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Flunixin

Flunixin is a potent (NSAID) and non-narcotic with properties, commonly known by the trade name Banamine, primarily employed in to alleviate , inflammation, and fever in species such as , , pigs, and sheep. It is most commonly administered as the (flunixin meglumine), a water-soluble formulation that enhances its , and is indicated for conditions including musculoskeletal disorders, in , , and mastitis-metritis-agalactia syndrome in sows. Flunixin exerts its effects by potently inhibiting (COX) enzymes, particularly COX-1 and COX-2, which reduces the synthesis of prostaglandins—key mediators of , , and pyrexia. This mechanism provides rapid analgesia and action, with peak concentrations achieved shortly after administration and a varying by species (e.g., approximately 1.6 hours in horses and up to 10.5 hours in calves). Unlike analgesics, it does not cause or respiratory depression, making it suitable for adjunctive therapy in endotoxemia and . occurs primarily in the liver, with mainly via and , and the major residue in edible tissues and milk is the metabolite 5-hydroxyflunixin. Available formulations include injectable solutions for intravenous or intramuscular use, oral granules or paste (especially for ), and applications approved for to facilitate non-invasive administration. Dosing is species-specific—for instance, 1.1 mg/kg body weight daily for up to five days in for or , and 2.2 mg/kg for in cases of endotoxemia. Regulatory bodies such as the FDA and have established maximum residue limits (MRLs) in food-producing animals to ensure consumer safety, with withdrawal periods ranging from 2 to 10 days depending on the species and tissue. While effective, prolonged use requires monitoring for gastrointestinal, renal, and hepatic adverse effects common to NSAIDs.

Overview

Medical classification

Flunixin is classified as a non-steroidal drug (NSAID) with potent , , and properties, primarily utilized in . It belongs to the subcategory of nicotinic acid derivatives and functions as a non-selective inhibitor of (COX) enzymes, thereby reducing synthesis to exert its therapeutic effects. The most commonly administered form is flunixin , a formulation that enhances and ; this preparation is approved exclusively for veterinary applications in such as and , with no approval for use due to and efficacy considerations specific to animal . Compared to other veterinary NSAIDs like (another non-selective COX inhibitor) or (a COX-2 selective agent), flunixin exhibits superior potency in managing endotoxemia, making it the preferred choice for mitigating inflammatory responses associated with systemic endotoxic conditions in equine and bovine patients.

Chemical properties

Flunixin, the form of the compound, has the molecular formula C14H11F3N2O2 and a molecular weight of 296.24 g/mol. Its is described as 2-[2-methyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)anilino]-3-, featuring a ring substituted at the 2-position with an anilino group bearing a methyl at the 2-position and a trifluoromethyl group at the 3-position of the phenyl ring, along with a group at the 3-position of the pyridine. Key functional groups include the , which contributes to its acidity (pKa ≈ 5.82), the trifluoromethyl enhancing , and the secondary linking the aromatic systems. Physically, flunixin base appears as a white to off-white crystalline . It is practically insoluble in (approximately 0.04 mg/mL), reflecting its low aqueous due to the hydrophobic trifluoromethyl and aromatic moieties, but it exhibits better solubility in organic solvents such as acetone (soluble), (slightly soluble), (sparingly soluble), and DMSO. The of the base is reported in the range of 135–137 °C. Flunixin base demonstrates conformational polymorphism, existing in at least two forms (Form I and Form II) arising from differences in molecular conformation around the between the and phenyl rings. This polymorphism is influenced by intramolecular ing between the N–H and the carbonyl oxygen of the group, which stabilizes distinct twisted conformations ( angles ≈70° and ≈170°). Form I, the more commonly obtained polymorph from solvent crystallization, features an additional intermolecular acid– in the , while Form II can be generated via treatment of Form I and exhibits altered ing patterns. These structural variations affect packing and potential formulation behavior. To enhance for practical applications, it is commonly formulated as the salt, which improves water while maintaining under controlled conditions.

Pharmacology

Mechanism of action

Flunixin exerts its therapeutic effects primarily by inhibiting the (COX) enzymes, specifically COX-1 and COX-2, which are responsible for the conversion of into (PGH2), a key precursor in the synthesis of prostaglandins. This inhibition reduces the production of prostaglandins, which are potent mediators of , , and fever, thereby providing , , and actions. As a non-selective inhibitor, flunixin demonstrates comparable inhibition of both COX-1 and COX-2 isoforms, though it exhibits a relatively stronger for COX-1, which contributes to its efficacy in modulating constitutive pathways but also underlies potential gastrointestinal risks such as ulceration due to reduced protective mucosal . Beyond its primary role, flunixin inhibits synthesis via COX-1 blockade in platelets, thereby suppressing platelet aggregation and conferring properties, particularly beneficial in conditions like endotoxemia where endotoxin-induced aggregation exacerbates vascular complications. The onset of flunixin's inhibitory effects on activity occurs within 2 hours of administration, with peak inhibition typically reached between 12 and 16 hours, and the duration of action extending 24 to 36 hours, attributable in part to its persistence in inflammatory tissues. This prolonged pharmacodynamic profile supports its use in managing acute inflammatory states in .

Pharmacokinetics

Flunixin is rapidly absorbed following intravenous administration, achieving immediate plasma concentrations, while intramuscular administration results in detectable levels within 15 to 30 minutes in . in yields a of approximately 80%, with peak plasma concentrations occurring 45 to 60 minutes post-dose. In , intramuscular is around 76%, and application provides about 48% , with steady-state concentrations approached after 24 to 48 hours of repeated dosing. Flunixin demonstrates high , exceeding 99% in both and , which limits its free fraction in circulation. The is relatively small at 0.1 to 0.3 L/kg in , reflecting confinement primarily to the , though it effectively penetrates inflamed s and , reaching concentrations up to 30% of plasma levels in synovial compartments. In , the steady-state ranges from 0.3 to 0.8 L/kg, allowing broader distribution while maintaining good penetration into sites of . Metabolism of flunixin occurs primarily in the liver through enzymes, with the major being 5-hydroxyflunixin, which is further conjugated for elimination. This hepatic pathway is consistent across , though activity may vary with status, such as reduced rates in diseased . In , excretion is predominantly renal, with approximately 75% of the administered dose recovered in as metabolites within 24 to 48 hours. In , excretion occurs via both (approximately 30-50%) and (approximately 40-50%), with 50-90% of the dose recovered as metabolites in 24 to 48 hours. The plasma elimination half-life ranges from 1.5 to 4 hours in horses, facilitating relatively rapid clearance, whereas in cattle it is longer at 4 to 12 hours, contributing to prolonged residue persistence. In lactating animals, flunixin and its metabolites appear in milk, with detectable residues persisting for several days post-administration. Species variations in pharmacokinetics are notable, particularly in clearance rates, which are slower in cattle (approximately 0.3 to 2.5 mL/kg/min) compared to horses (around 1 mL/min/kg), influencing dosing intervals and withdrawal periods to avoid residues in food-producing animals. These differences arise from variations in metabolic capacity and renal function, with donkeys exhibiting even faster clearance than horses.

Veterinary uses

In horses

Flunixin meglumine is widely employed in equine medicine as a first-line treatment for the relief of visceral and musculoskeletal pain, particularly in cases of , which involves stemming from gastrointestinal disturbances. It also plays a key role in reducing associated with endotoxemia, a common complication in colic and other systemic conditions, and is used prophylactically to help prevent or manage in . Beyond , flunixin addresses specific indications such as postoperative following surgical interventions, ocular to alleviate eye discomfort, and fever control in suffering from respiratory infections. Its rapid onset of action, typically reducing signs of within 15 to 30 minutes when administered intravenously, has made it a standard in equine veterinary practice since its approval in the 1970s. Off-label applications include its use as an adjunct for and in snakebites or traumatic injuries, though it is not recommended for conditions owing to potential risks with prolonged administration. In and performance horses, where flunixin is frequently utilized for acute , regulatory bodies enforce strict limits on plasma concentrations, typically permitting no more than 20 nanograms per milliliter to ensure fair competition. Through its potent inhibition of synthesis, flunixin provides effective effects tailored to these equine needs.

In cattle and other species

Flunixin is approved by the U.S. (FDA) for use in to control pyrexia associated with (BRD), endotoxemia, and acute bovine , as well as to relieve and associated with endotoxemia. The injectable form, administered intravenously or intramuscularly, was first approved for and non-lactating in 1998, with subsequent expansions allowing intravenous use in lactating for pyrexia control in BRD. In 2018, a pour-on formulation was approved as a single-dose for control in BRD, providing an alternative route that minimizes needle use while adhering to residue avoidance periods of 10 days for slaughter in and non-lactating . In February 2023, the indication was expanded to include control of pyrexia in lactating associated with acute , with a 48-hour discard period. Due to its use in food-producing , strict residue monitoring is required, with tolerances of 0.025 ppm in muscle, 0.125 ppm in liver (target tissue), 0.125 ppm in fat, and 0.1 ppm in to ensure . In swine, flunixin meglumine is FDA-approved for intramuscular administration to control pyrexia associated with respiratory disease, typically at a dose of 2.2 mg/kg, offering rapid absorption and fever reduction within hours. This approval, granted in the early 2000s, supports its role in managing acute inflammatory responses in production settings, with a withdrawal time of 12 days for slaughter to facilitate compliance in food animal operations. Studies have also explored its efficacy in mitigating pain from procedures like castration, though such uses remain off-label. For companion animals, flunixin is used off-label in and , primarily for managing postoperative , , or fever at reduced doses (e.g., 0.5–1 mg/kg) to account for their heightened sensitivity to renal and gastrointestinal adverse effects. It is not FDA-approved for these species , and chronic or high-dose administration is avoided due to risks of ulceration and , particularly in young or dehydrated animals. In , it has demonstrated safe effects post-surgery when dosed judiciously. In other such as sheep and exotic ruminants like llamas, flunixin is employed off-label for musculoskeletal and relief, often at 1.1–2.2 mg/kg intravenously every 24 hours, with pharmacokinetic indicating a short in llamas necessitating careful dosing intervals. In sheep, it supports of conditions like , , and post-procedural (e.g., or tail docking), but extra-label use requires veterinary oversight to prevent violative residues in or , as no FDA tolerances exist for these . Overall, applications in non-equine emphasize in production animals through regulated withdrawals and monitoring.

Administration and dosage

Routes of administration

Flunixin is most commonly administered as its salt, which enhances water solubility for injectable and other formulations. Intravenous () administration is the primary route for both and , utilizing a sterile injectable at a concentration of 50 mg/mL, and is preferred for achieving rapid onset in cases of acute or pain. In , is the only approved parenteral route, administered slowly to minimize adverse reactions. Intramuscular (IM) injection is approved solely for , where it provides an alternative when IV access is not feasible, though absorption is slower compared to . This route is not recommended for due to regulatory restrictions. is available for in forms such as granules, powder, or paste (e.g., Banamine paste), offering a non-invasive option suitable for at-home management. In , oral delivery is limited and not FDA-approved. Transdermal application via pour-on solution is approved exclusively for , introduced in 2018, and involves applying the formulation along the back for systemic absorption without the need for injections. Subcutaneous administration is not approved for any species due to potential tissue irritation from the meglumine salt formulation.

Dosage guidelines

Flunixin meglumine dosages in are species-specific and tailored to body weight, condition, and to ensure efficacy while minimizing risks. In horses, the recommended dose for musculoskeletal disorders or such as is 1.1 mg/kg body weight administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or orally once daily, not exceeding 5 consecutive days. In , for the control of pyrexia associated with acute or endotoxemia/, a single dose of 2.2 mg/kg body weight is given intravenously. For pyrexia and associated with (BRD), the formulation is applied topically as a single dose of 3.3 mg/kg body weight along the dorsal midline. In , flunixin is indicated for the control of pyrexia associated with , administered as a single intramuscular dose of 2.2 mg/kg body weight in the region at the start of an . In sheep, flunixin is used extralabel at 1.1–2.2 mg/kg body weight or once daily for up to 3–5 days for or . Use in dogs and cats is off-label and requires caution due to potential gastrointestinal and renal risks; typical dosing is 0.5–1 mg/kg body weight intravenously, intramuscularly, or orally every 12–24 hours, limited to no more than 3 days. Dosage adjustments are necessary in cases of renal impairment, where flunixin should be used judiciously at reduced doses or avoided if severe, as the drug can exacerbate kidney damage by inhibiting renal blood flow. For food-producing animals, withdrawal periods must be observed: in cattle, 4 days for meat and 36 hours for milk following injectable use, with longer intervals (up to 96 hours for milk) after transdermal administration.

Safety and adverse effects

Side effects

Flunixin, a (NSAID), is associated with several adverse effects in veterinary use, primarily due to its inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), which disrupts protective mechanisms in the and renal systems. These effects are generally dose-dependent and more pronounced with prolonged administration exceeding three days or in dehydrated animals.

Gastrointestinal Effects

In horses, the most common adverse reactions involve the , including ulcers in the (particularly the glandular portion) and colon, with a predisposition to right dorsal . These lesions can lead to severe , , or hemorrhage, and incidence increases with multi-day therapy. In , gastrointestinal erosions and ulceration are less frequent but can manifest as fecal at doses three to five times the recommended level (2.2 mg/kg); occurrences are minimal at standard single doses. Appetite loss and mild may also occur in both species during extended use, though these are reported infrequently at therapeutic levels.

Renal Effects

Nephrotoxicity is a significant concern, particularly in dehydrated or those with pre-existing renal , leading to , reduced urine output, and in severe cases, renal crest . In horses, this effect has been observed in 20% (1/5) of subjects in one study after administration of 1.1 mg/kg intravenously every 8 hours for 12 days. In , hematuria or elevated may appear at supratherapeutic doses, though clinical incidence remains low with proper and single-dose administration. These renal changes are exacerbated by concurrent use with other nephrotoxic agents.

Other Effects

Injection site reactions, such as localized swelling, pain, induration, or sweating, are commonly reported following intramuscular in , with rare instances of clostridial infections. Rare disorders can arise from flunixin's inhibition of platelet aggregation, potentially prolonging bleeding times, though this is uncommon at recommended doses. Anaphylactic-like reactions, including or , occur rarely (primarily post-intravenous injection) in both species and may be fatal in susceptible individuals. Serious adverse effects are rare at standard doses but can increase with repeated .

Contraindications and precautions

Flunixin meglumine is contraindicated in animals with known to nonsteroidal drugs (NSAIDs). It should also be avoided in cases of active gastrointestinal ulceration, hepatic disease, renal impairment, or cardiovascular disorders, as these conditions increase the risk of severe adverse outcomes. Additionally, intra-arterial injection must be strictly avoided in horses due to potential catastrophic vascular complications. Precautions are essential when administering flunixin to minimize risks. The lowest effective dose should be used for the shortest possible duration to reduce the potential for gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic damage. Concurrent use with other NSAIDs or corticosteroids is not recommended, as it heightens the risk of gastrointestinal ulceration and other . Flunixin should not be given to dehydrated or hypovolemic animals unless in cases of endotoxemia or , owing to the elevated risk of renal from compromised renal perfusion. In food-producing animals like , adherence to established withdrawal periods (e.g., 36 hours for discard) is critical to prevent violative residues. Drug interactions with flunixin can exacerbate toxicity. It potentiates the nephrotoxic effects of aminoglycosides by inhibiting renal prostaglandins, which normally protect against such damage. Flunixin may also reduce the efficacy of diuretics, such as , by the same prostaglandin-mediated mechanism, potentially impairing fluid balance in treated animals. Concurrent administration with significantly increases the risk of gastrointestinal ulceration compared to either drug alone. In special populations, caution is warranted. Flunixin is a precaution in pregnant animals, particularly in late gestation, as it can delay parturition, prolong labor, and elevate the of in both and . For lactating , milk must be discarded for at least 36 hours after the last treatment to avoid residues. Foals and neonates face a higher of gastrointestinal ulceration with flunixin use, necessitating dose adjustments or alternatives. Ongoing monitoring is critical during flunixin therapy. Renal function should be assessed via (BUN) and levels, especially in animals at risk for or concurrent nephrotoxic drugs. In horses, regular testing helps detect early . Hydration status must be evaluated and maintained to prevent renal complications.

History and regulation

Development and discovery

Flunixin was synthesized in the mid-1960s by researchers at Schering Corporation as part of efforts to develop derivatives of nicotinic acid exhibiting activity. The compound, specifically 2-[2-methyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenylamino]nicotinic acid, emerged from research on substituted 2-anilino-nicotinic acids designed to provide potent and effects. This work culminated in U.S. 3,337,570, filed on October 23, 1965, and issued on August 22, 1967, to inventors Margaret H. Sherlock and Nathan Sperber, which detailed the chemical structures, methods via nucleophilic displacement reactions, and pharmaceutical compositions of these derivatives. Early preclinical evaluations described in the demonstrated the potency of flunixin and related compounds through assays such as light-induced in guinea pigs and carragenin-induced edema in rats, where effective doses ranged from 5 mg/kg in animals. Further studies in the confirmed its efficacy in various animal models, including mice, rats, and monkeys, where parenteral administration of the salt form produced dose-dependent inhibition of responses comparable to or exceeding that of established non-narcotic like aspirin, with minimal effects. These investigations highlighted flunixin's peripheral mechanism of action, supporting its potential for treating and without narcotic properties. To enhance water solubility for injectable formulations, the salt (flunixin meglumine) was developed, as the free acid exhibits limited aqueous solubility but forms soluble salts with bases like N-methylglucamine. Initial development emphasized applications in , particularly for large animals, due to demonstrated efficacy at practical doses (e.g., 5 mg/kg).

Regulatory approvals

Flunixin meglumine, marketed as Banamine, received initial approval from the U.S. (FDA) under New Animal Drug Application (NADA) 101-479 on August 2, 1976, for intravenous and intramuscular use in to alleviate and pain associated with musculoskeletal disorders. This approval was granted to Animal Health Corporation, establishing flunixin as the first non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) specifically for equine use in the United States. Subsequent expansions broadened flunixin's indications to food-producing animals. In 1995, the FDA approved supplemental labeling under NADA 101-479 for intravenous use in to control pyrexia associated with and acute , with a four-day slaughter withdrawal period. Intramuscular use in followed in the same approval, though limited to non-lactating animals. For swine, the FDA approved intramuscular administration under the same NADA on November 1, 2005, for controlling pyrexia associated with swine , excluding swine and requiring a 12-day slaughter withdrawal. In 2017, the FDA approved NADA 141-450 for Banamine (flunixin transdermal solution) in , marking the first U.S. approval of an NSAID for pain control in a food-producing animal , initially for pyrexia associated with and later expanded in 2023 to include acute in cows. As of April 3, 2025, the FDA approved ANADA 200-791 for Flunine-S (flunixin meglumine injection) for use in , sponsored by Cronus Pharma Specialities Private Ltd. Internationally, flunixin meglumine gained approval in the during the 1980s for use in and to manage and from musculoskeletal disorders and . The () established maximum residue limits (MRLs) and withdrawal periods, such as a four-day meat withdrawal for following a 2.2 mg/kg intravenous dose up to three days. The Commission sets harmonized MRLs for flunixin, including 20 μg/kg in muscle, 100 μg/kg in liver, 40 μg/kg in kidney, and 2 μg/kg in milk for , facilitating international trade while ensuring . In 2025, concerns over flunixin's environmental impact emerged, particularly its toxicity to vultures. Studies detected flunixin in domesticated carcasses in , prompting calls for stricter regulations on NSAID use to protect scavenging bird populations in the . To address residue concerns, the FDA established tolerances for flunixin residues in tissues and : 0.1 ppm in liver and (target tissues), and 0.02 ppm in muscle and . These limits support ongoing residue monitoring programs to prevent violative levels in food products. Generic versions of flunixin have been approved via Abbreviated New Animal Drug Applications (ANADAs) since the 1990s, such as ANADA 200-124 in 1995 for equine and bovine use, promoting market competition while maintaining to the pioneer product. More recent regulatory actions include voluntary recalls; in 2023, Merck Animal Health recalled multiple lots of Banamine and Banamine-S injectable solutions due to observed during , with initial action on three lots in and expansion to four additional lots later that month.

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