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Vitrectomy

Vitrectomy is a microsurgical procedure in which an ophthalmologist removes some or all of the vitreous humor—the clear, gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina in the eye—to address disorders affecting the retina or vitreous itself.^[1] This surgery provides access to the posterior segment of the eye, allowing the surgeon to repair damage, remove scar tissue, or alleviate traction on the retina.^[2] Commonly performed on an outpatient basis under local or general anesthesia, vitrectomy involves small incisions in the sclera, typically through the pars plana region, to insert specialized instruments that cut and aspirate the vitreous while infusing a balanced salt solution to maintain eye pressure.^[3] The procedure is most frequently indicated for conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, where vitreous hemorrhage or tractional abnormalities obscure vision or threaten the retina; retinal detachment, in which the vitreous is removed along with any fibrovascular tissue pulling on the retina; macular holes or epiretinal membranes that distort central vision; and severe vitreous opacities like floaters or infections.^[1]^[4] During surgery, additional interventions may include laser photocoagulation or cryotherapy to seal retinal tears, membrane peeling to relieve traction, and injection of a gas bubble, silicone oil, or air to tamponade the retina and promote reattachment.^[3] Modern techniques often employ microincision vitrectomy surgery (MIVS) with 23-, 25-, or 27-gauge instruments, minimizing trauma and enabling sutureless closure for faster recovery.^[2] While vitrectomy has significantly improved outcomes for complex vitreoretinal diseases—restoring or preserving vision in many cases—it carries potential risks including infection, bleeding, increased intraocular pressure, cataract formation (common in phakic eyes, especially those over 50), recurrent retinal detachment, and rare vision loss.^[1] Recovery typically spans 2 to 6 weeks, with patients advised to avoid strenuous activity, wear an eye shield, and position their head face-down if a gas bubble is used to ensure proper retinal positioning.^[3] Postoperative care involves antibiotic and anti-inflammatory eye drops, frequent follow-up examinations, and monitoring for complications, with most individuals experiencing gradual improvement in visual acuity.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

Vitrectomy is a microsurgical procedure that involves the removal of the vitreous humor, the transparent, gel-like substance filling the posterior segment of the eye, to address various vitreoretinal conditions.^[5] The vitreous humor consists primarily of water (approximately 99%), with a structural framework provided by type II collagen fibrils and hyaluronic acid, which together form a viscoelastic gel that helps maintain the eye's spherical shape, supports optical clarity, and cushions the retina.^[6]^[7] This avascular, acellular matrix occupies about four-fifths of the eye's volume, extending from the lens to the retina and optic nerve.^[7] The primary purpose of vitrectomy is to restore or improve visual function by eliminating pathological elements within the vitreous that impair light transmission or exert mechanical stress on retinal structures.^[1] Common therapeutic goals include clearing vitreous opacities, such as hemorrhage or inflammatory debris, relieving tractional forces that can lead to retinal distortion or tears, and enabling interventions for retinal reattachment in conditions like proliferative diabetic retinopathy or rhegmatogenous detachment.^[5] By excising diseased vitreous tissue, the procedure creates a clearer optical pathway and reduces the risk of further retinal damage, often resulting in enhanced visual acuity and quality of life for affected patients.^[1] Following removal, the vitreous cavity is typically filled with a temporary substitute—such as balanced salt solution for immediate support, intravitreal gas for tamponade during retinal repair, or silicone oil for longer-term stabilization—to preserve intraocular pressure and facilitate healing.^[2] Unlike phacoemulsification, a cataract surgery method that uses ultrasonic energy to emulsify and aspirate the opaque crystalline lens in the anterior segment, vitrectomy is directed at the posterior segment to manage disorders involving the vitreous and retina.^[1]^[8]

Historical Development

The earliest attempts at vitreous surgery date back to the 17th century, when Dutch anatomist Anton Nuck performed the first recorded removal of vitreous humor in cases of hydrophthalmia (congenital glaucoma) to reduce intraocular pressure, though these were limited to experimental procedures on animal models and did not achieve clinical success in humans.^[9] In the 19th century, American surgeon John Collins Warren conducted one of the first human trials of vitrectomy in the 1840s, attempting to remove dislocated crystalline lenses and vitreous opacities, but outcomes were poor due to rampant postoperative infections and lack of sterile techniques, leading to high rates of endophthalmitis and vision loss.^[9] These pioneering efforts, including pars plana incisions by Albrecht von Graefe in 1863 to cut vitreous membranes in hemorrhagic or detached retinas, laid rudimentary groundwork but were constrained by inadequate visualization tools like the ophthalmoscope introduced by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1851.^[10]^[9] Advancements accelerated in the mid-20th century amid growing interest in vitreoretinal surgery for conditions like vitreous hemorrhage and retinal detachment. In the 1950s and 1960s, open-sky techniques emerged, with Tsugio Dodo using scissors for vitreous removal in 1955 and David Kasner refining cellulose sponge vitrectomy in 1965 to address vitreous loss during cataract surgery, though these methods risked corneal exposure and contamination.^[10] The pivotal breakthrough came in 1970 when Robert Machemer, with contributions from Jean-Marie Parel and others, invented the pars plana vitrectomy using a 17-gauge multifunctional cutter, fiberoptic illumination, and a closed-eye system to minimize infection risks, marking the birth of modern vitreoretinal subspecialty and enabling safer posterior segment access.^[11] This innovation was quickly advanced in 1971 by Gholam Peyman with the Vitrophage instrument incorporating a three-mirror lens for better retinal visualization.^[10] The 1970s saw further refinement with the introduction of the three-port, 20-gauge system in 1972 by Conor O'Malley and Ralph Heinz, utilizing the Ocutome console for separate infusion, aspiration, and illumination ports, which improved surgical control and efficiency.^[11] By 1983, Steve Charles and Carl Wang developed the first disposable, single-pulse vitreous cutter, enhancing cutting precision and reducing tissue trauma.^[10] The 2000s ushered in microincision vitrectomy surgery (MIVS), with Eugene de Juan pioneering sutureless 25-gauge transconjunctival vitrectomy in 2002 for less invasive procedures, followed by 23-gauge systems from Claus Eckardt in 2005 and 27-gauge by Yusuke Oshima in 2010, allowing smaller incisions, faster recovery, and fewer complications like astigmatism.^[11]^[10] Post-2000 milestones included the widespread adoption of wide-angle viewing systems, such as the BIOM (binocular indirect ophthalmo-microscope) introduced by Oculus in 1987 but popularized around 2005 for panoramic fundus visualization up to 130 degrees, and chandelier endoillumination systems enabling bimanual surgery without assistant-held lights.^[12]^[13] Recent developments since 2021 have integrated intraoperative optical coherence tomography (iOCT) for real-time tissue imaging during vitrectomy, with 2023 studies demonstrating improved decision-making in macular hole repairs and epiretinal membrane peels by providing micron-level depth perception and reducing incomplete surgeries.^[14] Additionally, AI-assisted planning has emerged, as shown in 2023 research using machine learning to analyze preoperative images for personalized surgical strategies in vitreoretinal cases, predicting outcomes and optimizing instrument trajectories to enhance precision.^[15]^[16] As of 2025, further innovations include robotic assistance for enhanced precision in vitreoretinal procedures, high-speed vitrectomy cutters reaching 25,000 cuts per minute with beveled tips for improved efficiency, and advanced dual-blade systems enabling continuous aspiration and flow, alongside expanded applications of iOCT in complex cases.^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]

Indications

Primary Indications

Vitrectomy, specifically pars plana vitrectomy (PPV), serves as the standard surgical intervention for several sight-threatening vitreoretinal conditions where the vitreous body's involvement exacerbates pathology. Primary indications encompass scenarios in which vitreous opacification, traction, or hemorrhage impairs retinal visualization or function, necessitating removal to restore anatomical integrity and visual acuity. These indications are guided by clinical evidence from large-scale studies and expert consensus, focusing on cases unresponsive to conservative management. Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RRD), characterized by retinal tears allowing subretinal fluid accumulation, is a core indication for PPV, particularly when posterior vitreous detachment contributes to tear formation or when multiple breaks or proliferative vitreoretinopathy complicates repair. Tractional retinal detachment (TRD), often driven by fibrovascular proliferation pulling on the retina, also warrants PPV to relieve vitreous adhesions and reattach the retina, especially in cases involving the macula. While exudative detachments are typically managed medically, PPV may be indicated if vitreous traction secondary to underlying inflammation or neoplasm plays a contributory role.^[2]^[22] In proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), PPV is indicated for persistent vitreous hemorrhage obscuring the fundus view beyond 4-6 weeks despite laser therapy, or for TRD threatening the macula due to neovascular traction. These interventions aim to clear hemorrhage and dissect preretinal membranes, with studies showing favorable anatomical success rates in advanced PDR stages. Macular disorders such as epiretinal membrane (macular pucker), a fibrocellular proliferation on the retinal surface causing distortion, and full-thickness macular holes, idiopathic or traction-induced defects in the fovea, represent key indications where PPV facilitates membrane peeling and hole closure to alleviate metamorphopsia and improve central vision.^[22]^[2] Non-clearing vitreous hemorrhage from diverse etiologies, including ocular trauma, retinal vein occlusion, or intraocular tumors, is another primary indication for PPV when bleeding persists for over one month and impedes retinal assessment or causes significant visual impairment. In the United States, these primary indications account for over 225,000 PPV procedures annually, reflecting the high burden of vitreoretinal diseases in aging and diabetic populations.^[23]^[24] Recent advancements recognize PPV for severe symptomatic vitreous syneresis, particularly in highly myopic patients experiencing vision-degrading myodesopsia (VDM) from dense floaters that substantially reduce contrast sensitivity and quality of life; recent studies and clinical discussions support this for cases refractory to observation, emphasizing patient-reported symptom severity in selection.^[25]^[26]

Patient Selection Criteria

Patient selection for vitrectomy involves a comprehensive assessment of clinical factors to determine suitability, weighing potential benefits against risks, particularly in conditions like proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) or retinal detachment. Key evaluation factors include baseline visual acuity, which guides prognosis; for instance, eyes with useful vision (e.g., better than light perception) in severe PDR show improved outcomes with early intervention, as demonstrated by the Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study (DRVS) where 25% of early vitrectomy patients achieved 20/40 or better vision at two years compared to 15% in deferred cases.^[27] Duration of symptoms is also critical; in type 1 diabetes patients with severe vitreous hemorrhage, vitrectomy within 1-6 months reduces severe visual loss risk, whereas type 2 diabetes patients may not benefit as significantly from early surgery.^[27] Comorbidities, such as uncontrolled diabetes, hypertension, renal disease, or cardiovascular conditions, elevate perioperative risks, including higher long-term mortality (up to 48.7% over 10 years in diabetic tractional retinal detachment cases) and postoperative complications like recurrent hemorrhage.^[27]^[28]^[29] There are no absolute contraindications to pars plana vitrectomy (PPV), but relative contraindications include eyes with no light perception vision, indicating minimal visual potential (e.g., due to optic atrophy), where surgery offers little benefit and carries undue risk.^[5]^[30] Poor general health precluding safe anesthesia, such as severe cardiopulmonary disease, also weighs against proceeding, as systemic comorbidities can amplify intraoperative and postoperative risks.^[5] In cases of poorly adhesive intraocular tumors like retinoblastoma, vitrectomy risks dissemination and is relatively contraindicated.^[5] Preoperative imaging and tests are essential for planning and confirming suitability. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) evaluates macular status, vitreoretinal interface, and potential for anatomical restoration in conditions like tractional detachment or macular holes.^[27]^[31] Fundus photography documents retinal lesions, vascular abnormalities, and baseline findings for postoperative comparison.^[31] B-scan ultrasound is particularly valuable when media opacities (e.g., vitreous hemorrhage) obscure visualization, assessing detachment extent, vitreous adhesions, and posterior structures.^[27]^[31] For hereditary vitreoretinopathies, such as familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR), genetic testing is recommended if clinical suspicion arises (e.g., peripheral avascular retina), to confirm diagnosis and inform surgical timing, as variants in genes like LRP5 or FZD4 influence progression and intervention needs.^[32]^[33] Shared decision-making is integral, involving discussion of vitrectomy benefits (e.g., vision stabilization in PDR) against risks (e.g., endophthalmitis, retinal detachment) and alternatives like observation, laser therapy, or anti-VEGF injections for less severe cases, ensuring alignment with patient values and preferences. Emerging options, such as low-dose atropine eye drops (as of 2025), may provide symptomatic relief for floaters and influence decisions for surgical intervention in select cases.^[27]^[34]^[35] This process, emphasized in AAO guidelines, particularly aids in elective scenarios where outcomes vary by individual factors.^[36]

Preoperative Preparation

Patient Evaluation

Patient evaluation prior to vitrectomy involves a multifaceted assessment to determine the suitability of the procedure, identify potential risks, and optimize outcomes. This process begins with a comprehensive ophthalmic examination, which includes visual acuity testing, slit-lamp biomicroscopy to evaluate the anterior and posterior segments, fundus examination for retinal pathology, and intraocular pressure measurement. Tonometry and indirect ophthalmoscopy are essential to assess the extent of vitreoretinal disease, such as retinal detachment or vitreous hemorrhage, ensuring that the underlying condition warrants surgical intervention. Gonioscopy is routinely performed to examine the anterior chamber angle, particularly in cases of proliferative diabetic retinopathy or trauma, to rule out neovascularization or angle abnormalities that could complicate surgery. If vitrectomy is combined with cataract extraction or intraocular lens (IOL) implantation, biometry using optical or ultrasound methods is conducted to calculate the appropriate IOL power, minimizing postoperative refractive errors. Advanced imaging modalities, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT), provide detailed cross-sectional views of the retina and vitreous, aiding in precise preoperative planning; for instance, wide-field OCT can delineate macular involvement in epiretinal membranes. Evaluations follow guidelines from organizations like the American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO), ensuring comprehensive assessment.^[2] Systemic evaluation is equally critical to ensure patient stability under anesthesia and surgery. This includes a complete medical history review, focusing on cardiovascular, pulmonary, and hematologic conditions, followed by laboratory tests such as complete blood count, coagulation profile, and blood glucose levels to screen for anemia, bleeding disorders, or uncontrolled diabetes. Cardiac clearance, often via electrocardiogram or consultation with a cardiologist, is recommended for patients with known heart disease, while infection screening—such as hepatitis and HIV serology—helps prevent perioperative complications. In elderly patients or those with comorbidities, pulmonary function tests may be indicated to assess respiratory risks. The informed consent process is a cornerstone of patient evaluation, where the surgeon discusses the procedure's indications, expected benefits, potential risks (including infection, retinal tears, and cataract formation), and alternatives such as observation or laser therapy. This conversation is documented, with emphasis on realistic outcomes based on the patient's specific pathology, and is tailored to address patient concerns for shared decision-making. Timing of evaluation varies by condition urgency; for progressive retinal detachments, assessment is expedited within hours to days to preserve vision, whereas chronic conditions like macular holes allow for elective scheduling over weeks. Recent advancements enhance preoperative precision. AI predictive modeling, leveraging machine learning on retinal scans, has emerged in research from 2023 to 2025 to forecast postoperative visual outcomes and complication risks, with models achieving accuracies around 80-85% in predicting success for conditions like retinal detachment repair.^[37]

Anesthesia and Preparation

Vitrectomy procedures typically employ local anesthesia as the primary method for adult patients, with options including retrobulbar, peribulbar, and sub-Tenon's blocks to achieve analgesia and akinesia while minimizing systemic risks. Retrobulbar anesthesia involves an intraconal injection of 4-5 mL of anesthetic, providing rapid onset but carrying a risk of globe perforation (approximately 0.9 per 10,000 cases). Peribulbar blocks use extraconal injections of 5-10 mL, offering a slower onset and lower perforation risk (about 1 per 16,000 cases) but potentially causing chemosis. Sub-Tenon's anesthesia, administered into the subconjunctival space, is increasingly preferred in recent practices (2023-2025) for its safer profile, reduced risk of perforation, and comparable analgesia to peribulbar methods, though it may provide less complete akinesia. Local approaches reduce postoperative nausea and shorten recovery compared to general anesthesia, which is reserved for pediatric patients, uncooperative adults, or complex cases requiring absolute immobility.^[38]^[39]^[40] Sedation is often supplemented with monitored anesthesia care (MAC) using intravenous agents like propofol for anxious patients undergoing local blocks, allowing patient communication while avoiding full general anesthesia. For minimally invasive vitrectomies, such as those using 23- or 25-gauge systems, topical or intracameral anesthesia (e.g., lidocaine) may suffice, offering simplicity but limited duration for longer procedures. General anesthesia, involving agents like sevoflurane, ensures controlled unconsciousness but increases costs, recovery time, and risks of intraocular pressure spikes.^[39]^[38] Preoperative preparation begins with pupil dilation using mydriatic drops (e.g., tropicamide and phenylephrine) to facilitate surgical access, typically administered 30-60 minutes prior. Antibiotic prophylaxis involves topical application of povidone-iodine 5% to the ocular surface, with systemic antibiotics generally avoided in routine cases to prevent resistance. The patient is positioned supine with head stabilization, the operative eye cleaned with antiseptic, and sterile draping applied to maintain a sterile field; an eyelid speculum keeps the eye open. Intraoperative monitoring includes continuous vital signs (e.g., pulse oximetry, ECG, blood pressure) and intraocular pressure tracking to manage fluctuations, which can reach 120 mm Hg during vitrectomy. Procedures last 1-3 hours depending on complexity.^[5]^[41]^[42]

Surgical Procedure

Types of Vitrectomy

Vitrectomy procedures are categorized primarily by their surgical access and the extent of vitreous removal, ranging from limited anterior interventions to comprehensive posterior segment approaches. These variations allow tailored treatment for specific vitreoretinal pathologies, balancing invasiveness with efficacy.^[5] Anterior vitrectomy involves the limited removal of vitreous humor from the anterior chamber and anterior vitreous, typically accessed through a pars plana incision. It is primarily indicated following complications during cataract surgery, such as posterior capsule rupture leading to vitreous prolapse or dropped lens fragments, to prevent traction on the retina and reduce the risk of cystoid macular edema. This technique focuses on clearing vitreous strands from the anterior segment without extensive posterior involvement, preserving the integrity of the posterior vitreous face.^[5]^[43] The standard procedure for posterior segment disorders is pars plana vitrectomy (PPV), which provides access to the vitreous cavity and retina through small scleral ports placed at the pars plana, approximately 3-4 mm posterior to the limbus. Developed by Robert Machemer in 1971 as a closed-system technique, PPV enables the removal of vitreous opacities, relief of traction, and repair of retinal issues like detachments, macular holes, and vitreous hemorrhages. It typically employs a three-port system for infusion, illumination, and vitreoretinal instruments, making it the cornerstone for most vitreoretinal surgeries.^[2]^[5] Minimally invasive vitrectomy surgery (MIVS) represents advanced variants of PPV using smaller gauge instruments—23-gauge (0.64 mm incision), 25-gauge (0.51 mm), and 27-gauge (0.4 mm)—to create self-sealing, sutureless sclerotomies. Introduced starting in 2002 with 25-gauge systems and advancing post-2005, these systems reduce conjunctival dissection, minimize postoperative astigmatism (e.g., by up to 0.5 diopters less than 20-gauge), and shorten recovery time through decreased inflammation and faster wound healing. They are particularly suited for less complex cases like epiretinal membranes or macular holes, offering comparable anatomical success rates to traditional methods while enhancing patient comfort.^[44]^[5] Combined procedures integrate PPV with other interventions to address multifocal pathology in a single session. PPV combined with phacoemulsification and intraocular lens implantation is common in phakic patients with rhegmatous retinal detachment, improving peripheral visualization for complete vitreous removal and achieving anatomical repair rates around 93%. Similarly, PPV with scleral buckling applies external indentation to relieve vitreoretinal traction in high-risk detachments, particularly inferior breaks, reducing recurrence risk without significantly increasing complications. These combinations optimize outcomes by tackling coexisting anterior and posterior issues concurrently.^[45]^[5] The evolution of vitrectomy has progressed from the original 20-gauge sutured system, which dominated until the early 2000s, to smaller-gauge sutureless techniques emerging starting in 2002. The 25-gauge system, introduced in 2002, pioneered transconjunctival sutureless vitrectomy, followed by the 23-gauge system in 2005, which bridged the gap by balancing rigidity and minimal invasiveness, and the 27-gauge system around 2010, driven by improvements in cutter speeds and fluidics. This shift has minimized surgical trauma, with sutureless approaches now standard for over 80% of cases, leading to reduced operative times and lower rates of endophthalmitis.^[44]^[2] As of 2025, robotic-assisted PPV is an emerging trend enhancing precision in vitreoretinal surgery, with systems like the PRECEYES Surgical System achieving sub-10-micrometer accuracy for tasks such as internal limiting membrane peeling. These platforms, approved in regions like the EU since 2019, enable tremor-free bimanual operations and have demonstrated safety in clinical trials for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ongoing advancements include first-in-human trials of systems like the Luca robotic platform as of mid-2025, potentially reducing intraoperative complications and expanding access for complex cases.^[17]^[46]

Instruments and Techniques

Vitrectomy relies on specialized instruments designed for minimally invasive access to the vitreous cavity, typically through small-gauge (23-, 25-, or 27-gauge) sclerotomy ports to reduce trauma and enhance recovery.^[2] The core instrument is the vitreous cutter, a guillotine-style probe that simultaneously cuts and aspirates vitreous gel, operating at cut rates of 500 to 6,000 cuts per minute depending on the gauge and system, allowing precise removal without excessive traction on retinal structures.^[13] Complementary tools include the endoilluminator, a fiberoptic light pipe inserted via a separate port to provide intraoperative illumination of the posterior segment, and the infusion cannula, which maintains intraocular pressure by delivering balanced salt solution throughout the procedure.^[2] Advanced instruments expand surgical capabilities for complex maneuvers. Chandelier lights offer hands-free illumination by securing a fiberoptic source to the sclera, freeing both surgeon hands for instrumentation and improving maneuverability during membrane peeling or peripheral work.^[47] Microforceps and microscissors, available in fine-tipped designs compatible with small-gauge systems, enable delicate delamination and excision of epiretinal or internal limiting membranes.^[2] Laser probes facilitate endolaser photocoagulation for treating retinal breaks or neovascularization directly within the vitreous cavity, integrating with the vitrectomy system for targeted energy delivery.^[2] Key techniques optimize vitreous removal and cavity management. Core vitrectomy involves bulk aspiration of central vitreous gel using the cutter to debulk the vitreous body and gain access to posterior pathology.^[48] Peripheral shaving employs scleral depression and the cutter to meticulously remove residual vitreous skirt at the base, minimizing traction and reducing recurrence risk in conditions like retinal detachment.^[49] Air-fluid exchange is performed via extrusion cannulas to replace vitreous cavity fluids with air or gas tamponades, aiding in fluid management, subretinal drainage, and bubble positioning for retinal reattachment.^[2] Visualization systems are integral for wide-field assessment during surgery. Contact lens systems, such as indirect aspheric lenses, provide a fixed field of view up to 120 degrees when placed on the cornea, offering high-resolution central and peripheral imaging.^[50] Non-contact viewing systems, mounted on the surgical microscope, enable adjustable wide-angle observation without corneal distortion, allowing dynamic eye movement and reduced astigmatism induction.^[51] Recent innovations from 2023 to 2025 have enhanced precision and ergonomics. Three-dimensional heads-up surgery systems project a stereoscopic image onto a high-definition display, reducing reliance on eyepieces, minimizing surgeon fatigue, and providing stable illumination with lower phototoxicity risk compared to traditional microscopy.^[52] These systems integrate with existing vitrectomy platforms for comparable anatomical outcomes in retinal procedures.^[53]

Step-by-Step Execution

The pars plana vitrectomy (PPV) procedure begins with the creation of three sclerotomies in the pars plana region, typically 3.5 to 4 mm posterior to the limbus in phakic eyes or 3 mm in pseudophakic eyes, to establish access ports for infusion, illumination, and the vitrectomy cutter.^[2]^[5] These ports are created using a 23-, 25-, or 27-gauge trocar-cannula system, with the infusion port placed inferotemporally to maintain intraocular pressure, the light port superotemporally for chandelier illumination, and the instrument port superonasally for the cutter.^[2]^[5] Following port placement, core vitrectomy is performed to remove the central vitreous gel, using a high-speed vitrectomy probe that combines cutting and aspiration functions, typically set at 2,500 to 5,000 cuts per minute to minimize traction on surrounding tissues.^[2]^[5] Triamcinolone acetonide may be injected to enhance visualization of the vitreous, particularly in cases of hemorrhage or incomplete opacification.^[2] Next, separation of the posterior hyaloid membrane is induced if it remains adherent, often by applying aspiration over the optic disc with the cutter in a non-cutting mode, followed by gentle elevation and removal to relieve vitreoretinal traction.^[2]^[5] Adjunctive steps are then tailored to the underlying pathology, including membrane peeling with microforceps and vital dyes such as brilliant blue G to remove epiretinal or internal limiting membranes, endolaser photocoagulation to seal retinal breaks, and tamponade with expansile gas (e.g., sulfur hexafluoride or perfluoropropane) or silicone oil to support retinal reattachment.^[2]^[5] In contemporary protocols, intraoperative optical coherence tomography (iOCT) is integrated to provide real-time imaging of retinal layers, guiding precise adjustments such as confirming complete membrane removal or identifying subtle traction during peeling, thereby enhancing surgical accuracy without additional dyes in select cases.^[54] The procedure concludes with removal of the trocars and closure of sclerotomies; smaller-gauge systems (25- or 27-gauge) often seal spontaneously due to self-sealing properties, while larger 20-gauge ports may require sutures with 8-0 or 9-0 polyglactin.^[2]^[5] Overall duration typically ranges from 45 to 120 minutes, with extensions for combined procedures such as cataract extraction or scleral buckling to address concurrent anterior segment or retinal support needs.^[1]^[5]

Complications

Intraoperative Risks

Intraoperative bleeding in vitrectomy primarily arises from iatrogenic damage to retinal vessels, often during dissection of fibrovascular membranes in proliferative diabetic retinopathy cases.^[55] This complication can obscure visualization and prolong surgery, with management involving immediate elevation of intraocular pressure via the infusion line to achieve tamponade, followed by endodiathermy (cautery) for vessel coagulation or addition of hemostatic agents such as dilute epinephrine to the infusion fluid.^[56] In severe instances, laser photocoagulation may be applied intraoperatively to seal leaking vessels.^[41] Instrument-related issues pose additional risks, including inadvertent lens touch by vitrectomy probes or illumination devices, which accelerates cataract formation in phakic eyes. The incidence of lens touch is approximately 0.9% in experienced hands, though higher among trainees, and typically results in posterior capsule opacification requiring subsequent cataract extraction.^[57] Another concern is infusion overpressure, which can cause anterior chamber shallowing or collapse if the cannula dislodges or pressure exceeds physiological limits, potentially leading to iris or corneal touch; this is mitigated by continuous monitoring of bottle height and intraocular pressure.^[5] Iatrogenic retinal tears occur in about 5-10% of vitrectomy procedures, most commonly during posterior hyaloid or epiretinal membrane peeling due to tangential traction on the retinal surface. Peripheral tears linked to sclerotomy sites are reported at 4%, while posterior breaks reach 6%, with higher rates in 20-gauge systems compared to smaller-gauge vitrectomies (7.9% versus 1.7%). These tears are promptly addressed with endolaser retinopexy or cryotherapy to prevent detachment.^[58]^[59] Anesthesia-related intraoperative risks, though rare, include ocular perforation from retrobulbar or peribulbar blocks, with an incidence of less than 1% (0.08-0.71%, elevated in high myopia). Perforation often causes vitreous hemorrhage in up to 85% of cases and retinal detachment in nearly 50%, necessitating immediate vitrectomy if visualization is compromised.^[60] Mitigation strategies emphasize real-time monitoring using wide-field viewing systems and intraoperative optical coherence tomography (iOCT) to enhance tissue visualization and reduce error rates. Surgeon experience significantly lowers complication incidence, with studies showing decreased iatrogenic breaks in high-volume operators. Emerging robotic systems, such as the iArmS and PRECEYES, further reduce intraoperative errors by 32-52% through tremor suppression and micron-level precision during tasks like membrane peeling, as demonstrated in 2025 reviews.^[61]^[17]

Postoperative Complications

Postoperative complications following vitrectomy can range from mild and transient to severe, potentially impacting visual outcomes and requiring additional interventions. These issues often arise due to surgical trauma, intraocular tamponade agents like gas or silicone oil, inflammation, or infection, with early detection through regular follow-up examinations crucial for management. Incidence rates vary based on patient factors such as age, underlying retinal pathology, and surgical technique, but advancements in perioperative care have helped mitigate some risks.^[62] Cataract progression is one of the most frequent complications, particularly in phakic eyes, where nuclear sclerotic changes predominate. Studies indicate that 80-100% of patients experience significant cataract development or progression within 2 years post-vitrectomy, driven by oxidative stress, lens exposure to oxygen, and surgical inflammation. Management typically involves monitoring lens opacity via slit-lamp examination and planning for phacoemulsification cataract surgery once visual acuity is affected, often combined with intraocular lens implantation during or after vitrectomy to preempt progression.^[63]^[64] Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) occurs in 20-30% of cases, commonly in the early postoperative period due to gas or silicone oil tamponade, steroid use, or trabecular meshwork inflammation. This can lead to glaucoma if unmanaged, with higher risks in eyes with preexisting ocular hypertension. Prevention includes careful titration of tamponade agents and postoperative IOP monitoring; treatment involves topical beta-blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, or prostaglandin analogs, with laser or surgical intervention for refractory cases.^[65] Endophthalmitis, a rare but vision-threatening infection, has an incidence of 0.02-0.5% after vitrectomy, often linked to surgical wound contamination or vitreous wicks in smaller-gauge systems. Culture-positive cases occur in about 63% of instances, with symptoms including pain, hypopyon, and vision loss emerging within days to weeks. Immediate management entails vitreous tap for culture, intravitreal vancomycin and ceftazidime antibiotics, and repeat vitrectomy if needed, alongside systemic antibiotics to preserve retinal function.^[66]^[67] Retinal complications include recurrent detachment in 5-10% of cases, frequently due to missed breaks, proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) scarring, or inadequate tamponade. PVR, characterized by fibrotic membrane formation, contributes to 75% of surgical failures and develops in 5-10% of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment repairs. Cystoid macular edema (CME) affects 5-47% of patients, exacerbated by inflammation or silicone oil emulsification, leading to central vision blurring. For recurrent detachment and PVR, reoperation with membrane peeling and extended tamponade is standard; CME is managed with topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or intravitreal corticosteroids.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] Corneal edema, occurring in up to 24% of cases in diabetic patients, results from endothelial cell loss during surgery or prolonged hypotony, causing stromal swelling and reduced clarity. Mild cases resolve with hypertonic saline drops and observation, while persistent edema may necessitate endothelial keratoplasty to restore corneal transparency. Overall, vigilant postoperative monitoring, including optical coherence tomography for macular issues and tonometry for IOP, facilitates early intervention and improves prognosis.^[72]

Recovery and Postoperative Care

Immediate Postoperative Period

Following vitrectomy, patients are typically monitored closely in the immediate postoperative period, which spans the first 24 to 72 hours, to ensure stability and early detection of issues such as elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), which occurs in up to 30-50% of cases due to factors like gas tamponade or inflammation.^[73] Intraocular pressure is checked frequently, often starting in the recovery room and continuing at the day-1 follow-up visit, as spikes can peak within the first 24 hours and require prompt intervention with topical or oral pressure-lowering agents.^[74] Vision assessment is performed to evaluate for sudden changes, while patients are observed for signs of infection (e.g., increased redness, discharge, or pain) or bleeding (e.g., new floaters or vision loss).^[75] Most procedures are outpatient, allowing discharge within 1-2 hours if stable, though complex cases involving extensive retinal work or comorbidities may warrant a 1-day hospital admission for overnight monitoring.^[41] Patient instructions emphasize protective measures to support healing and prevent complications. If a gas tamponade such as 20% sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) or 16% perfluoroethane (C2F6) is used, face-down positioning is required for 50-90% of waking hours during the first few days to allow the bubble to seal retinal breaks effectively, with aids like specialized chairs or pillows recommended.^[76] Eye shielding with a patch or shield is advised at night or in dusty environments to avoid trauma, and activities are restricted to prevent strain: no bending at the waist beyond 90 degrees, rubbing the eye, heavy lifting over 10 pounds, or strenuous exercise for at least 48-72 hours.^[77] These precautions help minimize risks like gas-induced pressure rises or displacement.^[78] Medications are prescribed to promote recovery and manage symptoms. Topical antibiotics, such as tobramycin-dexamethasone combinations, are administered 4 times daily for the first week to prevent infection, while topical steroids like prednisolone acetate are tapered over 2-4 weeks to reduce inflammation.^[79] Oral analgesics, including acetaminophen (325-1000 mg as needed) or ibuprofen (200-400 mg), address mild discomfort, which is minimal in most cases.^[77] If nausea from anesthesia persists, anti-emetics like ondansetron (4 mg IV or oral) are given prophylactically or as rescue, given the 20-40% incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting after vitrectomy.^[80] Recent studies, including a 2025 prospective evaluation, support incorporating telemedicine for early follow-up in uncomplicated cases, suggesting remote monitoring can safely detect complications like IOP elevation or infection without routine in-person day-1 visits in low-risk patients.^[81] This approach enhances accessibility while maintaining safety, with virtual assessments of vision and symptoms showing no difference in outcomes compared to traditional care.^[81] Patients should remain vigilant for warning signs such as worsening pain or vision changes, contacting providers immediately to support progression toward long-term recovery goals.

Long-Term Recovery

Following vitrectomy, patients typically undergo a structured follow-up schedule to monitor healing and visual progress, beginning with visits on the first day post-surgery, followed by weekly checks in the initial period, and transitioning to monthly appointments thereafter.^[82]^[83] Refraction often stabilizes within 4-6 weeks, allowing for reliable assessment of visual acuity changes during this phase.^[84] Visual rehabilitation plays a key role in long-term recovery, particularly for patients with persistent vision deficits. Low-vision aids, such as magnifiers or electronic devices, may be prescribed to enhance daily functioning in cases of incomplete visual restoration.^[85] In pediatric patients, amblyopia therapy through vision exercises can help improve acuity and binocular coordination if the surgery addresses conditions like retinal detachment.^[86] Phakic patients require regular monitoring for cataract development, which occurs in up to 80% of cases and often necessitates cataract surgery within 1-2 years post-vitrectomy.^[1] Lifestyle adjustments are essential for optimizing recovery and preventing complications. Driving is restricted until visual acuity meets legal standards, often requiring several weeks of evaluation.^[41] Patients should use UV-protective sunglasses to shield the eye from light sensitivity and potential damage during outdoor activities.^[87] For those with diabetic retinopathy, smoking cessation is recommended to reduce vascular stress and support sustained retinal health.^[88] Management of intraocular tamponades varies by type used during surgery. Gas bubbles, such as sulfur hexafluoride or perfluoropropane, are typically absorbed naturally over 2-8 weeks as the eye refills with aqueous humor.^[89] Silicone oil tamponades require a separate removal procedure, usually scheduled 3-6 months post-vitrectomy to minimize risks like emulsification while ensuring retinal stability.^[90] In severe cases, such as complex retinal detachments, emerging investigational therapies, such as stem cell treatments in clinical trials as of 2025, show promise for promoting tissue regeneration and potentially improving visual outcomes when combined with vitrectomy.^[91]

Outcomes and Prognosis

Success Rates

Vitrectomy demonstrates high efficacy in treating various vitreoretinal conditions, with success rates varying by indication and measured by anatomical or functional outcomes. For rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RRD), primary anatomical success—defined as retinal reattachment without additional surgery—ranges from 85% to 95%, while final anatomical success approaches 100% after reoperations when necessary.^[92] Functional success, typically assessed as improvement in best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) by two or more lines on the Snellen chart, occurs in 70% to 90% of cases, reflecting gains in visual function post-surgery.^[93]^[94] Condition-specific outcomes further highlight vitrectomy's reliability. In idiopathic full-thickness macular holes, closure rates exceed 90% when combined with internal limiting membrane (ILM) peeling, with meta-analyses confirming superior anatomical success compared to no peeling (odds ratio 9.27 for closure).^[95] Spontaneous closure without surgery is rare, occurring in approximately 11% of cases, whereas vitrectomy achieves closure in 76% to 90% based on systematic reviews.^[96] For vitreous hemorrhage, particularly in proliferative diabetic retinopathy, clearance rates reach 80% to 95% within one month post-vitrectomy, enabling rapid visual rehabilitation.^[97]^[98] Recent meta-analyses and trials underscore these metrics, distinguishing anatomical from functional endpoints. A 2023 systematic review reported a 94% primary reattachment rate for tractional retinal detachment following pars plana vitrectomy (PPV).^[99] Updated data from 2024 indicate that microincision vitrectomy surgery (MIVS) enhances success rates by approximately 10% over traditional approaches through reduced trauma and faster recovery, with primary anatomical success at 93% to 97% in 27-gauge systems.^[100] Post-2023 studies have developed AI models for outcome prediction in RRD cases, aiding patient selection and surgical planning.^[16] Historical advancements, such as ILM techniques, have progressively elevated overall rates from 58% in early vitrectomy eras to current benchmarks.^[101]

Factors Influencing Outcomes

Several preoperative factors significantly influence the visual and anatomical outcomes of vitrectomy surgery. Preoperative best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) is a consistent predictor of postoperative visual recovery, with better baseline acuity associated with improved final outcomes in conditions such as rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RRD) (p < 0.001).^[102] In a study of 88 eyes undergoing pars plana vitrectomy (PPV) for RRD, preoperative BCVA showed a strong positive correlation with postoperative BCVA (p = 0.011 in multivariate analysis).^[103] Similarly, the duration of symptoms prior to surgery negatively affects prognosis; longer durations, particularly exceeding 7 days, are linked to poorer visual acuity in RRD cases (p < 0.001).^[102] Disease-specific characteristics also play a critical role. In RRD, macular status is a key determinant, with macula-on detachments yielding significantly better postoperative BCVA (logMAR 0.08) compared to macula-off cases (logMAR 0.48; p = 0.002).^[102] The presence of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) adversely impacts outcomes, correlating with worse BCVA across multiple studies (p < 0.001).^[102] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) biomarkers, such as ellipsoid zone (EZ) discontinuity, further predict poorer recovery in RRD, with affected eyes showing reduced visual improvement (p = 0.024).^[103] The extent of retinal detachment, including involvement of multiple quadrants, exacerbates this risk, leading to diminished visual function postoperatively. Recent 2025 studies using AI-driven OCT analysis have shown promise in predicting visual outcomes post-vitrectomy for RRD, enhancing prognostic accuracy.^[104] For proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), long-term visual outcomes at 2 and 4 years post-vitrectomy are influenced by neovascular features and surgical history. The presence of rubeosis iridis and fibrovascular membranes is associated with better visual acuity (≥20/40 at 2 years: OR 0.068 for absence of rubeosis, 95% CI 0.012–0.39, p = 0.003; ≥20/30 at 4 years: OR 0.078 for absence, 95% CI 0.006–0.96, p = 0.04), potentially due to earlier intervention in more severe cases.^[105] Conversely, the need for reoperation negatively predicts good outcomes (≥20/30 at 4 years: OR 0.06, 95% CI 0.07–0.54, p = 0.01).^[105] In a cohort of 151 eyes with PDR, vitreous hemorrhage at baseline positively correlated with achieving ≥20/30 at 2 years (OR 9.55, 95% CI 1.03–95.27, p = 0.04).^[105] Intraoperative and postoperative elements, including the absence of complications like epiretinal membrane formation or cystoid macular edema, contribute to favorable results, though their impact varies by indication. Overall, early diagnosis, optimized preoperative management, and tailored surgical approaches mitigate adverse factors to enhance prognosis.^[102]

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