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Fact–value distinction

The fact–value distinction is a foundational concept in philosophy that delineates between propositions asserting empirical realities—what is the case, verifiable through observation or reason—and normative propositions prescribing what ought to be the case, which involve evaluations of goodness, rightness, or desirability. Originating prominently in David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–1740), the distinction crystallized in his identification of the "is-ought" problem, wherein he critiqued moral reasoning for deriving imperative conclusions from indicative premises without bridging the logical chasm, a move he deemed unjustified by reason alone.^[1]^[2] This separation has shaped metaethics by implying that factual knowledge cannot alone yield moral obligations, prompting analyses like G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica (1903), which warned against reducing ethical properties to natural facts—a error termed the naturalistic fallacy. In the social sciences and policy, the distinction undergirds efforts to maintain objectivity, cautioning against conflating descriptive data with prescriptive recommendations, as seen in debates over value-neutral inquiry.^[3]^[4] Notable controversies arise from challenges to the distinction's rigidity; philosophers such as Hilary Putnam have contended that facts and values are entangled in practice, particularly in scientific and ethical deliberation, arguing against a sharp dichotomy that isolates cognition from evaluation. Ethical naturalists further debate whether evolutionary biology or rational self-interest can causally link "is" to "ought" without fallacy, influencing contemporary discussions in virtue ethics and applied fields like economics.^[3]

Definition and Origins

Hume's Is-Ought Distinction

David Hume articulated the is-ought distinction in A Treatise of Human Nature, published in two volumes in 1739 and 1740, particularly in Book III, "Of Morals," Part I, Section I, titled "Moral Distinctions not deriv'd from Reason." In this section, Hume examines the foundations of moral judgments, arguing that reason, which operates on descriptive facts ("is" statements) and logical relations, cannot alone account for prescriptive norms ("ought" statements). He observes that moral reasoning typically relies on empirical observations or theological assertions before imperceptibly shifting to normative claims without bridging the logical gap. The core passage highlighting this shift reads: "In every system of morality, which I have hitherto met with, I have always remark'd, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations concerning human affairs; when of a sudden I am surpriz'd to find, that instead of the usual copulations of propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no proposition that is not connected with an ought, or an ought not. This change is imperceptible; but is, however, of the last consequence. For as this ought, or ought not, expresses some new relation or affirmation, 'tis necessary that it shou'd be observ'd and explain'd; and at the same time that a reason should be given, for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others, which are entirely different from it." Hume contends that this unexplained transition reveals a flaw in rationalist ethics, as no purely descriptive premise can deductively yield a normative conclusion expressing motivation or obligation. Hume's empiricist framework posits that moral sentiments arise from human passions and sympathy, not from reason's discovery of objective relations in nature. Reason, he maintains, excites passions only by informing them of facts or means-ends connections, but it cannot originate the passions that drive "ought" judgments, such as approbation or blame. Thus, attempts to ground morality solely in factual observations of human behavior or natural order fail to justify why one ought to act in conformity with them, requiring instead an appeal to sentiment for the normative force. This distinction, often termed "Hume's guillotine," establishes a methodological caution against conflating empirical description with ethical prescription, influencing subsequent philosophy by emphasizing the non-derivability of values from facts without intervening psychological or motivational elements.^[2] While some interpreters, such as Alasdair MacIntyre, have critiqued it as overstated by ignoring contextual inferences in practical reasoning, Hume's formulation remains a cornerstone critique of deriving normativity purely from descriptive premises.^[5]

Pre-Humean and Early Modern Roots

In ancient Greek philosophy, efforts to connect descriptive accounts of human nature with prescriptive ethics implicitly underscored tensions akin to the fact-value divide. Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics (c. 350 BCE), argued that ethical virtues arise from the factual ergon (function) of humans as rational animals, positing that eudaimonia (flourishing) requires activity in accordance with excellence, thus deriving ought-statements about moral conduct from empirical observations of teleology and habituation. This naturalistic integration assumed normative force inheres in biological and psychological facts without requiring a separate justificatory step for the transition. Medieval scholasticism extended such derivations by embedding them in theological frameworks. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), synthesizing Aristotle with Christian doctrine in Summa Theologica (1265–1274), maintained that moral laws stem from eternal divine law reflected in human nature's inclinatio (inclinations), enabling precepts like "do good and avoid evil" to follow deductively from factual participation in God's rational order. Aquinas viewed practical reason as apprehending these synderesis-derived oughts directly from created essences, treating the is-ought inference as unproblematic within a realist ontology where facts about being disclose ends. Early modern rationalists pursued geometric-style deductions of norms from metaphysical descriptions. Baruch Spinoza, in Ethics (published posthumously 1677), demonstrated propositions from axioms about substance, attributes, and modes—purely descriptive of reality—to conclude that conatus (striving for perseverance) necessitates intellectual love of God as the highest good, yielding ethical imperatives without appeal to sentiment or arbitrary will. Similarly, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), in works like New Essays on Human Understanding (written 1704, published 1765), grounded moral necessity in the factual harmony of monads and sufficient reason, asserting that rational agents ought to pursue the best possible world discernible from logical truths. Contractualists like Thomas Hobbes further exemplified pre-Humean bridging attempts through empirical psychology. In Leviathan (1651), Hobbes described the state of nature as a fact of mutual fear and power scarcity—"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"—from which rational self-preservation yields the ought to authorize a sovereign for security, framing covenant as a calculable inference from human passions rather than a categorical gap. John Locke (1632–1704), in Two Treatises of Government (1689), derived natural rights from factual equality under God's workmanship, where reason observes creation's laws to prescribe duties like preserving mankind. These traditions, while not explicitly articulating a logical prohibition on deriving ought from is, reveal the distinction's roots in recurrent philosophical maneuvers to naturalize norms, often critiqued retrospectively for smuggling normative premises into descriptive bases— a vulnerability Hume would systematize in 1739.^[1] Moral sentimentalists immediately preceding Hume, such as Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713), in Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (1711), located approbation in a disinterested moral sense responsive to harmony, shifting emphasis from rational deduction to affective response to facts, thus hinting at non-cognitive origins of value without fully severing the link.

Core Philosophical Concepts

Naturalistic Fallacy

The naturalistic fallacy denotes the erroneous inference in ethical theory that equates normative concepts, such as "goodness," with descriptive or "natural" properties identifiable through empirical observation or scientific analysis. British philosopher G.E. Moore introduced the term in his 1903 book Principia Ethica, critiquing attempts by predecessors like Herbert Spencer and utilitarians to reduce ethical predicates to non-ethical ones, such as pleasure, evolutionary fitness, or self-interest.^[6] Moore contended that such reductions commit a definitional error, as "good" functions as a simple, indefinable, non-natural property akin to "yellow" in aesthetics—intrinsically apprehendable but not analyzable into constituent parts without loss of meaning. Central to Moore's refutation is the "open-question argument," which tests proposed identities by inquiring whether the question "Is [proposed natural property] good?" remains substantively open rather than tautological. For instance, equating good with pleasure yields an open question—"Is pleasure good?"—suggesting non-identity, whereas a true synonym like "predominant bachelor" to "unmarried man" renders "Is the predominant bachelor an unmarried man?" closed and trivial. This argument underscores that ethical properties supervene on but are not reducible to natural facts, reinforcing the fact-value distinction by prohibiting the derivation of prescriptive "oughts" solely from descriptive "ises" without additional normative bridging. Moore illustrated the fallacy's prevalence in naturalistic ethics, where systems like Spencer's evolutionary ethics define moral progress as mere survival adaptation, thereby conflating biological causality with intrinsic value.^[7] In practice, the fallacy manifests in arguments deriving moral imperatives from empirical regularities, such as claiming infanticide is ethically neutral because it occurs in certain animal species, or that altruism is obligatory because it enhances genetic propagation.^[8] Moore's framework influenced 20th-century meta-ethics by highlighting how pseudo-definitions obscure ethical intuitionism, though he allowed that natural properties might causally correlate with goodness (e.g., as means to ends) without equating them.^[7] Critics have challenged Moore's formulation on multiple grounds. Analytic philosophers like John Searle argued that the open-question test falters if speakers lack full conceptual competence, potentially yielding false negatives for valid identities.^[9] Others, including naturalists such as Richard Joyce, maintain that moral terms could be functionally identical to natural ones under error theory or expressivism, rendering the fallacy a dispute over supervenience rather than outright invalidity.^[10] Empirically oriented thinkers like Philippa Foot proposed "virtue naturalism," where human flourishing aligns with species-typical functions without reductive definition, suggesting the distinction admits partial bridging via teleological facts about well-being. Despite these rebuttals, the concept persists as a caution against illicit reductions, particularly in interdisciplinary fields like bioethics, where deriving "should" from genetic or neurological "is" risks undermining autonomous moral judgment.^[11]

Moralistic Fallacy

The moralistic fallacy denotes the invalid derivation of factual claims from moral prescriptions, wherein what ought to be is presumed to reflect empirical reality. This error manifests when normative ideals—such as social equality or ethical desirability—are treated as sufficient grounds to assert or deny descriptive truths about the world, often suppressing inquiry into inconvenient evidence. Coined by Harvard microbiologist Bernard D. Davis in a 1978 Nature article, the term critiques the tendency to block scientific investigation on moral grounds, arguing that "since blocking off an area of inquiry on moral grounds fixes a preconceived conclusion, it is a form of dogmatism that is as pernicious as any other." Davis invoked it amid debates over sociobiology and behavioral genetics, where findings implying innate human differences faced ethical objections that preempted empirical scrutiny. In relation to the fact–value distinction, the moralistic fallacy reverses the naturalistic fallacy identified by G.E. Moore, which invalidates inferences from "is" to "ought." Whereas the naturalistic fallacy errs by conflating empirical observations with normative conclusions, the moralistic variant errs by allowing values to dictate facts, effectively collapsing Hume's is–ought gap in the opposite direction.^[12] This inversion posits that moral desirability can legislate reality, as when social policies assume biological uniformity to enforce egalitarian outcomes, disregarding data on heritable traits. For instance, evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa describes it as "the belief that what is morally desirable can be made to be the case by legislation or other social action," citing historical resistance to Darwinian explanations of aggression because they clashed with pacifist ideals.^[12] Empirical examples abound in contested domains like sex differences and intelligence research. Claims that average cognitive disparities between sexes must be absent—despite meta-analyses showing small but consistent gaps in spatial abilities and verbal fluency favoring males and females, respectively—exemplify the fallacy when rooted in the moral imperative of sameness rather than data.^[12] Similarly, assertions that human societies ought to be free of hierarchical instincts lead to denials of evolutionary evidence for status-seeking behaviors observed across primates, including humans, via longitudinal studies of cooperation and competition.^[12] Davis highlighted its peril in biology, where moral aversion to hereditarian influences on behavior prompted calls to curtail research, potentially stalling advances in understanding conditions like schizophrenia's genetic components, identified in twin studies with heritability estimates exceeding 80%. The fallacy's implications extend to policy and epistemology, fostering ideologically driven pseudoscience that prioritizes comfort over verifiability. In social sciences, it underpins taboos against exploring group differences in outcomes, as when environmental explanations are insisted upon despite adoption studies revealing persistent IQ variances uncorrelated with socioeconomic status.^[12] Philosophically, it undermines causal realism by substituting wishful prescriptions for mechanistic accounts, echoing Kant's warnings against heteronomy in moral reasoning while inverting them into factual denial. Sustained commitment to truth-seeking demands vigilance against this bias, as empirical progress hinges on permitting facts to challenge values rather than vice versa.

Contributions from Key Thinkers

Nietzsche's Perspectivism and Value Critique

Nietzsche's perspectivism asserts that there are no facts independent of interpretation; all cognition and evaluation arise from specific, embodied viewpoints, rendering claims to absolute objectivity illusory. Developed across works such as Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and On the Genealogy of Morality (1887), this doctrine challenges the notion of a neutral, "view from nowhere" by which facts could be segregated from values, positing instead that even empirical descriptions are laden with evaluative commitments tied to the interpreter's drives and needs.^[13]^[14] Applied to the fact-value distinction, Nietzsche's framework dissolves the rigid Humean is-ought gap by revealing values not as derivable from or opposed to facts, but as interpretive overlays that constitute our apprehension of reality itself. Moral "facts," such as the intrinsic goodness of altruism or equality, are unmasked as fictions sustained by cultural and psychological necessities, lacking any trans-perspectival grounding. In Twilight of the Idols (1889), Nietzsche contends that "there are no moral facts" because physiology and history demonstrate values as expressions of power dynamics, not eternal truths—e.g., the inversion of noble "good/bad" distinctions into priestly "good/evil" binaries via ressentiment.^[15]^[16] Central to Nietzsche's value critique is the genealogical method, which traces moral concepts to their contingent origins to expose their life-denying effects. In the first essay of On the Genealogy of Morality, he differentiates master morality—rooted in affirmative, aristocratic self-assertion among ancient warrior classes around 800–300 BCE—from slave morality, emergent in Judeo-Christian traditions post-Exile (circa 6th century BCE), where the weak recast strength as vice through vengeful inversion. This critique targets the fact-value pretense of moral systems that masquerade psychological pathologies as objective imperatives, urging a revaluation of all values (Umwertung aller Werte) to foster life-enhancing alternatives grounded in the will to power rather than factual deduction.^[17]^[15] Nietzsche's approach thus anticipates critiques of value-neutrality in science and ethics, insisting that perspectival multiplicity enhances rather than undermines evaluative rigor: the "fairest things" emerge from experiments in strong, competing interpretations. Yet he warns against relativistic paralysis, advocating rank-ordering perspectives by their capacity to affirm existence amid suffering—e.g., Dionysian vitality over Apollonian illusion or Christian pity. Empirical support for his genealogy draws from linguistic evidence, such as the etymology of Latin bonus (good) linking to martial prowess, contrasting with Semitic roots of guilt and sin tied to debt and transgression.^[14]^[16] Max Weber applied the fact-value distinction to social theory by advocating for Wertfreiheit (value-freedom) as a methodological imperative for empirical social science, emphasizing that descriptive and explanatory statements about social phenomena must remain neutral with respect to evaluative judgments, while acknowledging that values inevitably shape the selection of research topics.^[18] In his 1904 essay "'Objectivity' in Social Science and Social Policy," Weber argued that social sciences, unlike natural sciences, deal with culturally significant phenomena where "value-relevance" (Wertbeziehung) directs the investigator toward specific causal problems, but the actual analysis must exclude the researcher's personal value judgments (Werturteile) to achieve cognitive validity.^[19] This separation ensures that social scientific knowledge consists of verifiable causal relations and ideal-typical constructs, rather than prescriptive norms or moral endorsements.^[20] Weber's framework distinguished between the "is" of empirical reality—facts about social actions, institutions, and historical processes—and the "ought" of ethical or political commitments, insisting that conflating them leads to ideological distortion rather than objective understanding.^[21] For instance, in studying economic systems or bureaucratic rationalization, the social scientist identifies patterns of behavior and their consequences without deeming them inherently good or bad; such evaluations belong to the realm of practical politics or personal conviction.^[22] Weber illustrated this through his concept of Verstehen (interpretive understanding), where the researcher empathically grasps actors' subjective meanings but subordinates them to dispassionate causal imputation, free from normative bias.^[18] He warned against "ethical neutralism" misinterpreted as indifference, clarifying that value-freedom requires explicit recognition of one's evaluative standpoint to prevent its covert infiltration into factual claims.^[20] In his 1917 lecture "Science as a Vocation" (published 1919), Weber extended this application by asserting that science clarifies facts and rationalizes means-ends calculations but cannot resolve ultimate value conflicts or provide meaning in a disenchanted world, thereby reinforcing the distinction's role in delimiting social theory's boundaries.^[22] This position countered historicist and Marxist tendencies to derive prescriptive ideologies from historical interpretations, promoting instead a polytheistic view of competing values where social theory supplies tools for autonomous decision-making rather than dogmatic solutions.^[21] Weber's approach thus institutionalized the fact-value divide in disciplines like sociology and economics, influencing methodological debates by prioritizing evidential rigor over normative advocacy, though he recognized its practical limits in policy-oriented research where values unavoidably frame problem formulation.^[18]

Other Thinkers Bridging Fact and Value

John Searle challenged the strict is-ought dichotomy by arguing that certain institutional facts, created through speech acts like promising, inherently generate normative obligations without committing a logical fallacy. In his 1964 essay, Searle contended that the statement "I promise to pay you five dollars" does not merely describe a promise but constitutes the promise itself, thereby imposing a duty to fulfill it as part of the fact's essential conditions; thus, from the descriptive fact of the promise's validity follows the prescriptive ought to honor it, provided no overriding reasons exist. This derivation relies on the constitutive rules of social institutions, where normative elements are embedded in factual descriptions, bridging the gap through linguistic and social ontology rather than pure empirical observation. Critics, however, maintain that Searle's approach conflates descriptive content with normative force, failing to fully escape Humean skepticism for non-institutional oughts.^[23] Pragmatist philosopher John Dewey rejected the fact-value distinction as an artificial dualism, positing instead that values emerge and are validated through experimental inquiry into concrete human problems, integrating factual consequences with normative judgments. In works such as The Quest for Certainty (1929), Dewey argued that moral deliberation involves hypothesizing ends-in-view based on empirical knowledge of means and outcomes, where "oughts" are warranted by their efficacy in resolving practical situations rather than deduced a priori; for instance, social reforms are evaluated by their observable impacts on human welfare, rendering values continuous with scientific method. This instrumentalist view treats the distinction as a metaphysical relic that hinders adaptive reasoning, emphasizing causal feedback between actions and results over abstract separations. Dewey's framework influenced mid-20th-century ethics by prioritizing verifiable growth in intelligence over foundational derivations, though detractors argue it reduces normativity to contingent utility without ultimate grounding.^[24] Contemporary natural law theorists, such as John Finnis, extend teleological reasoning to derive oughts from factual accounts of human flourishing, identifying basic goods like knowledge and friendship as self-evident aspects of human nature that direct rational pursuit. In Natural Law and Natural Rights (1980), Finnis maintains that these goods, discerned through practical reason from empirical features of human capacities and needs, furnish objective reasons for action; for example, the fact of human vulnerability implies an ought to pursue justice as conducive to communal well-being, avoiding reduction to subjective preferences. This approach counters Hume by embedding normativity in the purposive structure of reality, where "is" statements about ends implicit in human function yield prescriptive force, though it presupposes a metaphysical commitment to inherent teleology contested by non-realist empiricists.^[25]

Applications and Intersections

In Ethical and Moral Reasoning

The fact–value distinction in ethical and moral reasoning mandates that normative prescriptions about what ought to be cannot be logically derived from descriptive statements about what is without an intervening value judgment. This principle prevents the illicit inference of moral obligations from empirical facts alone, as articulated in discussions of Hume's is–ought problem, where ethical conclusions require explicit evaluative premises beyond mere observation.^[26]^[27] In practice, moral deliberation thus proceeds by first establishing relevant facts—such as the causal effects of an action—and then applying a normative framework to assess them, ensuring transparency in the reasoning process.^[28] A key application arises in avoiding the naturalistic fallacy, where attempts to define moral goodness in terms of natural properties, like evolutionary fitness or hedonic pleasure, fail to capture the prescriptive force of ethical terms. G. E. Moore, in his 1903 Principia Ethica, contended that "good" denotes a non-natural, indefinable quality, rendering reductions to empirical descriptors logically erroneous and underscoring the need for independent value intuitions in moral argument.^[29] For instance, while biological data might show that certain behaviors enhance survival, concluding they are morally obligatory demands a separate valuation of survival as inherently good, a step often overlooked in evolutionary ethics proposals.^[29] This distinction structures applied ethical analysis across domains, such as bioethics or environmental policy, where scientific evidence on outcomes must be paired with values like human dignity or ecological balance to yield defensible recommendations. Consequentialist approaches, for example, integrate factual predictions of utility with the foundational value of well-being maximization, whereas deontological reasoning prioritizes absolute rules grounded in non-empirical principles of rightness.^[26] By maintaining the divide, ethical reasoning resists conflations that could justify policies on pseudoscientific grounds, promoting arguments that candidly address their normative assumptions rather than masquerading as value-neutral derivations.^[3]

Religion, Science, and Epistemology

In scientific practice, the fact-value distinction ensures that empirical methods generate descriptive claims about observable phenomena, such as physical laws or biological processes, without deriving prescriptive norms. This separation, emphasized since David Hume's 1739 identification of the is-ought gap, confines science to verifiable "is" statements, excluding "ought" judgments that cannot be tested via falsification or experimentation.^[26]^[30] While values may shape scientific endeavors—such as prioritizing research on climate impacts over pure theory—the core methodology remains value-neutral to maintain objectivity and replicability.^[31]^[32] Religious frameworks often reject or minimize the distinction by grounding values in purported factual revelations or divine attributes, asserting that truths about a deity's nature or will directly imply moral obligations. For instance, divine command theories, articulated in theological traditions from Aquinas in the 13th century to modern proponents, hold that God's commands constitute both existential facts and binding oughts, bypassing Humean inference barriers through appeals to scriptural authority or mystical insight.^[33]^[34] This approach presupposes an epistemology of faith or revelation, which contrasts with science's evidential standards and risks conflating untestable metaphysical claims with normative imperatives.^[35] Epistemologically, the distinction highlights incompatible justification criteria: factual knowledge accrues through sensory evidence, inductive generalization, and logical deduction, as in scientific realism, whereas values demand separate warranting strategies like rational intuitionism or emotivist expressivism. Hume's 1739 Treatise of Human Nature demonstrated that no valid syllogism bridges descriptive premises to normative conclusions without importing evaluative axioms, rendering attempts to naturalize ethics via empirical data logically deficient.^[30]^[36] Moral epistemology thus operates in a non-empirical domain, vulnerable to relativism unless anchored in non-natural properties, though evolutionary accounts of morality—proposing adaptive origins for value intuitions—fail to resolve the gap, as they describe causal histories without prescribing ends.^[37]^[38] In economics, the fact-value distinction is operationalized through the separation of positive economics, which describes observable economic behaviors and outcomes using testable hypotheses, from normative economics, which prescribes policy actions based on ethical or ideological preferences. Positive statements, such as "A 10% increase in interest rates typically reduces consumer spending by 2-3%," rely on empirical data and econometric models to predict causal relationships without implying desirability.^[39] Normative statements, by contrast, assert what economic arrangements should be, as in "Income redistribution via progressive taxation is morally required to achieve equity," introducing untestable value judgments that cannot be falsified through evidence alone.^[39] This dichotomy, formalized in Milton Friedman's 1953 work Essays in Positive Economics, posits that scientific progress in the field demands focusing on verifiable predictions rather than welfare theorems or equity criteria, which Friedman argued belong to ethical discourse.^[40] In the social sciences, the distinction underpins efforts toward methodological objectivity, as articulated by Max Weber in his 1917 lecture "Science as a Vocation" and 1904 essay "'Objectivity' in Social Science and Social Policy." Weber advocated Wertfreiheit (value-freedom), insisting that sociologists and political scientists must distinguish empirical causal explanations of social phenomena—such as the role of Protestant ethics in fostering capitalism—from evaluative endorsements of those phenomena.^[41] While personal values might guide the selection of research questions, Weber warned against conflating descriptive ideal types (e.g., bureaucratic rationality as a factual pattern of modern governance) with normative ideals, as this risks ideological distortion under the guise of science.^[4] Empirical studies, like those on institutional effects on economic growth, adhere to this by quantifying variables such as property rights enforcement correlating with GDP per capita increases of 1-2% annually in cross-country panels, without prescribing adoption.^[42] Violations occur when analyses embed partisan priors, as critiqued in heterodox economics literature, where assumed egalitarian values shape interpretations of inequality data.^[40] Public policy applications of the distinction emphasize that factual assessments of means (e.g., cost-benefit analyses showing a policy's efficiency) cannot logically entail ends without supplementary value commitments, echoing Hume's is-ought gap. For example, evidence that school choice vouchers improve test scores by 0.15-0.20 standard deviations in randomized trials provides a positive input, but deciding implementation requires normative weighing of competition against public monopoly values.^[43] In fiscal policy, data indicating that U.S. federal spending exceeded 25% of GDP in 2020 due to pandemic responses describes fiscal reality, yet debates over sustainability invoke values like intergenerational equity or debt aversion.^[44] Rational policymaking thus demands explicit bridging: facts constrain feasible options, but ultimate choices reflect societal priorities, with failures to separate them leading to ideologically driven errors, such as overreliance on unproven equity metrics in regulatory impact assessments.^[45] This separation promotes accountability, as policymakers must justify value-laden leaps beyond empirical bounds.

Criticisms and Challenges

Functionalist and Evolutionary Counterexamples

Functionalist theories of explanation challenge the fact-value distinction by maintaining that descriptive accounts of purpose inherently generate normative evaluations. Larry Wright's etiological account holds that the function of a trait or mechanism is identified by its historical contribution to effects that explain its persistence, such that "S's being F explains S's existence or maintenance in terms of S's capacity to G" entails a normative sense in which S ought to G to avoid dysfunction.^[46] This framework posits normativity as intrinsic to functional ascriptions, as failures to perform the relevant effect are evaluable as deficiencies rather than mere neutral variations.^[47] Ruth Garrett Millikan extends this through her theory of proper functions, where a device's or representation's function derives from reproductive success in past performances, yielding standards of correctness: it ought to perform as selected, with deviations marking malfunction.^[48] Empirical facts about selection histories thus supply prescriptive norms for biological and cognitive systems, as in representations that ought to track their proper content for adaptive efficacy.^[49] Critics contend this conflates descriptive etiology with imperatival force, yet proponents argue it naturalizes evaluation without additional premises, blurring the is-ought boundary in explanatory practice.^[50] Evolutionary approaches provide analogous counterexamples by grounding moral norms in adaptive facts. Evolutionary ethics posits that human moral capacities, such as reciprocity and kin altruism, arose through natural selection to solve coordination problems enhancing fitness, implying oughts aligned with these dispositions for individual and group survival.^[51] For example, behaviors persisting via differential reproduction in ancestral environments—documented in studies of primate cooperation and human ultimatum games—furnish factual bases for normative claims that agents ought to prioritize kin or reciprocate to replicate ancestral success.^[52] This derives values from evolutionary is-statements, as fitness-enhancing traits set teleological standards for flourishing, though detractors invoke the naturalistic fallacy to reject such inferences as non-compulsory.^[53] Empirical evidence from behavioral ecology, including Hamilton's rule for inclusive fitness (rB > C, where r is relatedness, B benefit, C cost), quantifies these dynamics, suggesting prescriptive implications for social organization.^[54]

Moral Realism and Objective Grounding

Moral realism posits that there exist objective moral facts that obtain independently of human beliefs, attitudes, or cultural conventions, thereby challenging the fact-value distinction by treating moral claims as capable of truth or falsity in the same manner as empirical assertions.^[55] Proponents argue that such facts provide a substantive grounding for normative "oughts," allowing moral values to be objectively anchored rather than merely subjective impositions on descriptive realities.^[26] This view contrasts with non-cognitivist or error-theoretic alternatives, which deny the cognitive status of moral discourse, by insisting that moral properties—such as goodness or rightness—are real features of the world, discernible through reason or intuition.^[55] In addressing Hume's is-ought problem, moral realists maintain that the purported gap arises only when restricting premises to non-moral, descriptive facts; once moral facts are admitted as part of the ontological inventory, normative conclusions follow directly from them without logical impropriety.^[56] For instance, if it is a fact that unnecessary suffering is intrinsically wrong—a claim defended by robust realists like Russ Shafer-Landau—then one ought to avoid causing it, bridging the descriptive-normative divide through the existence of these sui generis moral truths.^[55] Naturalistic variants, such as those advanced by Richard Boyd or Nicholas Sturgeon, ground moral properties in empirical natural kinds, suggesting that moral facts supervene on observable causal structures, like those promoting human flourishing or cooperation, thus integrating values into a scientifically informed worldview.^[55] Objective grounding in moral realism often invokes irreducible moral properties that necessitate certain responses, as articulated by G.E. Moore's open-question argument against reducing goodness to natural predicates, preserving its non-natural yet objective status.^[55] This framework withstands evolutionary debunking arguments by emphasizing that adaptive moral intuitions, while causally influenced by biology, can reliably track independent truths if moral realism holds, supported by cross-cultural convergence on core prohibitions like murder or theft.^[57] Critics from anti-realist camps, prevalent in much academic philosophy influenced by Humean skepticism, contend that positing such facts lacks empirical verification, but realists counter that moral knowledge parallels other domains like mathematics, justified by explanatory power and reflective equilibrium rather than sensory observation alone.^[55] Empirical studies, such as those on universal moral grammar proposed by Marc Hauser, lend indirect support by revealing innate cognitive structures attuned to objective harms, suggesting an evolved sensitivity to real moral contours.^[58]

Putnam's Entanglement Thesis

Hilary Putnam developed the entanglement thesis as a critique of the fact-value dichotomy, positing that facts and values cannot be sharply separated because factual assertions frequently incorporate evaluative elements, and value judgments presuppose factual inquiry. In his 2002 book The Collapse of the Fact/Value Dichotomy and Other Essays, Putnam argued that the traditional divide, traceable to David Hume's is-ought distinction and amplified by logical positivists' verification principle, mirrors the defunct analytic-synthetic dichotomy in its untenability.^[59] He maintained that this entanglement manifests in everyday language and scientific practice, where terms like "rational" or "intelligent" blend descriptive content with normative appraisal, rendering a pure fact devoid of value impossible.^[60] A core argument involves thick ethical concepts, such as "cruel," which describe observable harms (a factual component) while inherently condemning them (an evaluative stance), defying reduction to either pure fact or value alone. Putnam extended this to epistemology, noting that scientific theory selection relies on values like coherence, simplicity, and fruitfulness—epistemic norms that guide what counts as factual evidence—thus embedding values in the pursuit of facts.^[61] Drawing on John Dewey's pragmatism, he contended that intelligent inquiry treats fact-value disputes holistically, allowing resolution through warranted assertibility rather than dichotomous segregation, which he saw as fostering unwarranted subjectivism about values.^[59] Putnam's thesis challenges the dichotomy by demonstrating mutual dependence: values inform factual relevance (e.g., what data matters ethically in policy), while facts constrain value claims (e.g., empirical outcomes test moral theories). This view aligns with his broader ethical realism, rejecting non-cognitivism and emotivism, but it has drawn criticism for potentially blurring objectivity, as some argue it conflates justificatory roles without proving ontological fusion. Nonetheless, Putnam emphasized that entanglement does not equate to relativism, as both facts and values admit objective standards via communal deliberation and experience.^[62]^[63]

Contemporary Debates on Judgement and Relativism

In contemporary philosophy, debates on the fact-value distinction extend to the status of value judgements, pitting moral relativism against objectivist alternatives. Moral relativism maintains that the truth or falsity of value judgements, such as ethical evaluations, holds only relative to particular standpoints like cultures or individuals, thereby respecting the distinction by consigning values to a non-factual domain lacking universal verifiability.^[64] This view draws support from observed diversity in moral practices across societies, where no empirical convergence akin to scientific facts emerges, as argued by Gilbert Harman in his analysis of ethical motivation and disagreement.^[65] Pro-relativist arguments in recent decades emphasize "faultless disagreement," where conflicting value judgements can coexist without one party being mistaken, as defended in the "new relativism" framework by Max Kölbel in 2004 and John MacFarlane in 2014, who propose truth as assessment-sensitive—dependent on the evaluator's context rather than an absolute standard.^[66] Such positions invoke the fact-value divide to explain why values resist empirical adjudication, promoting tolerance by denying objective grounds for imposing one framework over another, though this risks self-refutation if relativism itself claims universal validity.^[66] In scientific value relativism, as revisited in a 2021 analysis of Arnold Brecht's work, values remain relative to human perspectives, but empirical methods can clarify their consequences without bridging the is-ought gap to absolute norms, informing debates on issues like capital punishment or civil disobedience.^[67] Opponents of relativism argue it undermines coherent judgement by equating all values without criteria for criticism, as W.T. Stace highlighted in 1937 critiques extended contemporarily, where relativism falters in condemning practices like slavery absent non-relative standards.^[65] Ethical naturalism offers a counter, asserting that value judgements gain traction through empirical study of human flourishing, such as via positive psychology metrics or capabilities indices, thereby leaking facts into values without collapsing into subjectivism—evident in Amartya Sen's 1999 capabilities approach applied to development policy.^[3] Critics like Paul Boghossian in 2006 further contend that relativizing judgements erodes epistemic standards, favoring realism where certain values align with observable human needs over cultural variance.^[66] These exchanges highlight ongoing tensions, with relativism appealing to descriptive pluralism but struggling against arguments for cross-cultural moral universals derived from evolutionary or experiential bases.^[3]

References

[1]
Hume's Moral Philosophy
Oct 29, 2004 · Hume sides with the moral sense theorists: we gain awareness of moral good and evil by experiencing the pleasure of approval and the uneasiness ...Issues from Hume's... · The Influencing Motives of the... · Is and Ought
[2]
Hume on Is and Ought | Issue 83 | Philosophy Now
Hume's idea seems to be that you cannot deduce moral conclusions, featuring moral words such as 'ought', from non-moral premises, that is premises from which ...
[3]
Beyond the Fact/Value Distinction: Ethical Naturalism and the Social ...
Oct 16, 2013 · The first version of the fact/value distinction is often traced to Hume. In a famous passage of his Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume ...
[4]
The Rise and Fall of the Fact/Value Distinction - Sage Journals
... fact/value dichotomy, imply ... The fact/value distinction is the source of chronic problems for the sociology ...
[5]
Hume's “Is‐Ought” Problem: a solution | New Blackfriars
Jan 1, 2024 · David Hume first raised the “is-ought” problem in this famous passage from A Treatise of Human Nature: I cannot forbear adding to these ...Missing: exact quote
[6]
PRINCIPIA ETHICA (1903) by G. E. Moore - Fair Use Repository
This theory has been refuted by the proof, in Chap. I, that the naturalistic fallacy is a fallacy; it only remains to discuss certain confusions which seem to ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[7]
Chapter II: Naturalistic Ethics: PRINCIPIA ETHICA (1903) by G. E. ...
It results from the conclusions of Chapter I, that all ethical questions fall under one or other of three classes. The first class contains but one ...<|separator|>
[8]
The Naturalistic Fallacy: The Logic Of Its Refutation - utilitarian .org
Professor Moore's real aim, of course, is to show that goodness is not identical with any 'natural' quality. This is why he calls the kind of identification ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[9]
G.E. Moore's naturalistic fallacy and open question argument ...
Feb 8, 2008 · Moore uses the open question argument to show that goodness is not identical with any complex natural or metaphysical property. This still ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[10]
Naturalistic Fallacy | Definition, Appeal & Examples - Lesson
There are several criticisms surrounding the concept of the naturalistic fallacy. An example is that a person cannot derive an "ought" from an "is." In other ...Naturalistic Fallacy · Appeal to Nature Fallacy · Criticism of the Naturalistic...
[11]
[PDF] Introduction to G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica
Exposing the "naturalistic fallacy" is the heart of Moore's project. A philosophically illuminating definition picks out essential properties. To be pleased ...
[12]
Two logical fallacies that we must avoid. - Psychology Today
Oct 19, 2008 · For example, one might commit the error of the naturalist fallacy and say, “Because people are genetically different and endowed with different ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[13]
Nietzsche's Epistemic Perspectivism - SpringerLink
Nov 30, 2019 · In this paper I will argue that Nietzsche offers a positive epistemology, and that those who interpret him as a sceptic or a mere pragmatist are mistaken.<|separator|>
[14]
[PDF] Nietzsche's Perspectivism as an Epistemological and Meta-Ethical ...
In the literature, Nietzsche's perspectivism is usually interpreted as a theory of truth, an “epistemological position”,1 or as his “attempt to give an ...
[15]
[PDF] Nietzsche's Critique of Morality - Cardiff University
The claim that the world in itself has no values implies that Nietzsche rejects moral realism, which is the view that moral and other values have a reality ...
[16]
Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy
Aug 26, 2004 · Nietzsche is not a critic of all “morality.” He explicitly embraces, for example, the idea of a “higher morality” which would inform the lives ...
[17]
Nietzsche's Genealogical Critique of Morality & the Historical ...
Oct 22, 2021 · Nietzsche's genealogy has broadly two components: an explanatory component and an evaluative component. Here I shall address only the former.Genealogy & History · The Origins of Morality: A Puzzle · Morality in Which Sense?
[18]
Max Weber's Postulate of "Freedom" from Value Judgments
A social science free from value judgements does not eliminate the problem of values; it makes them a part of scientific consideration. Weber's postulate of " ...
[19]
The Spectre of Max Weber: From ' 'Objectivity' in Social Science and ...
This paper reintroduces a detailed engagement with Max Weber's highly influential essay, "'Objectivity' in Social Science and Social Policy" (1904).
[20]
Value freedom and polytheism (Chapter 2) - Max Weber in Politics ...
Max Weber and value freedom. Weber first invoked value freedom in the context of debates over the proper relationship between social science and social policy ...
[21]
Beyond Wertfreiheit Max Weber and Moral Order: Sociological Focus
Nov 19, 2012 · We begin by reexamining the nature and function of Wertfreiheit in Weber's thought and action.<|separator|>
[22]
MAX WEBER AND THE ORIGINS OF THE IDEA OF VALUE-FREE ...
6. 338. Page 3. VALUE-FREE SOCIAL SCIENCE. Weber developed value-freedom. Based ... before, explains this relationship of science to values. Weber now.
[23]
[PDF] The Ups and Downs of Searle's Deriving “Ought” from ... - PhilArchive
Starting with David Hume, there is a tradition that defends the idea that it is impossible to derive ought from is or, values from facts. Searle, however,.
[24]
Dewey's Moral Philosophy
Jan 20, 2005 · Pragmatist moral epistemology also rejects philosophy's a priori, dialectical methods for determining the good and the right.Metaethics of Value Judgments · Means and Ends · Moral Theories: the Good, the...
[25]
https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2104&context=tcl
[26]
8.1 The Fact-Value Distinction - Introduction to Philosophy | OpenStax
Jun 15, 2022 · By the end of this section, you will be able to: Articulate the fact-value distinction. Distinguish between descriptive and evaluative claims.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[27]
Is Ought : Department of Philosophy - Texas State University
The is-ought fallacy occurs when the assumption is made that because things are a certain way, they should be that way.
[28]
The Fact-Value Distinction, Core Values, and Ethics - IU Pressbooks
This tracks what many now call the fact-value distinction. Like lots ... ethical reasoning. To do this is to take values seriously, to regard them as ...
[29]
Who's Afraid of the Naturalistic Fallacy? - Oliver Curry, 2006
David Hume argued that values are the projections of natural human desires, and that moral values are the projections of desires that aim at the common good ...
[30]
Can an 'Ought' be Derived from an 'Is'? | Issue 130 - Philosophy Now
It relates to a critical problem at the very root of ethics: the 'Is-Ought Problem' first pointed out by David Hume in the 18th century. Hume noted that all ...
[31]
The Fact/Value Distinction and the Social Sciences | Society
Oct 12, 2013 · In the nineteen-fifties and nineteen-sixties a number of philosophers (several of them women, including Elizabeth Anscombe, Philippa Foot, and ...
[32]
Science Shorts 1: Facts and Values
May 31, 2022 · “Is” (or factual) claims concern the way the world was, or is, or will be. “Ought” (or value or normative) claims concern the way the way the world should have ...
[33]
Values versus Facts: The Oneness of Truth - BahaiTeachings.org
Nov 12, 2015 · The fact-value distinction, their seminal concept, still rules much of modern philosophy today. It sees a fact as an objective truth discovered ...
[34]
fact, value, God, and reality: How Wittgenstein's Ethics Clarifies the ...
fact, value, God, and reality: How Wittgenstein's Ethics Clarifies the Fact-value Distinction and, in the Process, Perhaps Subverts a Scientific Holy War.
[35]
Beyond the Fact/Value Dichotomy - Inters.org
The hostess's remark was that science showed the universe is an uncaring machine, which was seen as a religious view, and the author argued against this claim.
[36]
The Emperor of Fallacies: The Is/Ought Problem
Jul 16, 2017 · Second is epistemological: How do we know what to value? The is/ought fallacy shows that we can't discover values by scientific observation of ...
[37]
Thick Ethical Concepts - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 21, 2016 · 2.1 The Is-Ought Gap and the Fact-Value Distinction. It is common to think that the intuitive contrast between is and ought marks an important ...
[38]
[PDF] "Epistemology, Moral" In: The International Encyclopedia of Ethics
In any case, in thinking about moral epistemology, epistemic justification is of ... moral; error theory; evolution, ethics and; fact–value distinction;.
[39]
Positive vs. Normative Economics: What's the Difference?
Mar 19, 2025 · Positive economics focuses on "what is." · Normative economics focuses on "what should be." · Testable positive statements help explain and ...
[40]
[PDF] critique of the fact-value dichotomy in economics
Jan 13, 2014 · Blaug (1980) adds that positive economics was originally a matter of “scientific” economics whereas normative economics was a matter of ...<|separator|>
[41]
Value-judgments in Social Science | Max Weber
'Value-judgment' is to be understood as referring to 'practical' evaluations of a phenomenon which is capable of being influenced by our actions as worthy of ...
[42]
https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/chicago/9780226821160-007/html?lang=en
[43]
Gun Control: The Fact/Value Dichotomy and the Public Interest
Aug 12, 2016 · Examples include: “People have a right to government subsidized health insurance” or “Marriage is between a man and woman.” Most decisions ...
[44]
[PDF] The Moral and Political Dimension of Economics The Fact-Value ...
Economics should focus on facts, and present general principles, leaving the choice of various technical alternatives to policy makers. This article addresses.
[45]
Facts & Values: Distinction or Dichotomy? - WEA Pedagogy Blog
Feb 19, 2020 · The “facts” we present to policy makers require us to make arbitrary choices. It is impossible to do otherwise, because reducing ...
[46]
Teleological Explanations by Larry Wright - Paper
£34.00A modern classic in the philosophy of science, Larry Wright's Teleological Explanations reframes purpose-talk in biology, psychology, and the social ...
[47]
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS AND NATURAL NORMS - 1995
In this paper, I try to develop an account of functions which might be of use to a biologist engaged in classifying and explaining natural phenomena.
[48]
Teleological Theories of Mental Content
Jun 18, 2004 · According to teleological theories, the contents of mental representations depend, at least in part, on functions, such as the functions of the ...
[49]
Teleofunctionalism - Scholarpedia
Jul 14, 2011 · Content is normative in that it affords certain evaluations: we evaluate beliefs as true or false, memories as accurate or inaccurate, ...
[50]
Biological function and epistemic normativity - Taylor & Francis Online
The aim of the paper is to show that epistemic normativity can be explained by appeal to the biological functions of our mechanisms of belief-production.
[51]
Evolutionary Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(This is a practical rather than conceptual problem for evolutionary ethics.) Hume's “is-ought” problem still remains a challenge for evolutionary ethics.
[52]
RUTH G. MILLIKAN'S CONVENTIONALISM AND LAW | Legal Theory
Jun 2, 2022 · Proper function and survival value ... In Millikan, the normativity of conventions is connected with the notions of proper function ...
[53]
John Lemos, Bridging the Is/ought Gap with Evolutionary Biology: Is ...
Can Constitutive Rules Bridge the Gap Between Is- and Ought-Statements?Frank Hindriks - 2021 - In Paolo Di Lucia & Edoardo Fittipaldi, Revisiting Searle on ...
[54]
Bridging the Is Ought Divide - EvPhil Blog - Evolutionary Philosophy
Jul 28, 2014 · These are the base sources of all our competing wants, which drive all our competing oughts, which our systems of ethics must choose between.
[55]
Moral Realism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 3, 2005 · Moral realists are those who think that, in these respects, things should be taken at face value—moral claims do purport to report facts and are ...Moral Disagreement · Metaphysics · Epistemology · Semantics
[56]
Objections to Moral Realism Part 1: The Is/Ought Gap
Oct 19, 2009 · John Searle decided that we can get a nonmoral “ought” from a promise. If I make a promise, then there is a sense that I should do what it takes ...
[57]
Do Objective Moral Values Exist? – Neil Shenvi – Apologetics
The claim of moral realism is that there are objective moral values which specify concepts like good and evil, right and wrong, and which transcend cultures ...
[58]
David Hume: Moral Philosophy
1.4). Like his predecessors Shaftesbury (1671-1713) and Francis Hutcheson (1694-1745), Hume believes that moral distinctions are the product of a moral sense. ...
[59]
Moral Disagreement and the" Fact/Value Entanglement". - PhilArchive
Putnam's own thesis is that facts and values are "entangled" in a way that precludes any attempt to draw a sharp distinction between value judgments and ...
[60]
The Collapse of the Fact/Value Dichotomy and Other Essays - jstor
I THE COLLAPSE OF THE FACT/VALUE DICHOTOMY ... In this century many social scientists accepted both, with terribly important consequences, as we shall see in ...
[61]
Putnam's Alethic Pluralism and the Fact-Value Dichotomy
Dec 20, 2021 · Hilary Putnam spent much effort criticizing the fact/value dichotomy, the idea that while facts are understood as objective worldly entities, values are deemed ...
[62]
Fact/Value Dichotomy - Theopolis Institute
Mar 29, 2008 · A dichotomy between fact and value is indefensible, and that instead factual description and valuation are “entangled” with one another.
[63]
[PDF] On Entanglement of Fact and Value in the Views of Hilary Putnam
The subject of this paper is the analysis of Hilary Putnam's thesis on the fact/value entanglement along with some of his arguments meant to corroborate ...
[64]
Moral Relativism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint.
[65]
Moral Relativism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 19, 2004 · First, a distinction is sometimes drawn between content relativism, the view that sentences may have different contents (meanings) in different ...
[66]
Relativism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 11, 2015 · Relativists argue that beliefs and values get their justification or truth only relative to specific epistemic systems or practices (see Kusch ...
[67]
Scientific Value Relativism | Humanities and Social Sciences ...
Nov 22, 2021 · Relativism stresses that value judgements are statements about meaning and not about facts, about “ought” and not about “is”.<|separator|>