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Femme

Femme is a gender identity and expression adopted primarily by lesbians who perform and embrace traditionally feminine appearance, behaviors, and roles, often within butch-femme relational dynamics that mirror yet subvert heterosexual gender polarities in same-sex partnerships.^[1]^[2] This identity, rooted in mid-20th-century working-class lesbian subcultures in urban environments like bars during and after World War II, facilitated social organization, sexual attraction, and resistance to heteronormativity by assigning clear gender-like roles absent male partners.^[3] Key characteristics include deliberate femininity as a marker of lesbian attraction rather than heterosexual appeal, challenging assumptions that queerness requires masculine presentation.^[2] Despite empirical evidence from qualitative studies documenting distinct experiences of invisibility and discrimination—such as being overlooked in lesbian spaces or presumed straight—femme has faced marginalization in feminist and queer discourses favoring androgynous or butch aesthetics as authentic rebellion.^[4]^[5] Contemporary expansions to non-lesbian contexts, including bisexual or transgender individuals, dilute its original specificity, though core research underscores its ties to female same-sex desire and subversive femininity.^[5]^[1]

Etymology and Core Concepts

Linguistic Origins

The term femme derives from the French word meaning "woman," which in turn stems from Old French feme and Latin femina, denoting "woman" or literally "she who suckles," ultimately tracing to the Proto-Indo-European root dhe(i)- signifying "to suck."^[6]^[7] In English, femme first appeared in general usage to refer to a young woman by 1928, but its adoption as slang for the more feminine or passive partner in lesbian relationships dates to around 1961.^[6] This queer-specific application emerged earlier, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, within working-class lesbian communities in the United States, where it formed part of the "butch-femme" relational dynamic to denote feminine-presenting women in contrast to masculine "butch" partners.^[8] The borrowing from French emphasized a deliberate femininity, distinguishing it from broader English terms like "feminine" by invoking cultural associations with traditional womanhood in same-sex pairings.^[8]

Definitions in Queer Contexts

In lesbian subcultures, particularly from the mid-20th century onward, "femme" refers to a gender presentation and identity characterized by the adoption of traditionally feminine attire, mannerisms, and roles within butch-femme dynamics, serving as the counterpart to the more masculine "butch" role.^[9] This pairing emerged as a structured relational model in working-class lesbian bar communities during the 1940s and 1950s, where femmes often embodied exaggerated heterosexual femininity—such as wearing dresses, makeup, and heels—to navigate social invisibility and signal availability to butches while subverting heteronormative expectations through same-sex partnerships.^[10] Empirical accounts from oral histories indicate that this role was not merely aesthetic but functional, enabling femmes to "pass" in straight society for safety while maintaining distinct queer relational boundaries.^[11] Distinguishing femme from general femininity, queer definitions emphasize its performative and resistive nature: femmes consciously deploy femininity as a queer strategy, often experiencing "invisibility" because their presentation aligns superficially with cisgender heterosexual women, leading to misrecognition of their lesbian or queer orientation.^[12] Qualitative studies of self-identified femmes reveal common traits including deliberate hyper-femininity (e.g., long hair, jewelry, and emotional expressiveness) paired with an internal awareness of gender nonconformity, rejecting assimilationist views that equate femme with mere compliance to patriarchal norms.^[2] Unlike straight femininity, which typically reinforces opposite-sex attraction, femme identity in these contexts is explicitly tied to same-sex desire and community-specific signaling, as evidenced by participant narratives describing femme as a "doubly-conscious" state of performing femininity while knowing it disrupts compulsory heterosexuality.^[9] In broader queer theory, "femme" has evolved since the 1990s to encompass a wider spectrum of feminine-identifying individuals beyond cisgender lesbians, including bisexual women, transgender femmes, and nonbinary people who embody "queerly feminine" subjectivities independent of butch complementarity.^[13] Academic frameworks like femme theory posit it as an epistemological lens for critiquing femmephobia—the devaluation of feminine queerness—and highlight its potential for subversion through ironic or exaggerated performances that expose femininity's constructedness.^[14] However, this expansion has drawn critique for diluting its historical lesbian specificity, with some scholars arguing that queer theory's inclusive redefinitions risk conflating performative style with substantive identity, potentially overlooking empirical differences in lived experiences across orientations.^[15]^[16]

Distinction from General Femininity

In queer contexts, particularly within lesbian and butch/femme dynamics, "femme" refers to an intentional and performative adoption of feminine traits that signals non-heteronormative attraction and identity, distinguishing it from general femininity, which aligns with broader societal norms of female presentation often tied to heterosexual expectations and the male gaze.^[3]^[15] This queering of femininity in femme identity involves a deliberate reclamation or disruption of traditional constructs, rendering it visible primarily within queer spaces rather than as passive conformity to cultural standards.^[17] Unlike general femininity, which may lack explicit ties to sexual orientation or gender subversion, femme emerged historically as a relational counterpart to butch in working-class lesbian bar cultures of the 1940s, where feminine-presenting women partnered with masculine ones to navigate social legibility and desire outside heterosexual binaries.^[5] In this framework, femme presentation—encompassing elements like clothing, mannerisms, and roles—functions performatively to affirm queer eroticism and community recognition, often challenging the assumption that feminine women are inherently oriented toward men.^[15] Empirical accounts from queer oral histories and subcultural studies indicate that this intentionality fosters a distinct erotic charge, as femme femininity derives meaning from its contrast with butch masculinity rather than universal female norms.^[5] Contemporary analyses, drawing from queer theory, emphasize that femme resists assimilation into "traditional" femininity by embodying a brazen or exaggerated style that interrogates gender intelligibility, such as through hyper-feminine aesthetics that provoke questions about sexuality in observers.^[15] This differs from general femininity's tendency toward invisibility in normative settings, where it reinforces rather than subverts binaries; femme, by contrast, often experiences "invisibility" or erasure precisely because its queerness is misread as straight conformity, requiring overt signaling for recognition in mixed or mainstream environments.^[17] Scholarly examinations note that while both involve similar outward traits (e.g., dresses, makeup), femme's core lies in its causal link to queer relationality and self-identification, not innate biology or passive socialization.^[18]

Historical Development

Early 20th-Century Precursors

In the early 20th century, lesbian subcultures began forming in urban centers such as New York, Chicago, and Paris, where women sought same-sex relationships amid growing visibility during the post-World War I era. These communities often featured informal gender polarizations, with some women adopting masculine attire and mannerisms—precursors to butch identities—paired alongside conventionally feminine partners who fulfilled complementary roles, though explicit terms like "femme" were not yet standardized.^[19]^[11] Such dynamics provided a framework for mutual recognition and protection in clandestine settings like speakeasies and private parties, distinguishing them from earlier "romantic friendships" between two feminine women that lacked overt role differentiation.^[20] Literary depictions captured these emerging patterns, as in Radclyffe Hall's The Well of Loneliness (1928), which portrayed the relationship between the masculine-presenting Stephen Gordon and the more traditionally feminine Mary Brockett, reflecting real-world observations of polarized pairings among lesbians.^[21] Sexological writings further documented variations, with Havelock Ellis noting in his 1920s editions of Studies in the Psychology of Sex that some female homosexuals exhibited "mannish" traits while others remained feminine, suggesting innate attractions that prefigured dyadic roles without prescribing them as rigid identities.^[21] In Europe, bohemian circles like those hosted by Natalie Barney in Paris during the 1920s included feminine women in relationships with more androgynous or masculine figures, though these were often upper-class and less codified than later working-class expressions.^[22] These precursors remained fluid and underground, influenced by broader cultural shifts like women's increasing workforce participation and the rejection of Victorian norms, but they lacked the structured bar-culture codification that would solidify butch-femme pairings by the 1940s.^[23] Historical accounts emphasize that feminine partners in these early dyads were often "invisible" to outsiders, passing as heterosexual and relying on subtle signals for community integration, a pattern that persisted into mid-century.^[11]^[22]

1940s-1960s: Butch/Femme in Working-Class Lesbian Bars

In the post-World War II period, butch/femme dynamics emerged as a dominant relational and identity structure among working-class lesbians in urban United States communities, particularly from the late 1940s through the 1960s. These roles developed in the context of increased female economic independence following wartime employment, which enabled many women to congregate in bars as safe havens for same-sex socializing away from family oversight. Bars such as those in Buffalo, New York, and cities like New York and Chicago became central hubs, where butches—women adopting short hair, men's clothing like leather jackets and boots, and protective, masculine mannerisms—paired with femmes, who emphasized conventional feminine attire including dresses, makeup, and long hair to complement their partners. This polarization of gender presentation served practical functions, including signaling lesbian affiliation in dimly lit venues and negotiating survival in a hostile environment marked by job discrimination and familial rejection.^[24]^[25] Butch/femme couples adhered to strict codes of conduct, with butches expected to "pass" as men in public for protection, open doors, and initiate dances, while femmes avoided masculine traits to maintain the dyadic balance essential for community acceptance. Oral histories from Buffalo's working-class lesbians reveal that these roles were not mere imitation of heterosexual norms but adaptations forged from necessity, as butches often faced violence from men perceiving them as intruders in male domains, leading to a culture of toughness and loyalty within bar networks. By the 1950s, this system had solidified, with an estimated 50-60% of bar-attending lesbians identifying strictly as butch or femme, excluding those in less polarized "kiki" relationships deemed insufficiently committed. Police raids, occurring weekly in some establishments like New York's Sea Colony bar during the 1950s and 1960s, targeted these visible gender contrasts under vice laws, resulting in arrests for cross-dressing or disorderly conduct, yet reinforcing bar solidarity as patrons rebuilt after confiscations.^[24]^[26]^[27] The working-class orientation stemmed from the bars' appeal to blue-collar women, including factory workers and service employees, who contrasted with middle-class lesbians favoring discreet private gatherings; this class divide influenced role rigidity, as economic precarity amplified the need for clear identities amid McCarthy-era purges that scrutinized "deviant" behaviors. Despite external pressures, internal butch/femme hierarchies fostered resilience, with community enforcement against role-switching to preserve relational stability, though some femmes reported feeling undervalued due to butches' dominance in decision-making. This era's bar culture laid foundational patterns for lesbian visibility, predating organized activism, but also highlighted tensions, as not all women fit neatly into the binary, prompting occasional pushback within spaces.^[24]^[28]^[29]

1970s-1980s: Ideological Rejection in Lesbian Feminism

During the 1970s, as lesbian feminism coalesced within the second-wave feminist movement, it mounted a systematic ideological assault on butch/femme dynamics, including the femme role, deeming them replications of patriarchal heterosexuality that entrenched rather than subverted gender power imbalances. Radical lesbian feminists contended that femme embodiment—characterized by feminine attire, makeup, and deferential behaviors—perpetuated male dominance by eroticizing inequality and mimicking the submissive positioning of women in heterosexual norms, thereby undermining the pursuit of egalitarian lesbian relations. This perspective, articulated by groups like the Radicalesbians in their 1970 manifesto "Woman-Identified Woman," framed such roles as "male-identified role-playing" lacking sufficient political consciousness to advance women's liberation.^[30] The critique disproportionately affected working-class lesbian subcultures, where butch/femme pairings had been prevalent in bar scenes since the mid-20th century, dismissing them as pre-feminist relics tied to rural or proletarian backgrounds rather than progressive ideology. In response, lesbian feminists advocated androgyny as the ethical standard, urging femmes to divest from stereotypical femininity—eschewing dresses, heels, and cosmetics in favor of practical attire like T-shirts and jeans—to foster "woman-identification" over sexualized hierarchies. This shift marginalized femme identities, positioning them as antithetical to radical goals and pressuring adherents to conform or face exclusion from emerging feminist lesbian networks.^[30]^[21] In the UK, parallel developments in lesbian feminism during the 1970s and 1980s reinforced this rejection, with theorists like Sheila Jeffreys arguing that butch/femme roleplaying, including the passive handbag-guarding archetype of the femme, reinforced heterosexuality as a coercive institution and conflicted with the equality central to lesbian ethics. Publications and collectives, such as those emerging from the Wages for Housework movement's lesbian offshoots, further theorized sexuality to excise power imbalances, viewing femme passivity as complicit in broader male supremacy. By the late 1970s, this ideology had permeated lesbian separatist communities, effectively sidelining femme expression in favor of uniform androgynous presentations, though underground persistence occurred among those who resisted the mandate.^[31]^[16]

Reclamation and Evolution

1990s-2000s: Queer Theory Revival

In the 1990s, queer theory's critique of essentialist gender categories enabled the reclamation of femme identity, positioning it as a performative subversion rather than a replication of heterosexual norms rejected by earlier lesbian feminists. Influenced by postmodern deconstructions, scholars and writers reframed femme presentation—such as hyper-femininity in dress and demeanor—as a deliberate queer enactment that disrupted binary gender expectations, drawing on the era's emphasis on fluidity over fixed roles. This shift contrasted with the 1970s-1980s ideological purges, where femme was often pathologized as complicit in patriarchy, by instead celebrating it as an agentic choice within same-sex desire.^[32]^[33] A pivotal text in this revival was Joan Nestle's The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader (1992), an anthology compiling over 50 contributions including essays, fiction, and poetry that affirmed butch/femme pairings as enduring lesbian practices rooted in working-class bar cultures, while challenging academic and feminist dismissals of them as imitative. Nestle's collection documented personal narratives from the mid-20th century onward, arguing that these roles fostered erotic autonomy and community resilience amid marginalization, with femme voices emphasizing their strategic use of femininity to navigate visibility and desire. Published by Alyson Books, it sold steadily in queer circles and influenced subsequent discourse by providing empirical counter-evidence to anti-butch/femme polemics.^[34]^[35] By the late 1990s, femme-specific theory proliferated through anthologies like Femme: Feminists, Lesbians and Bad Girls (1997), edited by Laura Harris and Elizabeth Crocker, which featured 20 essays from femme-identified contributors exploring intersections of femininity, sexuality, and resistance. The volume critiqued "femme invisibility" in queer spaces—where feminine lesbians were presumed straight—and advanced "femme-inism" as a framework for reclaiming "bad girl" aesthetics, such as bold makeup and flirtation, as politically defiant acts. Routledge's publication marked a scholarly turn, with contributors like Madeline Davis linking historical persistence to contemporary queer experimentation. Into the 2000s, this theoretical groundwork supported localized revivals, evidenced by Toronto's queer femme oral history project (1990-2000), which archived interviews revealing community events, zines, and performances that integrated femme into broader queer visibility without diluting lesbian specificity.^[36]^[37]

2010s-2020s: Expansion Beyond Lesbians

In the 2010s, the term "femme" increasingly extended beyond its historical roots in lesbian subcultures to describe feminine gender presentations among bisexual women, transgender women, and non-binary individuals in broader queer contexts.^[8]^[38] This shift aligned with queer theory's emphasis on fluid identities and the proliferation of online platforms like Tumblr and Twitter, which amplified discussions of "queer femme" aesthetics detached from exclusive same-sex attraction.^[39] For example, bisexual women adopted "femme" to signify feminine alignment within mixed-orientation relationships, while transgender and non-binary people used it to denote intentional femininity as resistance to binary norms, often independent of butch-femme dynamics.^[8]^[40] Qualitative studies from this period documented these expansions, revealing how "femme" identity involved navigating invisibility and femmephobia across sexual orientations and gender identities, not solely within lesbian communities.^[2] By the mid-2010s, academic analyses noted the term's circulation in media and theory as a marker of "overt, ironic" femininity, often signaling queer affiliation without strict ties to lesbianism.^[41] This usage grew alongside third-wave feminist influences, where "femme" evoked subversive femininity applicable to diverse LGBTQ+ experiences, including those of women attracted to multiple genders.^[12] Into the 2020s, glossaries and community resources formalized this broader application, defining "femme" as "feminine of center" in dress and presentation, applicable beyond lesbians to anyone embodying such traits in queer spaces.^[42] Usage data from social media analytics indicated a surge in "femme" identifiers among non-lesbian queer users, correlating with increased visibility in fashion, art, and digital subcultures.^[39] However, this evolution prompted distinctions like "hard femme" in communities of color, emphasizing resilient, culturally specific femininities emerging from 2000s queer-of-color frameworks but gaining traction online in the 2010s.^[43]

Digital and Media Influences

Digital platforms, particularly Tumblr in the early 2010s, facilitated the reclamation of femme identity by enabling users to curate and disseminate personal narratives, aesthetics, and theoretical discussions rooted in lesbian history, countering mid-20th-century feminist rejections.^[44] This online sharing fostered "soft femme" aesthetics—characterized by intentional, queer-inflected femininity—that emphasized fluidity and subversion of heteronormative expectations, drawing from queer theory's revival.^[44] By 2016, dedicated spaces like Reddit's r/FemmeLesbians emerged, providing forums for feminine-presenting lesbians to discuss experiences of invisibility and relational dynamics with butches.^[45] In the late 2010s and 2020s, short-form video platforms such as TikTok amplified femme visibility through user-generated content, including "thirst traps" that reclaimed sexual agency and performative femininity, bypassing traditional reliance on visible gender non-conformity for queer signaling.^[46] Hashtags like #femmelesbian and #wlw connected creators to algorithmic feeds, allowing feminine lesbians to articulate identities often dismissed as "passing" as straight, as noted in analyses of platform affordances for subverting erasure.^[46] Instagram accounts, such as @findfemmes, further supported community-building for femme LGBTQ+ women via matchmaking and publications, though critiques highlight persistent challenges like content moderation biases favoring masculine presentations.^[47] Broader media influences, including streaming series and viral queer content, have intertwined with digital trends to normalize femme expressions, yet empirical studies indicate social media's role in identity exploration often amplifies diversity without resolving underlying invisibility for those not exhibiting overt "queer coding."^[48] For instance, TikTok's emphasis on audiovisual performance has enabled femme lesbians to challenge stereotypes of hyper-femininity tied to male gaze narratives, promoting relational visibility in butch/femme dynamics.^[46] These developments, while empowering, reflect platform-driven dynamics where visibility depends on engagement metrics rather than historical authenticity.^[48]

Controversies

Claims of Femme Erasure and Invisibility

Claims of femme erasure and invisibility refer to assertions by some queer women, particularly lesbians identifying as femme, that their feminine presentation renders them unrecognizable as queer, leading to exclusion or skepticism within both heterosexual and LGBTQ+ spaces.^[49] This phenomenon is described as femmes "passing" as heterosexual due to adherence to conventional feminine aesthetics, such as makeup, dresses, and grooming, which do not signal queerness in the same way masculine or androgynous styles might for butches or non-feminine lesbians.^[50] Proponents argue this results in practical harms, including difficulty in queer dating scenes where profiles or appearances are filtered for more visible markers of lesbianism, as evidenced by reports from platforms like dating apps where femme users face higher rates of being unmatched or interrogated about their orientation.^[51] In lesbian and broader queer communities, these claims highlight internal gatekeeping, where femmes report being disbelieved or tokenized, with their identities questioned under assumptions that true queerness requires visible nonconformity to gender norms.^[52] For instance, qualitative studies on femme experiences note recurring themes of "authenticity challenges" tied to invisibility, where participants describe needing to overperform queerness—through verbal affirmations or pairing with butches—to gain recognition.^[2] Critics within these discourses attribute this to femmephobia, a term coined to describe bias against feminine queers, exacerbating isolation; however, such claims often rely on self-reported anecdotes rather than quantitative data, with limited peer-reviewed metrics on prevalence.^[53] Advocates for addressing femme erasure, such as in queer media roundtables, contend that mainstream LGBTQ+ visibility campaigns prioritize androgynous or masculine representations, sidelining femmes and perpetuating a narrow archetype of lesbianism.^[54] This perspective draws from historical butch/femme dynamics but posits modern expansions into inclusive "queer" identities have diluted recognition of femme-specific struggles, including higher vulnerability to misidentification in public or professional settings.^[55] While these assertions gain traction in online forums and publications like DIVA Magazine, they face counterarguments that femininity confers social privileges offsetting any queer-specific erasure, though empirical comparisons remain sparse.^[51]^[56]

Debates on Appropriation by Non-Lesbians

Some lesbians contend that the term "femme," rooted in mid-20th-century butch/femme dynamics within working-class lesbian bar cultures, has been appropriated by non-lesbian women, including straight and bisexual individuals, diluting its historical specificity as a marker of lesbian identity and resistance to heteronormativity.^[57] Critics argue this usage erases the term's origins in queer liberation struggles, where femme lesbians navigated invisibility and rejection by both mainstream society and later radical feminists, transforming "femme" into a generic descriptor for feminine presentation rather than a relational role complementary to butch lesbians.^[3] For instance, when non-lesbians apply "femme" in opposition to "butch" without lesbian context, it imposes concepts like "masculine privilege" onto dynamics that historically challenged rather than replicated heterosexual norms.^[57] Proponents of broader usage, often aligned with queer theory's emphasis on fluid identities, assert that restricting "femme" to lesbians excludes feminine-presenting individuals across sexual orientations who subvert gender expectations, framing it as an inclusive term for anyone opposing patriarchal norms.^[58] This perspective gained traction in the 2010s amid the expansion of "femme" in online queer communities, where bisexual women and others adopted it to signal non-conforming femininity, prompting debates over whether such reclamation honors or commodifies lesbian heritage.^[54] Lesbian critics counter that this inclusivity contributes to "femme erasure" by prioritizing personal identification over communal history, with some viewing bisexual adoption as particularly appropriative since it blurs boundaries between lesbian-specific roles and general bisexuality.^[54]^[57] These debates intensified around 2016-2019, coinciding with digital platforms amplifying diverse interpretations, but remain unresolved, with lesbian-centered sources emphasizing preservation of the term's etymological ties to same-sex attraction over expansive queer applications.^[3] Empirical accounts from femme lesbians highlight ongoing tensions, such as non-lesbian "femme" identities reinforcing stereotypes that equate lesbian femininity with straight womanhood, thus undermining the subversive intent forged in pre-Stonewall eras.^[57]

Critiques from Sex-Based and Radical Perspectives

Radical feminists contend that femme identities within lesbian communities reinforce sex-based hierarchies by emulating heterosexual gender roles, thereby contradicting the movement's aim to dismantle patriarchy at its roots. In the 1970s and beyond, lesbian feminists rejected such roles as imitative of male dominance, viewing them as barriers to egalitarian same-sex relating and collective women's liberation.^[59]^[60] This critique posits that femininity, when performed as a relational counterpart to butch masculinity, perpetuates the very stereotypes radical feminism seeks to eradicate, rather than transcending them through androgyny or role abolition.^[16] Sex-based perspectives, which prioritize biological sex as the immutable basis for women's rights and lesbian attraction, argue that femme roles exacerbate divisions among females by importing performative gender constructs into homosocial spaces. Organizations aligned with this view assert that butch/femme dynamics, derived from societal sex roles, prevent lesbians from forming bonds as biological equals, isolating them from heterosexual women in shared anti-patriarchal struggles and fostering intra-community power imbalances akin to those in mixed-sex relationships.^[61] For instance, pre-1970s lesbian bar customs often confined femmes to passive waiting roles, a practice radical lesbian feminist Sheila Jeffreys describes as enforcing subordination through segregated seating and initiation protocols dominated by butches.^[31] These critiques extend to causal concerns: by normalizing gendered complementarity in exclusively female pairings, femme identification risks diluting sex-specific solidarity, as women are encouraged to prioritize stylistic femininity over shared biological realities, potentially echoing broader patriarchal incentives for female differentiation.^[59] Proponents maintain that true liberation requires unlearning these roles entirely, enabling lesbians to relate as unadorned females without the encumbrance of imposed archetypes.^[61] Empirical observations from feminist analyses highlight how such dynamics historically correlated with reduced political cohesion among lesbians, as role adherence diverted energy from systemic challenges to male supremacy.^[21]

Cultural Representations and Impact

In Literature, Film, and Art

In lesbian literature of the early 20th century, femme identities often appeared in contrast to butch counterparts, highlighting dynamics of visibility and societal disbelief in feminine lesbians' same-sex attractions. Radclyffe Hall's The Well of Loneliness (1928) depicts the butch protagonist Stephen Gordon alongside feminine partners Angela Crossby and Mary Llewellyn, who are portrayed as reverting to heterosexual norms due to their conventional appearances, underscoring the era's assumption that true lesbianism required masculine presentation.^[62] Mid- to late-20th-century works further explored femme experiences within butch-femme bar cultures. Leslie Feinberg's Stone Butch Blues (1993) features the butch narrator Jess Goldberg in a relationship with femme Theresa, who expresses frustration at being mistaken for heterosexual owing to her feminine style, reflecting broader themes of femme invisibility in lesbian communities.^[62] Anthologies like Joan Nestle's The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader (1992) compile personal essays and narratives affirming femme agency, challenging earlier literary erasures of feminine lesbians as politically or sexually authentic.^[63] In film, representations of femme lesbians have frequently emphasized stereotypes of pairing with butch partners, perpetuating binary dynamics while occasionally subverting expectations of invisibility. Donna Deitch's Desert Hearts (1985), adapted from Jane Rule's 1964 novel Desert of the Heart, centers on the romance between conventionally feminine academic Vivian Bell and more androgynous Cay Rivers, portraying the femme character's internal conflict with societal norms in 1950s Reno.^[64] Later queer cinema, such as independent works from the 1990s onward, has revisited butch-femme legacies, with films like those in the New Queer Cinema movement depicting feminine lesbians navigating desire and identity amid cultural shifts away from rigid roles.^[65] Queer visual art has employed femme aesthetics to reclaim feminine presentation as a site of resistance and intimacy, often through all-female or Sapphic-coded scenes excluding male figures. French painter Marie Laurencin (1883–1956), active in early 20th-century Paris, created ethereal works like Women in the Forest (1920), depicting groups of women in harmonious, pastel landscapes that evoke queer utopian spaces and subtle eroticism among figures in flowing gowns.^[66] Her Song of Bilitis (1904) illustrates two women kissing, drawing from Sapphic poetry to affirm feminine homoerotic bonds.^[66] Such pieces, rediscovered in exhibitions like the 2023 Barnes Foundation's "Marie Laurencin: Sapphic Paris," contrast with more androgynous queer portraiture, positioning femme style as a deliberate aesthetic strategy against normative gender expectations.^[66]

Fashion, Aesthetics, and Subcultural Symbols

Femme fashion historically drew from mid-20th-century lesbian bar cultures, where women adopted exaggerated feminine attire such as full makeup, high heels, and form-fitting dresses to signal attraction within same-sex spaces while navigating societal expectations of heterosexuality.^[67] ^[68] In 1950s venues like London's Gateways club, femmes paired lipstick and styled hair with tailored skirts, contrasting the more androgynous styles that emerged in the 1970s radical lesbian movement, which often dismissed such presentations as insufficiently political.^[67] By the 2020s, retro influences revived these elements, with modern femmes incorporating vintage 1950s silhouettes alongside contemporary twists like sustainable fabrics or DIY alterations to assert queer visibility.^[67] ^[68] Contemporary femme aesthetics prioritize intensified femininity with queer subversions, including heavy eyeliner, bold lip colors, and accessories like oversized earrings or layered jewelry that deviate from mainstream heterosexual norms—often termed "lesbian earrings" for their distinctive, non-conventional designs such as geometric shapes or symbolic motifs.^[69] High-femme styles amplify traditional elements like corsets, lace, or heels, while "hard femme" variants introduce edgier integrations such as leather accents or punk-inspired makeup to blend softness with rebellion.^[70] ^[71] Eclectic combinations, including mismatched patterns or thrift-sourced "weird outfits," allow femmes to express identity through personalization, distinguishing their look from generic femininity despite frequent misperceptions as straight women.^[72] ^[73] Subcultural symbols for femme identity remain less codified than those for butch or general lesbian roles, with signaling often relying on contextual cues like flagging—historically using handkerchiefs or keys in pockets to indicate preferences, though this has waned amid mainstream co-optation.^[74] The term "femme" itself functions as a declarative emblem in apparel and accessories, but its commercial use in fast fashion has diluted its specificity, prompting critiques of appropriation from lesbian contexts.^[75] Unlike broader lesbian icons such as the labrys axe, no uniquely femme emblem dominates, as the identity's visibility hinges more on performative aesthetics than discrete icons.^[68]

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Locating femme theory online - First Monday
Though femme has origins in lesbian subculture, it has been theorized as a queer feminine identity independent of butch that includes lesbians, bisexual women, ...
[19]
"Butch Between the Wars: A Pre-History of Butch Style in Twentieth ...
Butch Between the Wars is a pre-history of “butch,” a twentieth-century masculine style that became an identity category for lesbians in the 1940s and '50s.
[20]
Lesbian life in the 1930s | Xtra Magazine
Feb 16, 2016 · In the 1930s, a lesbian who accepted her sexual orientation and sought female partners was said to be “in the life.”
[21]
Lesbian Identity and the Politics of Butch-Femme - Amy Goodloe
Butch-femme roles are seen as either replicating or challenging heterosexual roles, and some argue they subvert all gender categories.Missing: sociology | Show results with:sociology
[22]
[PDF] Recontextualizing Butch in Twentieth-Century Lesbian Culture
the century progressed, butch and femme roles became even more prominent. By the 1 940s and 1 950s, butch-femme roles were essential for many lesbians,.
[23]
A brief history of butch and femme: Living gender outside the binary
Apr 23, 2024 · The terms butch and femme, used within the lesbian community, have often been simplified to refer to traditionally 'masculine' and traditionally ...
[24]
Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold: The History of a Lesbian ...
Based on 13 years of research, Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold ranges over topics including sex, relationships, coming out, butch-fem roles, motherhood, ...
[25]
Lesbians and the 1950s - OutHistory
The prominence of a Butch-Femme role distinction became the norm in lesbian communities. This role, essential in the 1950s, was a personal behavior code and ...
[26]
The SAGE Encyclopedia of LGBTQ Studies - Butch-Femme
... Butch-Femme gender roles came to prominence in the 1940s and 1950s among working-class sexual-minority women in the United States. Lesbian ...<|separator|>
[27]
Bar Raids & Forced Closures - NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project
They were subject to routine police raids, with establishments like the Sea Colony, a 1950s-60s lesbian bar, raided weekly.Missing: culture 1940s-
[28]
The History of Lesbian Bars - VICE
Aug 17, 2015 · Over the past 100 years, women have pursued the company of other women through speakeasies, apartment parties, butch-femme dives, lesbian separatist lounges, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
http://glbtqarchive.com/ssh/butch_femme_ssh_S.pdf
[30]
Lesbian Feminism, 1960s and 1970s - OutHistory
Lesbian-feminist disapproval of femme/butch culture was philosophically based on radical feminist assertions that all aspects of everyday life are highly ...
[31]
The Lesbian Revolution - October 2018 | Sheila Jeffreys
Nov 1, 2018 · Butch/femme roleplaying was roundly rejected, as was sadomasochism. The theorising of sexuality and heterosexuality was the greatest theoretical ...
[32]
[PDF] Queer Time, Affective Binds: An Erotohistoriography of Butch/Femme
Butch-fem roles were a deeply felt expression of individual identity and a personal code guiding appearance and sexual behavior; they were a system for.
[33]
Feminism, Queer Theory, and the Politics of Transgression
' Arguing against feminisms that saw practices like drag and butch/femme as either misogynist or heterosexist, Butler's work argues for the political use-value ...<|separator|>
[34]
The Persistent Desire: A Femme-butch Reader - Google Books
The Persistent Desire: A Femme-butch Reader. Front Cover. Joan Nestle. Alyson Publications, 1992 - Fiction - 503 pages. A Femme-Butch Reader,A groundbreaking ...
[35]
The Persistent desire : a femme-butch reader : Nestle, Joan, 1940
Oct 17, 2011 · The Persistent desire : a femme-butch reader ; Publication date: 1992 ; Topics: Lesbians, Lesbians, Lesbians' writings, American ; Item Size: 810.2 ...
[36]
Femme: Feminists, Lesbians and Bad Girls - 1st Edition - Routledge
In stock Free deliveryFemme Feminists, Lesbians and Bad Girls. Edited By Laura Harris, Elizabeth Crocker Copyright 1997. Paperback $39.99. Hardback $144.00. eBook $37.49. ISBN ...
[37]
On Our Own Terms: An Oral History and Archive of Queer Femme ...
The "On Our Own Terms" project (informally known as the Femme Story Archives) explores a unique period in Toronto's queer history, from 1990-2000.Missing: revival | Show results with:revival
[38]
What Does It Mean to Be Femme? - Them.us
Mar 5, 2024 · Femme referred to a feminine lesbian in a relationship with a masculine (or butch) lesbian. Lesbians of this era also pioneered labels like ...
[39]
Sexual and Gender Diversity Beyond Minority Identities - eScholarship
expansion and social media usage in the 2010s (Hammack & Manago, 2025 ... misunderstood gender: A model of modern femme identity. Sex Roles, 3(3–4) ...
[40]
Femme – Queer Cultures 101 - ScholarBlogs
Oct 29, 2023 · Femme is a term used in LGBT culture to describe someone who expresses themselves in a typically feminine way.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[41]
[PDF] mapping affective affinities between femme and third wave feminists
6 Therefore, in femme theory, the queerness and subversion of femme identity is underscored in order to combat femme invisibility in queer communities and to ...
[42]
PFLAG National Glossary
Having qualities or an appearance stereotypically associated with women or conventionally regarded as female. Femme. A person who is feminine of center in dress ...Missing: broadening | Show results with:broadening<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
Our Own Words: Fem & Trans, Past & Future | MR Online
Apr 9, 2021 · North American queer and trans folks—especially white ones—who came up in the 1990s and early 2000s couldn't help but encounter “fem” as part of ...
[44]
Soft Femme Theory: Femme Internet Aesthetics and the Politics of ...
Dec 14, 2020 · In literature of the late 1990s and early 2000s, femme was described as “a bad girl” (Crocker & Harris, 1997), as “brassy” and “ballsy ...
[45]
Femme Lesbians - Reddit
Sep 13, 2016 · r/FemmeLesbians: A sub for lesbians of the femme persuasion and those who love them. Lurk, laugh, and love the ladies with the long locks ...
[46]
Now You See Me: Visibility of the Lesbian Identity on TikTok
Oct 8, 2021 · Feminist scholar Annamarie Jagose argues that lesbian invisibility is itself a representational strategy denoting a presence that can't be seen.Missing: reclamation | Show results with:reclamation
[47]
Find Femmes (@findfemmes) • Instagram photos and videos
Dating Site, Matchmaking & Community for Femme LGBTQ+ Women. Online Publication @thefemmeedition_. Cosmo|HuffPost|DIVA.
[48]
Researchers explain social media's role in rapidly shifting social ...
May 29, 2024 · A new paper by UC Santa Cruz psychologists describes how social media has supported an explosion of diversity in gender and sexuality in America ...
[49]
What Is Femme Invisibility? - Verywell Mind
Aug 22, 2021 · A femme is a queer person presenting as feminine, and femme invisibility means they are not visibly queer, often due to blending in.
[50]
Femme Invisibility: On Passing Right by Your People and Not Being ...
Mar 6, 2014 · Femme invisibility means passing by their people without being recognized, as femmes are often overlooked and not seen as the stereotypical ...
[51]
It's Lesbian Visibility Week – so why are we still invisible on dating ...
Apr 24, 2025 · Social media platforms like TikTok and Reddit are filled with anecdotal stories about femme erasure – users being asked if they're “really gay,” ...
[52]
On Being Unseen: Femme Invisibility and Disbelief - El Beisman
Dec 2, 2019 · “Questions of authenticity for femme-identified queer women are often associated with issues of invisibility.
[53]
“You Don't Look Like a Lesbian”: The Reality of Femmephobia and ...
Mar 29, 2021 · Femmephobia and femme-invisibility complicate the already emotionally laborious process of coming out, first to oneself, then to others. As ...<|separator|>
[54]
What We Mean When We Say "Femme": A Roundtable - Autostraddle
Jul 18, 2016 · And I do think that a lot of it has to do less so with any sort of purposeful femme erasure in queer communities (although that is extremely ...
[55]
SAPPHO Takes on Femme Invisibility - GO Magazine
GM: Do you feel toxic masculinity plays a role in femme erasure? AG: I definitely do, I think I'm coming from the school of thought that we need to ...<|separator|>
[56]
Guest Post: Femme Privilege Does Not Exist - Feministing
Jan 7, 2013 · Can you imagine the anxiety of negotiating safe spaces constantly?” Central to femme invisibility (which should be called femme erasure, in ...
[57]
On the Appropriation of Femme - Lesbians Over Everything
Jul 22, 2016 · Femme is a specifically lesbian experience. It is the experience of being both a woman who performs femininity and a woman who is attracted exclusively to ...
[58]
Who Gets to Identify as 'Femme'? - VICE
Dec 20, 2017 · “Femme” can be for anyone who pushes against gender norms and sexist policies that serve to further oppress those who are historically marginalized.
[59]
To What Extent Is Lesbian Culture Consistent With Radical Feminism?
Aug 2, 2024 · The purpose of this document is to describe lesbian reality, lesbian rights, and lesbian political potential consistent with radical feminist principles.Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[60]
Lesbian Feminism, 1960s and 1970s · Lesbians in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1999, by Esther Newton and Her Students · OutHistory
### Summary of Lesbian Feminism's Rejection/Critique of Butch/Femme Roles in the 1970s
[61]
Effects of “Butch/Femme” on Lesbians | WDI USA
Dec 3, 2024 · Butch and femme lesbians “elevate women loving women in all their variety and authenticity and joy,” as this post advocates, every single day.
[62]
[PDF] Gender Within 20th Century Lesbian Literature - Eagle Scholar
May 2, 2025 · Lesbians have experienced gender identity and presentation uniquely, including in butch-femme culture, which is when Jess's experience takes ...
[63]
gnc/butch woman literature masterpost - Tumblr
Dec 2, 2019 · Stone Butch Blues - Leslie Feinberg [pdf] ; Crybaby Butch - Judith Frank ; Far from Xanadu - Julie Anne Peters ; Persistent Desire - Joan Nestle.
[64]
Essential Queer Cinema: on Women, by Women - NewFest
Experience the history of queer women's cinema with a selection of essential films, all directed by women · PARIS IS BURNING (1990) · DESERT HEARTS (1985).
[65]
[PDF] Contemporary Lesbian Pop Culture and Butch-Femme Representation
This thesis explores contemporary lesbian pop culture, butch-femme representation, and the relationship between media and identity, in the era of mainstream ...
[66]
Marie Laurencin's Queer, Feminine Utopias Are Gaining Renewed ...
Nov 30, 2023 · Queer and feminist reappraisals of art history have often neglected Laurencin because her girly aesthetic does not scan as sufficiently serious ...
[67]
Femme Chronology: 1950s Bar Lesbians and 2020s Retro Dykes
Oct 30, 2020 · Femme fashion, seen in 1930s Paris and 1950s London, is now reflected in 2020s vintage-wearing lesbians, who embrace it to connect with the ...
[68]
Dressing Dykes: Femme Fashion History - Polyester Zine
Mar 9, 2025 · Femmes, in their lipstick and high heels, were thought to be the opposite of radical. If a lesbian wasn't dressed in the androgynous 70s “dyke ...
[69]
r/LesbianActually on Reddit: LIPSTICK FEMMES! how do you signal ...
Oct 19, 2023 · Femme queers often go for unconventional makeup, hairstyles, and accessories: "lesbian earrings" are a thing for a reason. It's like they all ...LGBTQIA+ Signaling, Presentation, and Commodification in FashionSince queer fashion went mainstream..zoomers and gay-dar - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[70]
Femme - LGBTQIA+ Wiki - Fandom
Femme has many different meanings and often refers to a person who embraces, reclaims, or subverts their culture's understanding of what it means to be ...Community · Flag · Perceptions and discrimination · Media<|separator|>
[71]
Sexuality – Dress, Appearance, and Diversity in U.S. Society
In addition, much research has analyzed feminine-leaning aesthetics, sometimes referred to as femme, high-femme, or lipstick lesbian styles or identities.
[72]
https://www.lemon8-app.com/brittcubcreative/7223090007010017797
[73]
On The Importance Of Visible Femme Icons - NYLON
Jun 9, 2017 · Femmes, queer women who primarily prefer to dress in a style deemed “feminine” by society, frequently bemoan being mistaken as straight by ...
[74]
Symbols of Queerness: Flagging as a Fem - Fusion Magazine
Nov 8, 2024 · What started as a femme's signaling device, is now a mainstream trend. This makes many pull away from flagging completely, as it tends to ...
[75]
Rainbow Capitalism and the Appropriation of Lesbian Imagery
Jun 25, 2021 · Aside from the double venus, fast fashion is also fond of using the word “femme” as a feminist-adjacent slogan. “Femme”, recently, has been all ...