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Figurative system of human knowledge

The figurative system of human knowledge, known in French as Système figuré des connaissances humaines and sometimes as the Tree of Diderot and d'Alembert, is a tree-like diagram classifying the domains of human understanding according to the faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, devised primarily by Jean le Rond d’Alembert for the Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers edited by Denis Diderot and first published in 1751.^[1]^[2] This taxonomic representation, inspired by Francis Bacon's earlier divisions of learning, structures knowledge with a central trunk of philosophy under which theology is subsumed, branching into memory (encompassing history and empirical arts), reason (including metaphysics, mathematics, and physics), and imagination (covering poetry, music, and fine arts).^[2]^[3] The system aimed to systematically organize the vast compilation of Enlightenment-era scholarship, reflecting a rationalist prioritization of empirical and philosophical inquiry over traditional religious hierarchies, which contributed to censorship challenges faced by the Encyclopédie.^[1]^[2] As a foundational element of the Encyclopédie, it provided a visual and conceptual framework for integrating sciences, crafts, and humanities, influencing later knowledge classification schemes and embodying the era's commitment to accessible, interconnected learning.^[3]

Historical Development

Origins in the Encyclopédie Project

The figurative system of human knowledge emerged as the classificatory framework for the Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, a comprehensive reference work edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The project originated in 1745 when Diderot received a commission from publisher André François Le Breton to translate and adapt Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopædia into French, but it quickly expanded into an original endeavor reflecting Enlightenment ideals of rational inquiry and secular knowledge dissemination. By 1750, d'Alembert had joined as co-editor, and the system was devised to illustrate the interconnected structure of human understanding, first presented in the inaugural volume published on June 28, 1751.^[1]^[4] Central to this system is a metaphorical tree diagram, conceived primarily by d'Alembert, which divides knowledge into three principal branches corresponding to the human mind's faculties: Mémoire (memory, encompassing history and traditions), Raison (reason, covering science and philosophy), and Imagination (imagination, including fine arts and poetry). This tripartite structure was explicitly inspired by Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning (1605), which proposed a similar division into history, philosophy, and poetry, though d'Alembert adapted it to prioritize empirical observation and analytic methods over scholastic traditions. The diagram, accompanied by d'Alembert's Discours préliminaire (Preliminary Discourse), served not as a rigid alphabetical organizer—since the Encyclopédie entries were arranged lexicographically—but as a conceptual map to facilitate cross-references and reveal the genealogy of ideas, underscoring the editors' view of knowledge as a dynamic, interconnected whole progressing from sensory experience to abstract synthesis.^[1]^[4]^[5] This representational approach marked a departure from prior encyclopedic efforts, which often lacked such a unified philosophical underpinning, and reflected the Encyclopédie's ambition to combat intellectual fragmentation amid the era's scientific advancements and critiques of religious dogma. Theology, notably, was subordinated under reason rather than elevated as a foundational trunk, signaling a secular reorientation of knowledge hierarchies. The system's origins thus lay in the collaborative intellectual labor of Diderot and d'Alembert during the project's formative years (1745–1751), where it functioned as both a practical tool for content organization and a manifesto for methodical thinking, influencing subsequent volumes through 1772 despite editorial disputes and censorship challenges.^[4]^[5]

Key Contributors and Timeline

The development of the figurative system of human knowledge stemmed from the editorial planning for L'Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, with Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert as the principal architects. Diderot, initially approached in October 1745 by publisher André-François Le Breton to translate and adapt Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopædia, expanded the scope into an original compendium that required a structured taxonomy of knowledge; d'Alembert, recruited in 1746 for mathematical contributions, collaborated closely on the organizational framework by 1747.^[6]^[7] D'Alembert articulated the system's theoretical basis in his Discours préliminaire, emphasizing a tripartite division rooted in human faculties—memory, reason, and imagination—while the accompanying diagrammatic plate, titled Système figuré des connaissances humaines, visually rendered this hierarchy as a branching schema. This plate, executed by engraver Robert-François Denis after the editors' design, appeared as a fold-out in the first volume, published on June 28, 1751, serving as a guide for the encyclopedia's article sequencing and cross-references.^[5] Key milestones include the 1750 prospectus, which previewed the classificatory approach amid growing contributor involvement (over 140 by 1751, including figures like Voltaire and Montesquieu for select entries), followed by suppressions in 1752 due to clerical opposition, yet the core taxonomy remained intact through the project's resumption. Subsequent volumes (1751–1765 for the main 17 text folios, plus plates and supplements to 1780) adhered to the 1751 schema without major revisions to the figurative system, though practical deviations occurred in article placement for alphabetical order.^[6]

Influences from Prior Classifications

The figurative system of human knowledge in the Encyclopédie drew its foundational tripartite structure from Francis Bacon's classification of the sciences outlined in The Advancement of Learning (1605), which organized knowledge according to the mind's three primary faculties: memory (corresponding to history), reason (philosophy and sciences), and imagination (poetry and arts).^[8] Bacon's schema emphasized empirical observation and inductive reasoning as paths to advancing knowledge, influencing d'Alembert's adoption of these categories in the Preliminary Discourse (1751), where he mapped history under memory, philosophy under reason, and poetry (or fine arts) under imagination.^[9] This division allowed for a hierarchical branching that reflected Bacon's view of knowledge as interconnected yet distinct domains, with philosophy as the most rigorous pursuit of truth through reason.^[10] d'Alembert explicitly acknowledged Bacon's framework in the Discourse, praising its utility while proposing revisions to align with contemporary empiricism, such as subordinating speculative metaphysics to experimental sciences within the reason branch.^[11] Bacon's separation of theology as a divine revelation outside human faculties was not retained; instead, theological topics were integrated under reason as historical or philosophical inquiries, reflecting Enlightenment secularization rather than direct emulation.^[9] This adaptation preserved Bacon's emphasis on utility and observation—evident in the Encyclopédie's extensive coverage of mechanical arts under memory—but prioritized causal chains of knowledge over Bacon's more rigid compartmentalization.^[8] Secondary influences included epistemological insights from John Locke and René Descartes, which informed d'Alembert's methodological refinements but did not alter the core classificatory tree; Locke's empiricist tabula rasa reinforced Bacon's inductive approach without proposing a new taxonomy.^[11] Earlier Aristotelian divisions, mediated through medieval scholasticism, indirectly shaped Bacon's own system via contrasts in Novum Organum (1620), but d'Alembert critiqued such traditions as overly deductive, favoring Bacon's proto-scientific hierarchy.^[12] The Encyclopédie's tree thus represented a synthesis privileging Bacon's empirical realism, evidenced by its 1751 diagram's explicit branching from the three faculties into over 40 subdivisions, such as natural history under memory and physics under reason.^[9]

Structural Description

The Tree Diagram and Visual Representation

The système figuré des connaissances humaines, or figurative system of human knowledge, is depicted in the Encyclopédie as an intricate tree diagram that visually organizes all branches of learning according to the faculties of the human mind. This fold-out engraving, included in the first volume published in 1751, illustrates knowledge as an organic structure emerging from a trunk rooted in particular sciences and arts, then dividing into three primary branches representing Memory (Mémoire), Reason (Raison), and Imagination.^[13]^[14] The diagram employs arboreal symbolism to convey hierarchy, with the trunk symbolizing foundational empirical observations and the branching limbs denoting progressive specialization and interconnection among disciplines.^[15] Visually, the tree features detailed engravings of leaves and sub-branches labeled with specific fields; for instance, the Memory branch extends to sacred history, profane history, fables, geography, and chronology, subordinating theology to historical record rather than independent revelation.^[14] The Reason branch encompasses abstract sciences like mathematics and logic, alongside concrete pursuits such as physics, mechanics, chemistry, and natural history, emphasizing analytical and empirical methods.^[14] Meanwhile, the Imagination branch covers poetry, eloquence, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture, highlighting creative expression derived from the other faculties.^[14] This representation, approximately 900 by 600 mm in later engraved versions, uses fine lines and annotations to map over 50 subcategories, facilitating cross-references in the Encyclopédie's articles.^[16] The diagram's design underscores the Encyclopédie's aim to systematize knowledge dynamically, with branches interconnecting to reflect mutual dependencies—such as physics drawing from mathematics—rather than rigid silos.^[14] Produced as a copperplate engraving for clarity and durability, it served both as a classificatory tool and a philosophical statement on the unity of knowledge under human cognition, influencing subsequent taxonomic efforts despite its static form.^[16] Later editions and supplements, such as the 1776-1777 version, retained this core structure while adapting details, affirming its enduring visual paradigm for Enlightenment epistemology.^[17]

Primary Branches: Memory, Reason, and Imagination

The figurative system delineates human knowledge into three primary branches—Memory, Reason, and Imagination—mirroring the fundamental operations of the human mind as articulated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopédie.^[4] These branches classify disciplines according to how the understanding processes perceptions: memory preserves and recounts past facts, reason analyzes and abstracts principles, and imagination synthesizes novel representations.^[18] This tripartite structure, introduced in the 1751 prospectus and visualized in the Encyclopédie's frontispiece tree diagram, subordinated traditional theology to rational inquiry while elevating empirical sciences.^[19] The branch of Memory encompasses history in its varied forms, serving as the repository of accumulated human experience. It includes natural history, documenting observable phenomena in the physical world; civil or profane history, chronicling political, social, and economic events; and sacred history, addressing religious narratives and ecclesiastical developments.^[20] D'Alembert positioned history as dependent on faithful recollection rather than speculative judgment, emphasizing its role in providing raw data for rational analysis without imposing interpretive frameworks.^[4] Subdivisions under Memory thus prioritize chronological accuracy and evidentiary detail, as seen in Encyclopédie entries on chronology and geography as foundational aids to historical memory.^[18] Reason, the central and most expansive branch, aligns with philosophy broadly conceived to include the sciences and systematic knowledge derived from analysis and deduction. It subdivides into theoretical philosophy—covering mathematics, physics, and metaphysics—and practical philosophy, addressing ethics, politics, and economics.^[21] Theology, traditionally a dominant domain, is integrated here under "knowledge of God" as a subset of rational theology, reflecting the Encyclopédistes' commitment to subjecting religious doctrine to logical scrutiny rather than accepting it as axiomatic.^[9] This branch privileges causal explanations and empirical verification, with mathematics serving as the "queen of sciences" for its demonstrative certainty, influencing the hierarchy where abstract reasoning underpins applied disciplines like medicine and mechanics.^[4] The Imagination branch governs the fine arts and poetry, domains where creative synthesis produces aesthetic and expressive forms beyond strict utility or truth. It includes poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture, valued for their capacity to evoke emotions and ideals through inventive representation.^[18] Unlike Memory's fidelity to fact or Reason's pursuit of verity, Imagination operates by recombining elements into novel wholes, as d'Alembert noted its role in operations that "imitate nature" while transcending mere replication.^[4] This classification underscores the Enlightenment prioritization of rational faculties while acknowledging imagination's contribution to human culture, though it remains peripheral to the core of scientific progress.^[20]

Detailed Subdivisions and Taxonomy

The figurative system delineates a hierarchical taxonomy beneath its three primary branches, aiming to catalog the full scope of human knowledge through interconnections rather than rigid isolation. This structure, elaborated in the Encyclopédie's first volume, reflects d'Alembert's view that knowledge arises from the mind's faculties—memory preserving facts, reason analyzing principles, and imagination creating representations—while emphasizing empirical observation and utility over speculative abstraction. Subdivisions prioritize practical and observational sciences, with theology subordinated under rational inquiry rather than elevated as foundational, diverging from medieval schemas.^[10] Under the branch of Memory, corresponding to History, knowledge is subdivided into factual records of past events and natural phenomena, serving as repositories for empirical data without deep causal analysis. Sacred History encompasses ecclesiastical narratives and prophetic accounts; Civil History includes proper civil chronicles (memoirs, antiquities, comprehensive annals) alongside literary history tracing intellectual developments; Natural History details the uniformity of nature (celestial bodies, meteors, terrestrial and marine formations, minerals, vegetables, animals), deviations or errors therein, and human applications via arts, trades, and manufactures (over 250 enumerated, from agriculture to mechanics). This branch underscores preservation over innovation, with natural history bridging to rational sciences through observation. The Reason branch, aligned with Philosophy, organizes analytical and principled knowledge into sciences of God, man, and nature, positioning mathematics as an auxiliary tool for precision. The Science of God includes natural theology, religion, superstition, doctrines of spirits (angels, demons), and the soul (rational and sensitive aspects); the Science of Man comprises Logic (arts of thinking via apprehension, judgment, reasoning, and method; retaining through natural and artificial memory; communicating via grammar, rhetoric, criticism, pedagogy, and philology) and Morale (general ethics, natural jurisprudence, economics, politics); the Science of Nature covers general and particular physics alongside Mathematics—pure (arithmetic including numerical and algebraic forms, geometry) and mixed (mechanics via statics and dynamics, astronomy, optics, acoustics, and related fields). This taxonomy privileges demonstrative certainty in mathematics and physics, applying reason to derive laws from sensory data. Imagination, linked to Poetry and fine arts, classifies creative expressions that imitate or embellish reality, drawing from memory and reason but prioritizing aesthetic formation. Subdivisions include Narrative Poetry (epic, madrigal, epigram), Dramatic Poetry (tragedy, comedy, opera, eclogue), and Parabolic forms (allegories); associated arts extend to architecture, music, painting, sculpture, and engraving, treated as imitative crafts refining sensory appeal. Unlike the factual rigor of memory or analytical depth of reason, this branch views imagination as subordinate yet essential for motivating societal progress through eloquence and beauty. Cross-references (renvois) in the Encyclopédie link these subdivisions, illustrating causal connections—such as natural history informing physics— to promote a unified, dynamic understanding over static categorization. This approach, while comprehensive for its era, reflects Enlightenment optimism in systematizing knowledge amid emerging empirical methods, though it omits emerging fields like chemistry's independent status until later volumes.^[10]

Philosophical Underpinnings

d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse

Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Discours préliminaire, published in 1751 as the preface to the first volume of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, outlines the project's methodological and philosophical foundations.^[4] In this 45-page essay, d'Alembert traces the historical development of human knowledge from antiquity through the Renaissance, emphasizing the interconnections among disciplines as a "filiation" or genealogical tree of ideas.^[10] He argues that the Encyclopédie's structure rejects arbitrary scholastic divisions in favor of a systematic arrangement derived from the natural affinities between subjects, aiming to facilitate both learning and discovery.^[4] Philosophically, d'Alembert grounds the classification of knowledge in the operations of the human mind, identifying three primary faculties: memory, which preserves past experiences; reason, which analyzes and abstracts; and imagination, which combines elements creatively.^[4] This tripartite division structures the Encyclopédie's figurative system, with memory corresponding to history (including sacred, civil, and natural history), reason to philosophy (encompassing theology, metaphysics, and empirical sciences), and imagination to the fine arts and poetry.^[4] Drawing partial inspiration from Francis Bacon's Advancement of Learning (1605), d'Alembert adapts the faculties to prioritize empirical observation and rational deduction over dogmatic authority, viewing knowledge as a connected whole where abstract sciences like mathematics underpin experimental ones.^[4] ^[22] The Discourse also addresses epistemology by advocating an analytic method—decomposing complex ideas into simpler components—complemented by synthesis for reconstruction, reflecting influences from John Locke and René Descartes.^[4] d'Alembert posits that true progress in knowledge arises from clarifying origins and relations, critiquing medieval encyclopaedias for their lack of critical method and insisting on cross-references to reveal causal links between arts and sciences.^[4] While including theology under reason's purview as "knowledge of God," he subordinates it to rational inquiry, signaling an Enlightenment shift toward secular humanism without outright rejection of revelation.^[4] This framework underscores causal realism in knowledge organization, where disciplines evolve through verifiable progress rather than isolated traditions.^[10] d'Alembert's essay extends to practical guidelines for contributors, urging precision in definitions and citations of authorities only when empirically supported, to combat superstition and promote utility.^[4] He envisions the Encyclopédie as a tool for perpetual advancement, projecting that future volumes would refine the system based on new discoveries, as evidenced by the 28 volumes ultimately produced between 1751 and 1772.^[10] Critically, the Discourse's emphasis on reason's primacy has been noted for its optimism in human perfectibility, though it presumes a Eurocentric lineage of knowledge traceable to Greek origins, with limited acknowledgment of non-Western contributions.^[4]

Alignment with Enlightenment Empiricism

The figurative system classifies human knowledge according to the mind's primary faculties—memory, reason, and imagination—which process sensory perceptions and experiences, thereby embodying Enlightenment empiricism's core tenet that knowledge originates from observation and empirical analysis rather than a priori speculation or revelation. In the Encyclopédie's detailed explanation, memory preserves historical facts and empirical records as the foundational repository of observed data; reason dissects and generalizes these through philosophical and scientific inquiry, emphasizing methodical experimentation; and imagination recombines experiential elements into artistic expressions, ensuring creativity remains tethered to sensory origins.^[23] This tripartite structure mirrors the empiricist epistemology advanced by John Locke, whose Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) argued that the mind acquires ideas solely through sensation from the external world and subsequent reflection, a framework d'Alembert explicitly praised for establishing metaphysics on empirical grounds akin to Newton's physics.^[24] d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse further aligns the system with empiricist method by advocating Francis Bacon's inductive approach—gathering facts through observation before theorizing—and rejecting indemonstrable metaphysical hypotheses that stray from verifiable evidence.^[25] Empirical sciences, such as natural history and mathematics, dominate the reason branch, reflecting the Enlightenment prioritization of testable hypotheses over dogmatic authority, as seen in the Encyclopédie's placement of theology as a subordinate philosophical offshoot rather than an independent revelatory domain. This subordination underscores a causal realism rooted in observable phenomena, where knowledge advances via cumulative experience rather than unexamined tradition.^[26] Influenced by Étienne Bonnot de Condillac's sensationalism, which extended Lockean empiricism to assert that all ideas derive from transformed sensations, the system privileges faculties that systematically organize sensory input into coherent knowledge, fostering progress through rational critique of inherited beliefs.^[27] By 1751, when the Discourse was published, this framework had crystallized the Enlightenment's shift toward secular, evidence-based classification, evident in the Encyclopédie's 28-volume expansion by 1772 that cataloged over 70,000 empirical entries across arts and sciences.^[24]

Treatment of Theology and Secularization

In the figurative system of human knowledge outlined by Diderot and d'Alembert in the Encyclopédie, theology is classified as a subdivision under the primary branch of Reason, specifically within Philosophy, rather than occupying a dominant or independent position as in earlier theocentric schemas like those of Thomas Aquinas or medieval summae.^[20] This placement integrates theology into the rational faculties of the human mind, treating it as an extension of philosophical inquiry rather than a separate realm of divine revelation superior to empirical or logical methods.^[28] d'Alembert, in the Preliminary Discourse, explicitly critiques Francis Bacon's earlier division of sciences into theology and philosophy, asserting that "Revealed Theology is simply reason applied to revealed facts," thereby subordinating it to the operations of reason and aligning it with historical testimony under memory where facts are concerned.^[29] He distinguishes natural theology—derived solely from unaided reason—as a legitimate but limited pursuit, while implied skepticism toward revealed doctrines positions theology alongside other speculative pursuits like divination and ecclesiastical history, effectively rationalizing and demystifying religious knowledge.^[28]^[20] This taxonomic choice exemplifies the Encyclopédie's secularizing impulse, reflecting Enlightenment efforts to anthropomorphize knowledge production by privileging human cognitive faculties—memory, reason, and imagination—over supernatural authority, a shift that marginalized theology's prescriptive role in favor of descriptive, verifiable inquiry.^[10] The system's structure, visualized in the iconic tree diagram published in the 1751 prospectus, visually subordinates theological branches to philosophical roots, grouping them with moral philosophy and jurisprudence, which underscores a causal prioritization of empirical causation and rational deduction in explaining human affairs.^[30] The treatment provoked ecclesiastical backlash, including a 1752 condemnation by the Sorbonne for promoting irreligion and a 1759 royal suspension influenced by Jesuit opposition, highlighting tensions between the system's rationalist framework and institutional theology's claims to infallible revelation.^[20] Despite such resistance, the classification persisted in the 17-volume Encyclopédie (1751–1765) and supplementary volumes (1776–1777), embedding a precedent for modern knowledge organization that treats religious doctrines as objects of critical analysis rather than axiomatic truths.^[10] This approach, while advancing secular inquiry, has been critiqued by traditionalists for reducing transcendent claims to mere historical or psychological artifacts, potentially overlooking non-rational dimensions of religious experience verifiable through cumulative testimonial evidence across cultures.^[28]

Criticisms and Debates

Limitations in Scope and Hierarchy

The figurative system delineates human knowledge through three primary faculties—memory, reason, and imagination—but subordinates theology to the branch of reason, specifically under metaphysics, rather than elevating it as an independent or foundational domain. This placement reflects d'Alembert's view in the Discours préliminaire that theological knowledge derives from rational analysis rather than direct revelation, prioritizing empirical and philosophical scrutiny over scriptural authority.^[18]^[31] Consequently, fields reliant on faith, tradition, or non-rational intuition, such as certain religious doctrines or esoteric traditions, receive marginal treatment, limiting the system's scope to secular, human-centered epistemologies dominant in 18th-century Europe.^[32] The hierarchical tree structure further constrains applicability by assuming knowledge domains branch discretely without significant overlap, enforcing a top-down taxonomy that mirrors Baconian influences but overlooks causal interconnections across categories. For example, advancements in physics during the Encyclopédie's era, such as those in mechanics, blur lines between reason-based sciences and historical narratives of discovery, yet the system assigns them rigidly to philosophy or history without accommodating hybrid inquiries.^[2] This rigidity proved inadequate for later interdisciplinary fields like biology's integration of empirical observation (memory), theoretical modeling (reason), and speculative evolution (imagination), which defy neat subdivision.^[33] Contemporary analyses critique the tree's arborescent model for imposing artificial linearity on knowledge, which empirical evidence of scientific progress shows as networked and emergent rather than strictly hierarchical. Scholar Fulvio Mazzocchi argues that while the tree facilitated Enlightenment-era organization, it underrepresents lateral connections, favoring vertical descent; alternatives like net structures better capture modern knowledge dynamics, where causation flows multidirectionally across domains.^[34] The system's Eurocentric focus, drawing from French and classical sources, also excludes non-Western epistemologies, such as indigenous empirical systems or Eastern philosophies, confining its universality claim to a historically bounded context.^[35] Despite classifying over 55,000 articles, residual ambiguities in cross-branch placement highlight inherent scalability limits for expanding knowledge bases.^[36]

Contemporary Religious and Traditionalist Objections

Contemporary religious and traditionalist objections to the figurative system emphasize its demotion of theology from a foundational role to a subordinate position within secular branches, portraying this as symptomatic of Enlightenment-era secularization that prioritizes human faculties over divine revelation. In d'Alembert's diagrammatic representation, religious knowledge is relegated to a sub-branch under metaphysics, itself nested within philosophy or history (as part of memory), inverting pre-modern schemas where theology served as the "queen of the sciences" integrating all disciplines toward divine ends.^[37] This classification, critics argue, treats revelation not as the origin of truth but as a historical or speculative artifact, undermining its authority and fostering a fragmented epistemology divorced from transcendent causality. Traditionalist Catholic thinkers, echoing Thomistic principles, contend that genuine knowledge organization must subordinate reason, memory, and imagination to faith, as human understanding is inherently limited without illumination by revealed truth about ultimate causes. By contrast, the system's tripartite division—elevating empirical history and rational analysis while confining theology to factual recounting—exemplifies what they view as rationalist hubris, contributing causally to modern crises of relativism wherein secular reason claims autonomy from metaphysical absolutes. Such critiques highlight how the Encyclopédie's model influenced subsequent knowledge taxonomies, perpetuating institutional biases that marginalize religious epistemologies in favor of naturalistic ones, despite empirical evidence from historical sciences underscoring the integral role of faith in pre-Enlightenment intellectual achievements.^[38]^[32] These objections also extend to the system's causal implications for cultural decay, with traditionalists asserting that decoupling knowledge from teleological orientation toward God erodes moral realism and societal coherence, as evidenced by correlations between Enlightenment-inspired secular education reforms and declining religious adherence in Europe post-1750. Proponents of integralist or perennialist traditions further decry the tree's anthropocentric hierarchy for neglecting non-rational modes of knowing, such as mystical insight or sacred tradition, which empirical studies of enduring civilizations reveal as stabilizers against ideological excesses.^[39] While mainstream academic sources often frame such critiques as reactionary, traditionalists counter that the system's enduring legacy in library classifications and curricula demonstrates its role in systematically biasing knowledge dissemination against theistic realism.

Modern Assessments of Rigidity and Bias

Scholars in the history of science and knowledge organization have critiqued the figurative system's hierarchical structure for its inherent rigidity, which presupposes a fixed, arboreal taxonomy ill-suited to the fluid, interdisciplinary character of post-Enlightenment knowledge production. Unlike modern networked models—such as those employed in digital ontologies or hyperlinked databases—the tree enforces strict branching from primary faculties (memory, reason, imagination), limiting cross-pollination between domains; for instance, quantum physics integrates empirical history, philosophical reasoning, and imaginative modeling in ways incompatible with such compartmentalization.^[13] This rigidity, while effective for 18th-century encyclopedic compilation amid scattered artisanal knowledge, constrains adaptability, as evidenced by the Encyclopédie's own editorial struggles to fit evolving entries into predefined slots, leading to inconsistencies noted in subsequent volumes published between 1751 and 1772.^[32] The system's bias manifests prominently in its epistemological prioritization, subordinating theology—a domain of revealed knowledge—to branches of history (memory) and philosophy (reason), effectively "trimming" it from Baconian precedents to favor secular, utilitarian sciences. Historian Robert Darnton argues this reflects a deliberate philosophe strategy to elevate "useful" knowledge conducive to material progress, demoting speculative or dogmatic elements that lacked empirical validation, as seen in the tree's depiction where theology appears as a subordinate twig rather than a foundational trunk. This secular tilt, rooted in causal realism—wherein verifiable mechanisms of nature supersede unfalsifiable assertions—drove innovations like the steam engine (1760s onward) but invited charges of anti-religious prejudice, particularly from Catholic critics who viewed it as eroding traditional authority structures.^[22] Further assessments highlight cultural and Eurocentric biases in the classification, which privileges rationalist faculties aligned with Western mechanical arts while marginalizing intuitive or communal knowledge systems from non-European traditions, such as indigenous oral histories or Eastern holistic philosophies. Studies in library science underscore how such hierarchies perpetuate selective visibility, with Enlightenment schemes influencing rigid systems like Dewey Decimal (1876), which similarly embed value judgments favoring science over folklore.^[40] Yet, from a first-principles standpoint, this bias correlates empirically with accelerated causal advancements in technology and medicine, as rational hierarchies facilitated systematic inquiry; critiques from postmodern perspectives decry it as a totalizing metanarrative imposing universality, though such views often overlook the system's predictive success in delineating productive epistemologies.^[41] Darnton's analysis, drawn from archival sales records and contributor networks, remains a benchmark, tempered by awareness of academia's prevailing secular leanings that may amplify anti-traditional interpretations.

Legacy and Applications

Influence on Library and Information Sciences

The figurative system of human knowledge, as outlined in the Encyclopédie (1751–1780) by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, adapted Francis Bacon's 17th-century divisions of learning into three primary faculties—memory (encompassing history), reason (philosophy and sciences), and imagination (fine arts)—with further hierarchical subdivisions into disciplines.^[42] This tree-like representation marked an early modern effort to map knowledge systematically, emphasizing interconnections and progression from general principles to specific applications, which resonated in the Baconian tradition of empirical classification.^[42] This framework exerted influence on library classification by promoting a universal, hierarchical approach to organizing intellectual content, bridging Enlightenment epistemology with practical librarianship.^[42] In the 19th century, American librarian William Torrey Harris drew on Baconian structures, as mediated through the Encyclopédie, to develop a classification for the St. Louis Public Library in the 1850s, prioritizing reason and science while maintaining faculty-based branching.^[43] Harris's system, in turn, directly informed Melvil Dewey's Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), first published in 1876, which adopted decimal notation for hierarchical expansion but retained echoes of the tripartite division in its broad categories (e.g., 000–099 for generalities, akin to encyclopedic overviews; 100–900 for disciplines).^[43]^[42] In information sciences, the Encyclopédie's systematic cross-referencing and emphasis on relational knowledge pathways prefigured modern subject indexing and thesauri, contributing to the evolution of knowledge organization systems (KOS) that facilitate retrieval in digital environments.^[42] The International Society for Knowledge Organization recognizes the Encyclopédie as part of the lineage shaping contemporary schemes like the Library of Congress Classification (LCC), which, while enumerative, inherits the hierarchical logic for arranging vast collections.^[42] However, adaptations often inverted or modified the original faculties—e.g., Dewey's relative emphasis on practical utility over pure reason—reflecting shifts from Enlightenment rationalism to 19th-century pragmatism.^[43] Critics in knowledge organization note that the Encyclopédie's adaptation of Bacon provided a conceptual scaffold but limited direct methodological innovation for libraries, as its alphabetical article order prioritized accessibility over strict systematization.^[42] Nonetheless, its visual metaphor of a knowledge tree enduringly symbolized the aspiration for comprehensive, navigable intellectual structures, influencing bibliographic control practices into the 20th century and beyond.^[42]

Adaptations in Educational Frameworks

The Système figuré des connaissances humaines, as depicted in the Encyclopédie, offered a hierarchical taxonomy dividing knowledge into three faculties—memory (encompassing history and practical arts), reason (philosophy and sciences), and imagination (poetry and fine arts)—which served as a prototype for structuring educational disciplines systematically.^[44] This model promoted the pedagogical dissemination of interconnected knowledge, influencing Enlightenment-era curricula by emphasizing empirical classification over scholastic fragmentation to foster rational citizenship and societal progress.^[44] In vocational and technology education, adaptations drew from the system's placement of mechanical arts under memory, reclassifying crafts from guild-secreted practices to codified, transmissible knowledge illustrated via approximately 2,900 engraved plates detailing tools, processes, and machinery.^[45] This visual and taxonomic approach facilitated theory-practice integration, impacting 19th-century technical instruction methods, such as Russia's tool-based curricula, and underscoring the value of applied skills in broader educational frameworks.^[45] Diderot's Plan d'une université pour l'instruction publique dans toutes les sciences (1775) adapted the figurative principles to advocate a meritocratic, comprehensive university encompassing liberal and mechanical disciplines, linking knowledge organization to national enlightenment and influencing post-Revolutionary public schooling proposals like Condorcet's 1792 report on universal education.^[44] These reforms embedded the system's rational hierarchy in state-supported frameworks, prioritizing accessible, structured learning to cultivate informed publics over elite exclusivity.^[44]

Relevance to Contemporary Knowledge Organization

The figurative system outlined by d'Alembert in the 1751 Preliminary Discourse represented an early systematic attempt to hierarchically classify all human knowledge into three primary faculties—memory (encompassing history and theology), reason (abstract and empirical sciences), and imagination (fine arts and poetry)—with further subdivisions reflecting interconnections derived from empirical observation and causal analysis.^[46] This tree-like structure aimed to map knowledge genealogically, tracing derivations from foundational principles to applied branches, thereby facilitating navigation and synthesis in the Encyclopédie.^[2] In library and information sciences, d'Alembert's hierarchical model prefigured decimal-based systems like Melvil Dewey's classification, developed between 1873 and 1876, which divides knowledge into 10 main classes (e.g., 500 for natural sciences, 600 for technology) with numeric subdivisions to denote specificity and relations. Similarly, the Library of Congress Classification (initiated in 1897) employs alphabetic classes (e.g., Q for science) expanding into subclasses, echoing the Encyclopédie's branched taxonomy while adapting it for physical shelving and retrieval efficiency.^[47] These systems operationalized d'Alembert's emphasis on ordered derivation, enabling scalable organization of print collections amid 19th-century knowledge proliferation. Contemporary knowledge organization, however, has largely transcended rigid tree hierarchies in favor of networked and faceted models to accommodate knowledge's empirical interconnectedness and causal multiplicity.^[48] Ontologies in semantic technologies, formalized since the 1990s (e.g., via OWL standards), define concepts and relations explicitly, supporting inference over graphs rather than strict parent-child inheritance.^[49] Knowledge graphs, as implemented in systems like Google's (deployed 2012), integrate heterogeneous data through relational triples (subject-predicate-object), allowing dynamic querying and avoiding the silos inherent in d'Alembert's model, where branches like theology were subordinated under memory despite broader causal influences. This evolution reflects critiques of hierarchical rigidity—articulated as early as Herbert Spencer's 1891 advocacy for networked views—and aligns with digital-era demands for handling vast, non-linear data flows in fields like artificial intelligence and big data analytics.^[48] Thus, d'Alembert's framework remains relevant as a foundational benchmark, underscoring the tension between parsimonious structure and representational fidelity, though modern approaches prioritize empirical flexibility over Enlightenment-era universality.^[50]

References

[1]
Système figuré des connaissances humaines - BnF Essentiels
Système figuré des connaissances humaines ... Conçue par d'Alembert, cet arbre de classification du savoir prend place au début de l'Encyclopédie. Inspiré de la ...
[2]
Taxonomies of Knowledge, 1751 and 1780 - The Story of Information
Mar 18, 2015 · The “figurative system of human knowledge”, sometimes known as the tree of Diderot and d'Alembert, was a tree developed to represent the ...
[3]
None
### Summary of Figurative System of Human Knowledge
[4]
Preliminary Discourse - Digital Collections - University of Michigan
One could construct the tree of our knowledge by dividing it into natural and revealed knowledge, or useful and pleasing knowledge, or speculative and ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[5]
The Système figuré des connaissances humaines and the Structure ...
The Système figuré des connaissances humaines and the Structure of Knowledge in the Encyclopédie. January 2006. DOI:10.1057/9780230518889_8. In book: Ordering ...
[6]
General Chronology of the Encyclopédie
1760 (March). · 1761 While his Père de Famille is received with success, Diderot finishes the explanatory text to accompany the Encyclopédie's plates. · 1762 The ...
[7]
Diderot and D'Alembert's Encyclopedia - M. Moleiro
* Authors: Diderot, D'Alembert, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu ... Volume I includes the fold-out plate titled "Système figuré des connaissances humaines ...Missing: contributors | Show results with:contributors
[8]
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004375703/BP000019.xml
[9]
Translator's Introduction to the Preliminary Discourse
Following the Discourse was “A Detailed Explanation of the System of Human Knowledge,” which explains the chart or “tree” of knowledge used in the Encyclopedia, ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[10]
Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot
In this preface to the Encyclopedia, d'Alembert traces the history of intellectual progress from the Renaissance to 1751. ... Observations on Bacon's Division of ...
[11]
https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/did2222.0001.083/--preliminary-discourse
[12]
Francis Bacon - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 29, 2003 · Bacon's new mode of using human understanding implies a parallelism between striving towards human power and constituting human knowledge.
[13]
Discourses and Disciplines in the Enlightenment: Topic Modeling ...
In this seminal philosophical text, d'Alembert describes the overall “system” of human understanding, which he illustrated through the image of a tree: “After ...Missing: diagram | Show results with:diagram
[14]
https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/did2222.0001.084/--detailed-explanation-of-the-system-of-human-knowledge
[15]
4. Diderot the Physiologist - Open edition books
... système-figuré-des-connaissances-humaines-0. See also the critical online ... contributor to the Encyclopédie. Louis had published on this topic An ...
[16]
Graphic Representation of the Organization of the Encyclopédie
This extremely large and intricately engraved tree of knowledge created in 1769 by Chrétien Fréderic Guillaume Roth of Weimar, and engraved by Benard.
[17]
Tree of Knowledge - Lehigh Library Exhibits
Diderot and d'Alembert's "Map of the System of Human Knowledge" was referred to as a tree due to its branching hierarchy.Missing: timeline development
[18]
Detailed explanation of the system of human knowledge
The understanding is concerned with its perceptions in only three ways, according to its three principal faculties: memory, reason, and imagination.Missing: prior classifications figurative
[19]
Diderot & d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, the Central Enterprise of the ...
"Figurative system of human knowledge", the structure in which the Encyclopédie organized knowledge. It had three main branches: memory, reason, and ...Missing: figuré connaissances humaines<|control11|><|separator|>
[20]
Introduction to the Encyclopédie | MIT Libraries Exhibits
These three aspects of human understanding literally form the “branches” of the Encyclopédie's Tree of Knowledge. In this conceptualization, note how ...Missing: timeline development
[21]
The Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment | CSUN University Library
Mar 7, 2023 · The Encyclopédie played an influential role in the growing dissent of the bourgeoisie that culminated in the 1789 French Revolution. Title Page, ...
[22]
'Changing the Common Mode of Thinking': d'Alembert and Diderot ...
Bacon distinguished three 'faculties': Memory, associated with History; Reason, associated with Philosophy; and Imagination, associated with Poetry.
[23]
Detailed explanation of the system of human knowledge
No readable text found in the HTML.<|separator|>
[24]
Jean Le Rond D'Alembert - Linda Hall Library
Nov 16, 2022 · ... Discours préliminaire, by Jean D'Alembert, Encyclopédie, ed. by ... You can buy an English translation of the Preliminary Discourse (translated by ...
[25]
D'Alembert, the “Preliminary Discourse” and experimental philosophy
See also Richard Schwab who claims that d'Alembert's philosophy grafts “the spirit of the rationalism of Descartes onto the empiricism inherited from Bacon, ...Missing: influence | Show results with:influence
[26]
d'alembert's philosophy: finding descartes & locke in the preliminary ...
May 28, 2015 · D'Alembert's PD owes its influence to many thinkers—of predominance are Descartes and Locke. The PD is the reference from where to draw on d' ...<|separator|>
[27]
Preliminary Discourse
No readable text found in the HTML.<|separator|>
[28]
[PDF] 1 Selections from Part I of the Preliminary Discourse to the ...
One could construct the tree of our knowledge by dividing it into natural and revealed knowledge, or useful and pleasing knowledge, or speculative and ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[29]
https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/did2222.0001.083/--preliminary-discourse?trgt=p_2;view=fulltext
[30]
Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et ...
Nov 7, 2013 · Following the ideas first set forth by Francis Bacon, the Encyclopédie's tree has as its three main branches Memory, Reason, and Imagination.Missing: subbranches | Show results with:subbranches
[31]
universal: d'alembert's "discours preliminaire" to the encyclopedie
Although some forms of knowledge may gain more cultural value than others, no knowledge is demonstrably superior to others. Foucault has been one of the most ...Missing: Preliminary | Show results with:Preliminary
[32]
How Diderot's Encyclopedia Challenged the King - Longreads
Jan 30, 2019 · Whereas Bacon had carefully and sagely preserved a second and separate level of knowledge for theology outside the purview of the three human ...<|separator|>
[33]
[PDF] notes on the classification of human knowledge
This system of D'Alembert is so entirely an amplification of Lord Bacon's that it will be more fitly noticed here than in the order of its date (1767). The ...
[34]
Images of Thought and Their Relation to Classification: The Tree ...
Images of Thought and Their Relation to Classification: The Tree and the Net. ... criticism has made of it. Next, I use the. image ... criticism, it is ...
[35]
The Diderot Encyclopédie - The American Revolution Institute
The writings of the Encyclopédie's military philosophes influenced the generation of French, British and American officers who fought in the American ...
[36]
[PDF] Collecting the Encyclopédie: An Annotated Bibliography of English ...
The classification system, based off of the tree of knowledge, is quite complex and while editors Diderot and d'Alembert were able to classify 55,000 articles, ...
[37]
Pondering Diderot's Encyclopedia Never Ceases to Blow My Mind
Mar 11, 2022 · In 1746, he and the French mathematician, Jean-Baptiste d'Alembert, set out to create an encyclopedia that would describe and illustrate all ...
[38]
Henry C. Clark, "How Radical Was the Political Thought of the ...
Mar 1, 2018 · The Encyclopédie aimed to subject all received knowledge to critical analysis. A few pages after declaring the epistemological centrality of ...<|separator|>
[39]
The 'great and cursed work' that was the Encyclopédie
Jul 5, 2015 · ... tree of knowledge.” (Bacon died before he could finish his work ... Even more disturbing, at least for the Catholic Church, was his ...
[40]
Inherent Bias in Classification Systems - John the Librarian
Dec 13, 2017 · A sizable number of studies have been conducted that expose the social and cultural biases in existing mainstream bibliographic classifications such as the ...
[41]
The Topography of Modernity - Project MUSE
The tree of knowledge with which d'Alembert and Diderot preface their encyclopedia maps out these interconnections so that they are available at a glance.
[42]
Library classification (IEKO)
An introduction to library classification: theoretical, historical and practical with readings, exercises and examination papers. 9th edition.Missing: predecessors | Show results with:predecessors
[43]
[PDF] Influences of Bacon and Hegel in the universe of library classification
Abstract. The studies of library classifications generally interact with a historical approach that contextualizes the research and with the ideas related ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[44]
The Age of Enlightenment and Education
### Summary of Encyclopédie, Diderot, d'Alembert, and Their Influence on Education
[45]
JTE v6n1 - Diderot, the Mechanical Arts, and the Encyclopedie
The Encyclopédie is important in the heritage of technology education because it popularized the major shift from viewing the mechanical arts as embedded in the ...
[46]
diagram of tree of knowledge - University of Michigan
Diagram translated by Benjamin Heller (benjamin.heller@gmail.com) of the University of Michigan and designed by Marketa Kubacakova. See the French original. ...
[47]
Library of Congress Classification
Dec 19, 2023 · The system divides all knowledge into twenty-one basic classes, each identified by a single letter of the alphabet. Most of these alphabetical ...
[48]
[PDF] From trees to webs: uprooting knowledge through visualization
It will describe orders of knowledge from biblical trees to genealogical and conceptual ones. Furthermore, the paper will briefly discuss encyclopedia indices ...
[49]
[PDF] Ontologies for Knowledge Graphs? - CEUR-WS
Jul 17, 2017 · Modern data management has re-discovered the power and flexibility of graph-based representation formats, and so-called knowledge graphs are now ...
[50]
[PDF] Knowledge Uprooted1 - Scott B. Weingart
Jul 5, 2014 · In the last decade, a number of researchers have revisited the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert, ... Knowledge Organization” to ...