adapted for ophthalmic emergencies, stratify injuries based on required intervention timelines to prevent vision loss.^[46] The ATS categories are: Category 1 (immediate, e.g., resuscitation), Category 2 (emergency, within 10 minutes, e.g., globe rupture), Category 3 (urgent, within 30 minutes, e.g., acute vision loss), Category 4 (semi-urgent, within 60 minutes, e.g., corneal abrasions), and Category 5 (non-urgent, seen when possible, e.g., minor eyelid lacerations). Emergency cases like globe rupture demand immediate surgical repair to minimize infection and structural damage.^[47] Hyphema is typically Category 2 or 3, requiring prompt ophthalmologic consultation and monitoring within 10-30 minutes to manage rebleeding and elevated intraocular pressure.^[48] Advancements in artificial intelligence for ophthalmic emergency triage, including systems like the DemDx Ophthalmology Triage System (DOTS), have shown promise in prioritizing cases comparable to human experts, though primarily for general ophthalmology rather than specific integration with trauma scores like the OTS.^[49]^[50] As of 2025, AI tools continue to support decision-making in high-volume settings.^[51]

Signs and Symptoms

Acute Presentation

The acute presentation of eye injury encompasses immediate symptoms and signs that emerge shortly after the traumatic event, often prompting urgent medical attention. Pain is a hallmark feature, with its intensity and quality varying by injury mechanism and location. Superficial anterior segment injuries, such as corneal abrasions, typically cause sharp, severe pain due to exposed nerve endings, frequently accompanied by photophobia and excessive tearing.^[52] ^[1] In contrast, injuries involving deeper structures like orbital fractures often manifest as a more diffuse, aching pain around the eye and orbit, exacerbated by movement or palpation.^[53] Photophobia is particularly prominent in anterior injuries, where inflammation irritates the iris and ciliary body.^[18] Visual disturbances represent another critical aspect of acute presentation, directly impacting patient function and signaling potential structural damage. Blurred vision is common across many injury types, resulting from corneal irregularity, lens dislocation, or intraocular inflammation.^[1] In cases of vitreous involvement, such as hemorrhage or detachment from blunt trauma, patients may report sudden onset of floaters—perceived as dark spots or threads drifting in the visual field—or flashes of light.^[1] Diplopia, or double vision, arises particularly from extraocular muscle entrapment in orbital fractures, restricting eye movement and causing misalignment.^[54] These changes can range from mild to profound vision loss, depending on the extent of ocular disruption.^[18] Observable physical signs further characterize the acute phase, aiding clinical assessment. Conjunctival hyperemia (redness) and periorbital or eyelid swelling are frequent, reflecting vascular and soft tissue response to trauma. Subconjunctival hemorrhage, appearing as a bright red patch on the white of the eye, is common in blunt trauma and typically painless.^[55] Discharge, ranging from watery to purulent, may occur if there's associated epithelial disruption or infection risk.^[56] Pupillary abnormalities, including an irregular or peaked pupil shape, often indicate direct iris damage from penetrating injuries, potentially leading to asymmetric light response. Hyphema, or blood layering in the anterior chamber, is a key sign of blunt trauma, visible on slit-lamp exam and associated with blurred vision and increased risk of complications.^[57] A notable exception in acute presentations involves intraocular foreign bodies, which can be asymptomatic or painless in some cases due to the eye's adaptive mechanisms, underscoring the need for thorough imaging even without overt symptoms.^[58]

Associated Features

Eye injuries can manifest with various systemic symptoms due to the anatomical proximity of the orbit to critical structures and the body's inflammatory response. Increased orbital pressure from trauma or hemorrhage may lead to headaches and nausea, as the elevated intraocular or intraorbital pressure compresses surrounding tissues and stimulates pain receptors, potentially triggering vagal responses.^[59]^[60] In chemical exposures, such as alkali or acid burns, the ocular surface damage can provoke allergic-like responses including itching, hyperemia, and discharge, mediated by the release of inflammatory mediators like histamine that mimic hypersensitivity reactions.^[61] Inflammatory features often accompany eye injuries, particularly those involving deeper orbital tissues. Orbital cellulitis, a common complication of penetrating trauma or sinusitis extension, presents with chemosis (conjunctival edema) and proptosis (forward displacement of the globe), resulting from soft tissue infection and swelling that restricts venous drainage and increases orbital volume.^[62]^[63] Additionally, lid ecchymosis, known as raccoon eyes, indicates periorbital bruising from basilar skull fractures, where blood tracks along fascial planes from the anterior cranial fossa into the eyelids, appearing bilaterally 1 to 3 days post-injury.^[64]^[65] Neurological associations arise when eye injuries disrupt cranial nerve function, leading to motor deficits. Involvement of the oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), or abducens (VI) nerves, often from direct trauma, shear forces, or compressive hematomas, can cause ptosis (drooping eyelid) due to levator palpebrae paralysis in CN III palsy, and restricted eye movements such as limited adduction, elevation, or abduction, resulting in diplopia.^[66]^[67] A distinctive inflammatory response in blunt ocular trauma is traumatic iritis, characterized by ciliary flush (perilimbal conjunctival injection) from iris and ciliary body inflammation, and keratic precipitates (clumps of inflammatory cells on the corneal endothelium), which form as leukocytes settle posteriorly, often accompanied by photophobia and reduced visual acuity.^[68]^[69]

Diagnosis

History and Physical Examination

The initial evaluation of an eye injury begins with a detailed history to guide subsequent management and identify potential risks. Key elements include the mechanism of injury, such as the timing, nature of the agent involved (e.g., blunt trauma from a hammer versus chemical exposure), and use of protective eyewear, as these factors influence the likelihood of specific injuries like open globe rupture or corneal abrasion.^[70] Patients should also report their baseline visual acuity prior to the injury, any history of ocular conditions or surgeries, and relevant comorbidities like diabetes or hypertension, which can impair healing or complicate recovery.^[71]^[72] Additionally, allergies to medications, current treatments, and tetanus vaccination status are documented to inform safe interventions.^[70] This history helps prioritize the examination based on urgency classifications, such as immediate attention for penetrating injuries. The physical examination follows a systematic approach, starting with visual acuity assessment using a Snellen chart or equivalent for each eye, recording the best corrected or uncorrected vision to establish a baseline and monitor changes; pinhole testing can differentiate refractive errors from organic damage.^[71]^[70] External inspection evaluates for asymmetry in lid position, periorbital swelling, lacerations, or obvious foreign bodies, while avoiding pressure on the globe if rupture is suspected.^[72] Slit-lamp biomicroscopy is essential for anterior segment evaluation, revealing details like corneal defects, hyphema, or iris prolapse, and should be performed gently to prevent further damage.^[70] Intraocular pressure measurement via tonometry is conducted in closed globe injuries to detect abnormalities—low pressure may signal rupture, while elevated levels could indicate contusion-related glaucoma—using non-indentation methods like applanation to minimize risk.^[71] Fundoscopy, preferably with pupillary dilation if pressure is normal and no active bleeding, assesses the posterior segment for retinal detachment or vitreous hemorrhage, though views may be limited by media opacities.^[70]^[72] Specialized techniques include fluorescein staining under cobalt blue light to highlight epithelial defects or full-thickness leaks (Seidel sign), and eversion of the eyelids with a cotton swab or retractor to inspect the fornices for retained foreign bodies or conjunctival injuries.^[71] To facilitate a thorough and comfortable examination, topical anesthetics such as tetracaine are applied sparingly to the medial canthus, reducing pain without delaying care or risking toxicity from overuse.^[71]^[72] Relative afferent pupillary defect testing using a swinging flashlight complements these steps by identifying optic nerve or severe retinal involvement.^[70] Throughout, the exam prioritizes non-invasive methods to avoid exacerbating the injury.

Imaging and Specialized Tests

Imaging plays a crucial role in evaluating the extent of eye injuries, particularly for detecting occult fractures, foreign bodies, and damage to deep structures that may not be apparent on clinical examination alone. Computed tomography (CT) of the orbit is the gold standard imaging modality for assessing ocular trauma, providing detailed three-dimensional visualization of bony fractures, intraocular foreign bodies, and orbital involvement, with particular efficacy in detecting metallic objects due to its high sensitivity for radiopaque materials.^[73]^[74] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) complements CT by offering superior soft tissue contrast, making it valuable for evaluating non-ferrous foreign bodies, optic nerve injuries, and intraorbital hematomas without radiation exposure. However, MRI is contraindicated in cases of suspected metallic intraocular foreign bodies, as the magnetic field can cause migration or further injury to these objects.^[75]^[76] B-scan ultrasonography serves as a rapid, non-invasive bedside tool, especially useful when media opacity like vitreous hemorrhage obscures fundoscopic views; it effectively identifies vitreous opacities, posterior vitreous detachment, retinal tears, and detachments by displaying acoustic reflectivity patterns.^[34]^[77] Specialized tests provide targeted assessment of specific anatomical and functional components. Gonioscopy allows direct visualization of the anterior chamber angle to detect angle recession, a common sequelae of blunt trauma that predisposes to glaucoma, by revealing tears in the trabecular meshwork or ciliary body.^[78]^[18] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) enables high-resolution cross-sectional imaging of retinal layers, identifying disruptions such as photoreceptor damage, intra-retinal edema, or macular involvement following blunt or penetrating injuries.^[79]^[80] Electroretinography (ERG), particularly pattern ERG, assesses retinal ganglion cell and optic nerve function by measuring electrical responses to visual stimuli, aiding in the diagnosis of traumatic optic neuropathy where axonal damage impairs conduction.^[81]^[82] Recent advancements include AI-enhanced OCT systems, such as cloud-based platforms trained on large datasets, which automate detection of retinal detachment with high accuracy and sensitivity exceeding 95%, facilitating earlier intervention in resource-limited settings.^[83]^[84]

Management

First Aid and Emergency Interventions

In cases of eye injury, the primary goals of first aid are to minimize further damage, stabilize the affected eye, and expedite professional medical evaluation. Individuals should avoid rubbing or applying pressure to the injured eye, as this can exacerbate trauma to the cornea, iris, or globe. Instead, gently close the eyelids if possible and seek immediate emergency care, such as calling 911 or proceeding to the nearest hospital, even for seemingly minor injuries.^[5] For suspected penetrating or globe injuries, such as those caused by sharp objects or high-velocity impacts, a rigid protective shield should be applied over the eye to prevent inadvertent pressure while allowing the eye to remain open for assessment. Suitable improvised shields include the bottom half of a paper cup or a rigid plastic cover taped securely to the bony orbit surrounding the eye, ensuring no contact with the eyeball itself; traditional eye patches are contraindicated as they may compress the injury. This intervention helps preserve intraocular structures until surgical evaluation.^[5]^[85] Chemical injuries require urgent decontamination to neutralize the agent and restore ocular pH. Immediately remove contact lenses if present, as they can trap the chemical, then irrigate the eye copiously with sterile saline solution or clean lukewarm water using a gentle stream from a bottle, eyewash station, or shower for at least 20-30 minutes continuously, holding the eyelids open and directing flow from the inner canthus outward. Irrigation volumes may range from 2 liters for mild exposures to 10 liters or more for severe cases, continuing until emergency personnel arrive or pH normalizes.^[86]^[41]^[87] Superficial foreign bodies, such as dust or small particles not embedded in the cornea or sclera, can often be addressed by gentle irrigation with saline or clean water while having the person blink repeatedly to facilitate natural flushing; however, any attempt at manual removal with cotton swabs or fingers should be avoided to prevent corneal abrasion. If the object remains or causes persistent discomfort, cover the eye loosely with a clean cloth and seek medical attention promptly.^[88] In emergency department settings, initial interventions focus on stabilization and prophylaxis. Tetanus prophylaxis, including toxoid booster or immunoglobulin, is recommended for perforating ocular injuries or those with contaminated wounds, following standard wound management guidelines to prevent tetanus infection. Antiemetics such as ondansetron may be administered intravenously if nausea or vomiting occurs due to pain or associated head trauma, while strictly avoiding any maneuvers that increase intraocular pressure, such as Valsalva or tight bandages. All patients should undergo urgent ophthalmologic consultation for comprehensive assessment.^[89]^[60]^[90]

Medical and Surgical Treatments

Medical treatments for eye injuries primarily involve pharmacotherapy to prevent infection, reduce inflammation, and manage pain and spasms associated with specific injury types. For corneal abrasions, topical antibiotics such as erythromycin 0.5% ointment are commonly prescribed to prevent bacterial infection, applied as a half-inch ribbon two to four times daily until healing occurs.^[91]^[27] Cycloplegic agents like atropine 1% ophthalmic solution are used for traumatic iritis to relieve ciliary spasm and prevent synechiae formation, typically administered two to three times daily until inflammation resolves.^[68]^[92] Topical corticosteroids, such as prednisolone acetate 1%, address inflammation in various ocular traumas by suppressing immune responses, with dosing every few hours initially and tapered based on response; however, their use requires monitoring for risks like elevated intraocular pressure.^[93]^[94] Short-term intravitreal anti-VEGF injections, such as aflibercept or ranibizumab, have shown efficacy in reducing submacular hemorrhage and improving visual outcomes following ocular trauma.^[95]^[96] A Cochrane review indicates that eye patching for corneal abrasions does not accelerate healing or reduce pain compared to no patching, and it is generally discouraged to avoid potential complications like infection. Surgical interventions are tailored to the injury's anatomical involvement and aim to restore structure and function. Primary closure of corneal or scleral lacerations involves meticulous suturing under microscopy to realign tissues and prevent leakage, often using 10-0 nylon sutures for watertight seals.^[97] For eyelid lacerations, suturing techniques employ 6-0 Vicryl in a vertical mattress fashion for the tarsal plate and lid margin to ensure proper alignment and minimize scarring, with buried knots directed away from the eye to reduce irritation.^[98]^[99] Vitrectomy is indicated for vitreous hemorrhage following penetrating trauma, where pars plana access allows removal of blood and debris to restore retinal visualization and prevent tractional complications.^[100] Traumatic cataracts, often resulting from blunt or penetrating injuries, are managed by phacoemulsification extraction with intraocular lens implantation once inflammation subsides, improving visual acuity in most cases.^[101]^[102] Recent advancements in eye injury treatment include regenerative approaches for severe corneal damage. Cultivated autologous limbal epithelial cell (CALEC) therapy, which expands a patient's own stem cells into a graft for transplantation, has shown safety and efficacy in phase I trials for limbal stem cell deficiency, with complete or partial restoration of corneal surfaces in 93% of participants at 12 months and 92% at 18 months post-treatment (as of March 2025).^[103] Laser-assisted repairs, such as photocoagulation, are used for traumatic retinal tears to seal defects and prevent detachment, offering precise, minimally invasive outcomes with high success rates in stabilizing the retina.^[97]

Complications

Immediate Complications

Immediate complications of eye injuries encompass acute threats that can arise within hours to days following trauma, potentially compromising ocular integrity and vision if not addressed promptly. These risks are particularly elevated in penetrating or blunt traumas that breach ocular barriers, allowing bacterial ingress or structural disruption. Endophthalmitis, a severe intraocular infection, represents a critical concern after open-globe injuries, where bacterial invasion of the vitreous and aqueous humor can lead to rapid vision loss. The incidence of post-traumatic endophthalmitis ranges from 0% to 16.5%, with rates commonly reported between 0.9% and 17%, influenced by factors such as retained intraocular foreign bodies, lens capsule rupture, and rural injury settings.^[104]^[105] Risk factors including traumatic cataract, hypopyon, and corneal ulceration further heighten susceptibility, often necessitating immediate prophylactic antibiotics during surgical repair to mitigate progression.^[106] Orbital cellulitis, another infectious complication, involves acute inflammation and infection of the orbital soft tissues posterior to the septum, frequently extending from periorbital trauma or adjacent sinus involvement in eye injuries. This condition manifests with proptosis, ophthalmoplegia, and painful eye movements, posing risks of intracranial spread if untreated. It is a rare but serious sequela of orbital fractures or lacerations, particularly when preexisting sinus infections coexist, emphasizing the need for urgent imaging and intravenous antibiotics.^[107]^[108] Hemorrhagic complications are prevalent in both blunt and penetrating traumas. Hyphema, the accumulation of blood in the anterior chamber due to iris or ciliary body vessel rupture, carries risks of rebleeding within the first few days, occurring in up to 30-38% of cases and potentially leading to secondary complications like corneal blood staining.^[48] Subconjunctival hemorrhage, a more superficial bleeding beneath the conjunctiva, often results from minor trauma disrupting fragile vessels and presents as a bright red patch, though it is typically self-limiting without vision threat.^[109]^[110] Elevated intraocular pressure can emerge acutely from angle recession, a tear in the trabecular meshwork following blunt trauma, leading to acute glaucoma through impaired aqueous outflow. This affects 20-94% of blunt injury cases, with immediate pressure spikes possible alongside later-onset risks, requiring tonometry and gonioscopy for detection.^[111]^[112] Finally, sympathetic ophthalmia, an autoimmune granulomatous uveitis, poses a unique bilateral threat after penetrating injuries, with incidence of 0.2-0.5% and peak onset within the first two weeks, driven by uveal antigen exposure.^[113]^[114] Enucleation of the injured eye within 10-14 days may reduce this risk in severe cases, though primary repair and immunosuppression are prioritized.^[115]

Long-term Complications

Long-term complications of eye injuries encompass a range of delayed or permanent alterations to ocular structures, often resulting in chronic visual deficits. Scarring represents a primary mechanism, where corneal opacity arises from fibrotic healing following trauma, distorting light transmission and frequently inducing irregular astigmatism that impairs visual acuity.^[116] Retinal fibrosis, similarly, emerges as a glial-mediated response to injury, involving proliferation of retinal pigment epithelial cells and Müller glia, which can contract and distort the retina, leading to tractional detachments and persistent vision loss.^[117] Degenerative changes further compound these effects, with traumatic cataract manifesting as lens opacification due to disruption of lens fibers and capsule integrity from blunt or penetrating forces; this opacity scatters light and reduces transparency, affecting up to 65% of trauma cases and necessitating surgical intervention.^[101] Glaucoma may develop secondarily through trabecular meshwork damage, where blunt trauma causes angle recession and scarring that obstructs aqueous outflow, elevating intraocular pressure over months to years and risking optic nerve damage.^[118] Neurological sequelae include optic atrophy, characterized by degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and axonal loss following traumatic optic neuropathy, typically evident 3-6 weeks post-injury as a pale optic disc and irreversible field defects.^[38] Chronic diplopia often persists from damage to extraocular muscles or cranial nerves, such as third or sixth nerve palsies induced by orbital fractures or contusions, with trauma accounting for about 25% of binocular diplopia cases and showing delayed recovery rates below 50% at three months.^[119] Eye trauma elevates the risk of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), a fibrocontractive disorder where intraocular proliferation leads to retinal redetachment; it occurs in approximately 4% of injured eyes and correlates with poor visual outcomes, including blindness in over half of affected cases.^[120] Globally, severe eye injuries contribute to 1.6 million annual cases of blindness, underscoring their role in lifelong visual impairment.^[10]

Prognosis

Outcome Factors

The severity of an eye injury is the foremost predictor of visual recovery, with more severe cases linked to substantially poorer outcomes. The Ocular Trauma Score (OTS), a validated prognostic tool, quantifies this by integrating initial visual acuity and key injury features; scores in categories 1-2 (raw points 0-65) are associated with high likelihood of severe visual loss, for example category 1 has up to 73% no light perception at 6 months post-injury. This system demonstrates approximately 80% accuracy in forecasting final visual acuity categories.^[45] Injury location further modulates prognosis, as posterior segment involvement—such as retinal detachment or vitreous hemorrhage—yields worse visual results than anterior segment trauma limited to the cornea or lens, owing to the vulnerability of posterior structures to irreversible damage.^[121] Similarly, bilateral injuries portend a graver overall outlook, frequently stemming from high-impact events like explosions that compromise both eyes and heighten risks of systemic complications and profound binocular vision loss.^[122] Among patient variables, age influences healing dynamics, with children exhibiting superior tissue regeneration and recovery potential compared to adults, though this advantage can be offset by amblyopia risks in the very young. Comorbidities like diabetes exacerbate delays in recovery by disrupting corneal epithelial repair and increasing susceptibility to persistent inflammation and infection post-trauma. Prompt intervention is critical; surgical repair within 24 hours of injury enhances visual outcomes by mitigating endophthalmitis risk and structural deterioration, with each 24-hour delay worsening predicted final acuity by about 0.37 logMAR units.^[123] The OTS facilitates visual prognosis through a formulaic approach, starting with 100 points for normal initial visual acuity and subtracting for injury types (e.g., 23 points for rupture, 11 for retinal detachment), yielding a raw score that maps to acuity probability ranges like 20/40 or better (high for OTS 5) versus light perception only (high for OTS 1). This integration enables early categorization of expected recovery, guiding therapeutic decisions and realistic patient expectations.

Recovery and Rehabilitation

Recovery from eye injuries varies depending on the severity and type of injury. For minor cases such as corneal abrasions, acute recovery typically occurs within 1 to 3 days, with full epithelial healing often achieved in 24 to 48 hours through rapid cell multiplication in the corneal layer.^[124]^[125] In contrast, surgical interventions for traumatic eye injuries, such as repair of orbital fractures or retinal detachment, require longer timelines; initial healing may take 4 to 8 weeks for orbital structures, while full functional recovery can extend to several months, involving gradual restoration of tissue integrity and visual function.^[126]^[127] Therapies play a central role in restoring visual function and adapting to residual deficits. Vision therapy, particularly for diplopia resulting from eye trauma, involves targeted exercises to enhance ocular motility and fusional vergence, often leading to improved alignment and reduced double vision through neuroplastic changes.^[128] Low-vision aids, such as handheld magnifiers or electronic devices, assist patients in maximizing remaining vision for tasks like reading or navigation, with these tools prescribed based on individual acuity and field losses.^[129] Occupational rehabilitation focuses on practical adaptation, teaching compensatory strategies for daily activities, including environmental modifications and skill-building to promote independence despite visual impairments.^[130] Follow-up care is essential to monitor progress and prevent secondary issues. Serial ophthalmologic examinations, including intraocular pressure assessments, are recommended to screen for traumatic glaucoma, which may develop acutely or years post-injury due to angle recession or inflammation.^[131] Psychological support, such as counseling or referrals to mental health specialists, aids in emotional adjustment, addressing distress from vision loss or disfigurement through coping strategies and resource connections.^[132] Emerging advancements include virtual reality (VR)-based rehabilitation programs, which in 2025 trials for visual deficits have demonstrated improvements in contrast sensitivity and overall perceptual function by providing immersive, controlled stimuli to enhance neural adaptation.^[133] Factors like age, as outlined in prognosis assessments, can influence the pace of these recovery processes, with younger patients often showing better responsiveness to therapies.^[134]

Epidemiology

Incidence and Prevalence

Eye injuries represent a substantial global health burden. In 2019, there were an estimated 60 million incident cases of eye injury worldwide. Eye injuries are a leading cause of monocular blindness globally, contributing to 1.6 million cases of bilateral blindness and 19 million cases of unilateral vision loss annually.^[10] The incidence is higher in low- and middle-income countries due to limited access to protective equipment and healthcare.^[10] In the United States, eye injuries account for approximately 700,000 emergency department visits each year (2006–2013 average), highlighting a significant strain on healthcare resources even in high-income settings.^[135] Regionally, Asia experiences elevated rates of chemical eye injuries stemming from industrial accidents, with workplace exposures contributing to a notable proportion of severe cases.^[136]

Risk Factors and Demographics

Eye injuries disproportionately affect certain demographic groups, with males experiencing them at a rate approximately three times higher than females, often due to greater participation in high-risk activities such as occupational hazards and contact sports.^[137] Incidence peaks in children, where play-related incidents account for a significant portion—approximately 35% of all eye injuries in the United States occur in children under 18 years old—typically involving household items or recreational activities.^[138] Among adults, the 25- to 44-year-old age group faces the highest rates, driven by workplace exposures and assaults, with emergency department visits for eye injuries reaching 255 per 100,000 population in this cohort.^[139] Occupationally, eye injuries are prevalent in sectors like construction and manufacturing, where foreign bodies and machinery account for a substantial share of cases; for instance, construction trades reported 2,120 eye-related injuries requiring time away from work in 2020 alone, representing a key contributor to overall occupational burden.^[140] Sports such as boxing elevate the risk significantly, with studies indicating higher odds of eye trauma compared to other combat activities, including an odds ratio of 1.268 for boxing versus mixed martial arts, often resulting in vision-threatening damage to the retina or lens.^[141] Behavioral factors further exacerbate vulnerability, including the failure to use personal protective equipment (PPE), which occurs in nearly 60% of workplace eye injuries, and alcohol involvement, implicated in about 48% of assault-related cases leading to penetrating ocular trauma.^[142]^[143] Socioeconomic disparities amplify these risks, with individuals from low-income backgrounds facing higher incidence rates—up to twice that of higher-income groups—owing to limited access to safety measures and higher exposure to hazardous environments.^[144] In the elderly, bone fragility contributes to elevated risk of orbital fractures, which comprise a higher proportion of isolated floor fractures in this population compared to younger groups, often from low-impact falls.^[145]

Prevention

Protective Measures

Protective eyewear, such as safety goggles compliant with ANSI Z87.1 standards, significantly reduces the risk of eye injuries in occupational and sports settings by up to 90%. These standards ensure that eyewear withstands high-velocity impacts, penetration, and hazardous splashes, making them essential for environments involving flying particles, chemicals, or projectiles. For instance, in industries with high occupational risks like construction or manufacturing, such gear prevents most preventable injuries when worn consistently. Similarly, athletes in sports like basketball or racquetball benefit from polycarbonate-based protective eyewear that meets these criteria, offering robust defense without compromising peripheral vision. UV-blocking sunglasses provide critical protection against radiation-induced eye damage by filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Eyewear labeled as blocking 100% of UVA and UVB rays—often indicated by "UV400" certification—helps prevent conditions such as photokeratitis, cataracts, and macular degeneration from prolonged sun exposure. These sunglasses are recommended for everyday outdoor activities, where cumulative UV exposure can lead to long-term harm, and should feature wraparound designs to minimize side exposure. Incorporating daily habits further safeguards eyes from common household hazards. Childproofing toys involves selecting age-appropriate items without sharp edges, projectiles, or small parts that could cause punctures or impacts, and supervising play to avoid misuse. Secure storage of household chemicals, such as cleaners and bleaches, in locked cabinets out of children's reach prevents accidental splashes that account for thousands of annual eye injuries. For cycling, helmets equipped with visors shield eyes from wind, debris, and low-angle sunlight, enhancing overall safety during rides. For water sports like swimming or boating, polarized lenses are recommended to mitigate UV reflection injuries from water surfaces, as advised by the American Academy of Ophthalmology.^[146] These lenses reduce glare that can cause temporary blindness or exacerbate UV damage, while still providing full UV blockage when combined with appropriate tints.

Public Health Strategies

Public health strategies for reducing eye injuries encompass multifaceted approaches, including education, policy implementation, surveillance systems, and community-based training programs. These initiatives aim to address population-level risks through awareness, regulatory enforcement, and data-driven interventions, ultimately lowering incidence rates across diverse settings. Educational efforts form a cornerstone of prevention, targeting both youth and adults in high-risk environments. School-based programs, such as the Star Pupils Eye Health and Safety Curriculum developed by Prevent Blindness, integrate age-appropriate lessons on vision protection into K-12 education, teaching students about hazards like sports impacts and chemical exposures to foster lifelong safety habits.^[147] In workplaces, mandatory training under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards requires employers to educate workers on eye hazards and proper protective equipment use; compliance with these mandates has contributed to a 15.6% decline in reported eye-related injuries from 2019 to 2020, reflecting broader reductions in occupational incidents over time.^[140]^[148] Policy measures reinforce education by enforcing protective standards and restricting dangerous activities. Legislation like OSHA's 29 CFR 1910.133 mandates personal protective equipment (PPE) for eye hazards in industries such as manufacturing and construction, ensuring employers provide and maintain appropriate eyewear to mitigate risks from flying particles and chemicals.^[148] Bans on consumer fireworks in certain jurisdictions have also proven effective; for instance, areas with local restrictions show lower odds of firework-related ocular trauma compared to those allowing sales, as evidenced by a case-control study in Washington state.^[149] Globally, the World Health Organization's Vision 2020: The Right to Sight initiative promotes integrated policies to eliminate avoidable blindness, including eye injury prevention through advocacy for safer practices in developing regions.^[11] Surveillance systems enable targeted interventions by tracking injury patterns. Registries like the United States Eye Injury Registry (USEIR), established in 1988, collect data on mechanisms and outcomes of ocular trauma to inform public health responses, such as prioritizing high-risk activities in prevention campaigns.^[150] Similarly, the Canadian Eye Injury Registry monitors national incidents to guide policy and resource allocation.^[151] These tools support data-driven strategies, including community first-aid training programs offered by organizations like the American Red Cross, which teach recognition and initial response to eye emergencies, such as chemical splashes or foreign body intrusions, to minimize long-term damage.^[152] Following the 2020 pandemic, telehealth has enhanced these strategies by expanding access to eye safety education. Virtual platforms have facilitated remote training on protective measures, contributing to improved adherence; studies indicate that teleophthalmology utilization surged during COVID-19 restrictions, enabling sustained education and follow-up that bolstered overall compliance with safety protocols.^[153]

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Risk Factors for Endophthalmitis Following Open Globe Injuries - NIH
May 18, 2021 · The reported rate of endophthalmitis following OGI varies from 0.9% to 17%. The most commonly isolated organisms from cases of post-traumatic ...
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Risk Factors for Post–Open-Globe Injury Endophthalmitis - PMC - NIH
Traumatic cataract, hypopyon, vitreous inflammation, corneal ulcer, keratitis, retinal detachment, IOFB, and diabetes increased the risk of post-open-globe ...
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Orbital Cellulitis - EyeWiki
Oct 19, 2025 · Orbital cellulitis most commonly refers to an acute spread of infection into the eye socket due to extension from periorbital structures (most ...
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Orbital cellulitis: a rare complication after orbital blowout fracture
Orbital cellulitis is a rare complication of orbital fracture, and seems to be more common when paranasal sinus infection preexists or occurs within several ...
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Subconjunctival hemorrhage (broken blood vessel in eye)
The main sign of a subconjunctival hemorrhage is a bright red patch on the white part of the eye. A subconjunctival hemorrhage looks worse than it actually is.Overview · When to see a doctor
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Subconjunctival Hemorrhage - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sep 15, 2025 · Traumatic SCH occurs when mechanical stress disrupts the integrity of superficial conjunctival capillaries. Even minor forces, including ...
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Angle Recession Glaucoma - EyeWiki
Sep 23, 2025 · Angle recession glaucoma (ARG) is a secondary open angle glaucoma that is associated with ocular trauma. Recession of the anterior chamber ...Disease Entity · Risk Factors · Diagnosis · Physical Examination
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How to Diagnose and Treat Angle-Recession Glaucoma
Oct 1, 2010 · Angle recession is reported to occur in 20 to 94 percent of eyes after blunt trauma and is often masked initially due to the presence of ...
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Sympathetic Ophthalmia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sympathetic ophthalmia is an uncommon, systemic uveitis that develops as a granulomatous inflammation in both eyes after an injury or invasive procedure.Introduction · Etiology · Epidemiology · Pathophysiology
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Update on Sympathetic Ophthalmia - PMC - NIH
The incidence of SO ranges from 0.2 to 0.5% after penetrating ocular injuries and 0.01% after intraocular surgery.
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The Risk of Sympathetic Ophthalmia Associated with Open-Globe ...
Dec 10, 2023 · Based on the available data, no evidence exists that primary enucleation or primary evisceration reduce the risk of secondary SO.
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Trauma: Visual Rehabilitation - American Academy of Ophthalmology
Nov 4, 2015 · Management after ocular trauma in children is often challenging due to difficulty in assessment, extensive postoperative inflammation, ...Missing: fibrosis | Show results with:fibrosis<|separator|>
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Fibrosis and diseases of the eye - PMC - PubMed Central
Mar 1, 2007 · For example, fibrosis of the cornea can occur after a viral infection, leading to corneal opacification and thereby loss of vision. In the ...Missing: term | Show results with:term
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Traumatic Glaucoma - EyeWiki
Traumatic glaucoma is a type of secondary glaucoma that develops following blunt or penetrating ocular trauma. This subtype of glaucoma usually entails ...
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Causes and Outcomes of Patients Presenting with Diplopia
The most common cause for binocular diplopia was vasculopathy in 43 (28.66%) followed by trauma in 37 (24.66%). In those less than 20 years decompensating ...
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38086434/
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Open Globe Injuries: Classifications and Prognostic Factors for ... - NIH
In our analysis, patients with open globe injuries affecting the posterior segment had a significantly worse CDVA outcome than patients suffering from injuries ...
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Explosive eye injuries: characteristics, traumatic mechanisms, and ...
Jan 12, 2023 · Explosion ocular trauma has complex mechanisms, with multiple eyes involved and poor prognosis. In lethal level I explosion injuries, eyeball ...
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https://eyewiki.org/Traumatic_Glaucoma
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Corneal Abrasion: Healing Time, Treatment, Causes, and More
Feb 3, 2025 · Most small corneal abrasions heal on their own in a few days and feel better in 24-48 hours. The cells in that part of your eye multiply very quickly.
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How Long Does It Take a Fractured Orbital Socket to Heal?
Jun 23, 2025 · Generally, many orbital fractures heal within four to eight weeks. However, more complex injuries may take two to three months to heal. More ...
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Life After Retinal Detachment Surgery - Dean McGee Eye Institute
Jan 20, 2023 · Although it is an in-office procedure, a full recovery for a scleral buckle usually takes two to four weeks. Pain can linger for several days ...<|separator|>
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Eye movement training and gaze analysis for a patient with ... - NIH
Patients with traumatic brain injury often develop sequelae such as eye movement disorders, including diplopia. Eye movement training is effective in diplopia ...
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Low Vision Aids - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Aug 14, 2023 · Low vision aids (LVA) are devices intended to improve visual performance in patients with low vision. These devices improve academic, social, and skilled ...
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How Occupational Therapy Can Improve Life With Low Vision
Aug 26, 2022 · Occupational therapy offers tools, techniques, and treatments to help people with low vision navigate their daily lives and environments with greater ease, ...
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[PDF] Traumatic Glaucoma - University of Michigan
Traumatic glaucoma can occur soon after the injury or many years later. Blunt injuries that bruise the eye or injuries that cause bleeding inside the eye can ...Missing: screening | Show results with:screening
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Emotional recovery after ocular trauma: is there more than meets the ...
Jan 9, 2021 · They can screen for adjustment difficulties, make appropriate referrals, and connect patients and families to mental health resources.
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Virtual reality and augmented reality in ophthalmology: A recent ...
Oct 9, 2025 · Virtual reality enables precise, independent visual input to each eye, making it a valuable tool for diagnosing and treating binocular vision ...
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Traumatic Cataract Surgery - EyeWiki
Oct 3, 2025 · Postoperative Management As with non-traumatic cataract surgery, most surgeons perform follow-up examinations on post-operative day 1, week 1, ...
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Average Annual Rate of Eye-Related Emergency Department Visits ...
May 10, 2013 · During 2007–2010, an average of 2.4 million eye-related visits were made to emergency departments (EDs) each year.
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Epidemiology and etiology of chemical ocular injury: A brief review
Feb 26, 2023 · Ocular chemical injuries account for 10.7%–34.7% of all chemical burn injuries. Also, 0.1%–15.5% of all ocular traumas among hospitalized adults ...
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Epidemiology of Sports-Related Eye Injuries in the United States
Nov 3, 2016 · The proportion of injuries resulting in impaired vision was highest for those injuries associated with paintball (10.2%), shooting an air gun ( ...
[132]
Digital Eye Strain- A Comprehensive Review - PMC - NIH
Digital eye strain (DES) is an entity encompassing visual and ocular symptoms arising due to the prolonged use of digital electronic devices.
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Causes and Visual Outcomes of Perforating Ocular Injuries among ...
Males greatly outnumber females as victims of eye injuries with a male to female ratio ranging from 3:1 to 12:1, and the greatest number of eye injuries ...
[134]
Statistical Brief #112 - HCUP
Each year more than 2.5 million eye injuries occur and 50,000 people permanently lose part or all of their vision.1 Nearly half (44.1 percent) of the injuries ...
[135]
Workers suffered 18510 eye-related injuries and illnesses in 2020
Mar 31, 2023 · The number of cases decreased 15.6 percent from 2019, while the 2020 incidence rate was down 10.5 percent from the previous year. Contact with ...Missing: mechanical traumatic
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Eye Trauma in Mixed Martial Arts and Boxing - PubMed - NIH
Sep 1, 2023 · Boxing had higher eye injury rates compared to MMA ( p < 0.0001), with an odds ratio of 1.268 (95% CI, 1.114-1.444). Eye trauma represented ...
[137]
Protecting your eyes at work | AOA - American Optometric Association
A Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of workers who suffered eye injuries revealed that nearly three out of five were not wearing eye protection at the time of ...
[138]
Penetrating Eye Injuries Related to Assault - JAMA Network
39 years old, and 83% were male. Alcohol use by the injured person was reported in at least 313 (48.3%) of the assaults ...
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Role of Socioeconomic Status (SES) in Globe Injuries: A Review
Jan 5, 2022 · The incidence of ocular trauma tends to be higher in patients of lower SES, meaning of lower education, occupation and income status.
[140]
Orbital Trauma Epidemiologic Characteristics by Life Stage - PMC
Aug 17, 2024 · Orbital fractures were the most common type of injury across all age groups (40.6%), with the highest rate observed in working adults. Elderly ...
[141]
Star Pupils Eye Health and Safety Curriculum - Prevent Blindness
The Star Pupils Eye Health and Safety Curriculum teaches young learners about vision, eye health and safety. K-2. Grades 3-5, and Grades 6-8 curricula are.
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https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/caring-for-your-eyes/protecting-your-vision
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Local Firework Restrictions and Ocular Trauma - PubMed
Jan 1, 2024 · This case-control study suggests that the odds of firework-related ocular trauma were slightly higher among residents of areas where fireworks were legal.
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Study Details | NCT01490593 | Canadian Eye Injury Registry
The purpose of this study is to establish an eye injury registry to assess the mechanisms and outcomes of significant eye injuries occurring in Canada. The ...
[145]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11562991/
[146]
Telehealth-based Eye Care During the COVID-19 Pandemic
May 1, 2021 · Abstract. Purpose. To assess the initial utilization, safety, and patient experience with tele-ophthalmology during the COVID-19 pandemic.