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Full-range speaker

A full-range speaker, also known as a full-range loudspeaker or wideband driver, is an audio transducer designed to reproduce the entire spectrum of audible frequencies, typically from approximately 60 Hz to 18 kHz, using a single driver or a minimal set of drivers within one cabinet to cover most of the human hearing range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.^[1]^[2] These speakers aim to handle low bass, midrange vocals, and high treble without relying on multiple specialized drivers like woofers and tweeters, often employing passive crossovers or full-range coverage by all components for cohesive sound reproduction.^[2]^[3] Full-range speakers operate through a voice coil attached to a diaphragm or cone that vibrates in a magnetic field to convert electrical audio signals into sound waves across the frequency band, sometimes enhanced by auxiliary elements like whizzer cones for improved high-frequency response or horn loading for efficiency and dispersion control.^[1]^[2] They come in passive variants, which require external amplification and are lighter with simpler cabling needs, and active versions with built-in amplifiers for optimized performance but added weight and complexity.^[2] Key technical specifications include sensitivity measured in dB SPL at 1 watt per meter, power handling rated via AES standards (e.g., 500W RMS for 2 hours of pink noise), and dispersion patterns like 90° horizontal by 60° vertical at -6 dB.^[2] In applications such as sound reinforcement systems, hi-fi audio setups, and professional installations, full-range speakers provide advantages like superior midrange detail, phase coherence without crossover distortions, and high voice intelligibility for music and speech fundamentals (e.g., trumpet frequencies from 165 Hz to 900 Hz).^[3]^[1] However, they may struggle with deep bass below 60-70 Hz without supplementary subwoofers and can be less efficient or more expensive than multi-way systems for high-volume reproduction.^[1] Innovations like the 1975 Constant Directivity Horn by Don Keele have improved their high-frequency dispersion, making them suitable for even coverage in larger spaces.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

A full-range speaker, also known as a full-range driver, is a single loudspeaker unit designed to reproduce the entire audible frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, without relying on separate drivers for bass, midrange, or treble frequencies.^[4] This design aims to provide broad coverage of the human hearing spectrum in a compact, unified component, though practical implementations often exhibit roll-offs or reduced efficiency at the lowest bass and highest treble extremes.^[5] The audible frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz aligns with the limits of human auditory perception under typical conditions.^[6] Unlike multi-way loudspeaker systems, which employ crossover networks to split the audio signal and allocate specific frequency bands to specialized drivers—such as woofers for low frequencies, midrange drivers for vocals and instruments, and tweeters for high frequencies—a full-range speaker processes the full spectrum through one driver to maintain phase coherence and simplify the system.^[7] This single-driver approach avoids the potential phase shifts and interference issues associated with crossovers, prioritizing a more coherent sound reproduction across the band.^[8] At its core, a full-range speaker consists of essential components including a cone or diaphragm that vibrates to displace air, a voice coil attached to the cone and suspended in a magnetic field to convert electrical signals into mechanical motion, a permanent magnet to generate the field, and a suspension system (comprising a spider and surround) that centers the coil and allows linear excursion while restoring it to rest.^[9] These elements work together in an electrodynamic configuration to enable the driver to vibrate and produce sound waves spanning the intended frequency range.^[10]

Principles of Operation

A full-range speaker converts electrical audio signals into sound through electromagnetic transduction in its driver. The core mechanism involves a voice coil suspended within the gap of a permanent magnet, forming an electromagnet that interacts with the static magnetic field. When alternating current from the audio signal flows through the voice coil, it generates a varying magnetic field, producing a force proportional to the current's amplitude and direction per the Lorentz force law, which drives the attached diaphragm forward and backward. This mechanical vibration displaces surrounding air molecules, creating pressure waves that propagate as audible sound across the intended frequency spectrum.^[11]^[12] The diaphragm's motion varies with frequency to enable broad-range reproduction in a single driver. At low frequencies, the diaphragm functions in a piston-like mode, where the entire surface moves uniformly in phase, efficiently coupling mechanical energy to acoustic output for bass reproduction below the driver's fundamental resonance. As frequencies increase toward the midrange and treble, the diaphragm's finite stiffness leads to breakup modes, in which localized regions vibrate independently, allowing shorter wavelengths to be generated and extending the high-frequency response without a separate transducer. These modes, while essential for spectral coverage, can introduce non-uniform motion if not managed, affecting sound coherence.^[13]^[14] Acoustic coupling between the driver and air determines how effectively vibrations translate into radiated sound, influenced by the driver's physical attributes. The diaphragm's size sets the scale for radiation patterns: larger surfaces exhibit directivity at higher frequencies due to wavelength-scale interference, narrowing dispersion, while smaller drivers maintain broader off-axis response suitable for full-range aims. Material properties, such as density and elasticity, govern acoustic impedance matching to air, optimizing energy transfer and minimizing reflections that could color the frequency output.^[13]^[15] Single-driver operation imposes inherent challenges in balancing performance across frequencies. Achieving piston-like behavior at lows requires high cone stiffness to prevent flexing, yet this rigidity can elevate breakup frequencies undesirably high or cause ringing in the treble unless countered by damping materials that absorb vibrations. Excessive damping, however, reduces sensitivity and transient response, creating trade-offs where no single configuration perfectly optimizes excursion control, resonance suppression, and efficiency simultaneously for the full audible range.^[12]^[13]

Design Variations

Typical Designs

Typical full-range speakers often employ cone drivers augmented with whizzer cones to extend high-frequency response. The whizzer cone is a small, lightweight auxiliary cone attached directly to the voice coil or the apex of the main cone, allowing it to vibrate more freely at higher frequencies while the larger main cone handles lower frequencies. This design, common in mid-20th-century full-range drivers, helps achieve broader coverage without additional tweeters by leveraging differential motion between the cones.^[16] Field coil drivers represent another standard configuration in vintage full-range speakers, utilizing electromagnets rather than permanent magnets to create the magnetic field for the voice coil. The field coil, powered by a direct current source, generates an adjustable magnetic flux that can be fine-tuned by varying the current, offering potential control over tonal balance and dynamic response. These drivers were prevalent in early consumer audio systems from the 1930s onward, before permanent magnets became dominant due to their simplicity and cost-effectiveness.^[17] In typical designs, the cone itself is constructed from materials like paper pulp—derived from sources such as Douglas fir or hemp—or composite blends incorporating synthetic fibers for enhanced stiffness and damping. These cones usually measure 4 to 8 inches in diameter, providing a balanced response across midrange and bass while remaining lightweight to support high-frequency reproduction. The suspension system includes a surround, often made of rubber or thermoplastic elastomer for durability and compliance, and a spider—a fabric or treated material component—that centers the voice coil and restores it to its rest position after excursion.^[18] To bolster low-frequency performance without dedicated woofers, full-range speakers are commonly integrated into sealed or ported enclosures. Sealed boxes, functioning as a second-order high-pass filter, deliver controlled bass with tight transients but limited extension, relying on the driver's inherent compliance. Ported (bass reflex) designs, by contrast, incorporate a tuned vent that enhances low-end output through fourth-order alignment, extending response deeper—often by 3 to 6 dB at the tuning frequency—while optimizing for alignments like Butterworth or QB3 to match driver parameters.^[19]

Atypical Designs

Atypical full-range speaker designs depart from conventional cone drivers by employing alternative transduction methods or acoustic enhancements to achieve specialized performance, such as improved efficiency, reduced distortion, or broader dispersion, often at the expense of simplicity or bass extension. These approaches prioritize uniform diaphragm motion or novel air coupling to cover the audible spectrum with a single unit where possible. Horn-loaded full-range speakers integrate an acoustic horn with a single driver to match the driver's high acoustic impedance to the lower impedance of free air, thereby amplifying sound pressure levels and enhancing efficiency by up to 10-15 dB compared to direct-radiating designs. The horn's exponentially expanding shape controls directivity, narrowing the radiation pattern to minimize room reflections and improve clarity in high-sound-pressure-level (SPL) environments like professional audio reinforcement. Folded horn variants, such as back-loaded configurations, route the driver's rear wave through a labyrinthine path to reinforce low frequencies, enabling compact enclosures while maintaining full-range capability from a small driver.^[20]^[21]^[22] Electrostatic full-range speakers utilize a lightweight, tensioned diaphragm coated with conductive material, suspended between two perforated stators charged with high voltage to create an electrostatic field that drives the entire surface uniformly. This results in exceptionally low distortion—often below 0.1% across the midrange—due to the absence of partial cone breakup, providing transparent sound reproduction. However, achieving deep bass remains challenging because the large diaphragm area required for low frequencies increases air load and demands high voltage, limiting efficiency to around 85-90 dB/W/m and necessitating larger panels or hybrid augmentation for sub-50 Hz extension. Pioneering models like the Quad ESL-57 demonstrated full-range potential from the 1950s, influencing modern designs such as Sound Lab's Majestic series.^[23]^[24]^[25] Planar magnetic full-range speakers employ a thin, flexible diaphragm embedded with lightweight conductive traces, positioned within a dense array of permanent magnets to enable uniform electromagnetic drive across the surface, akin to electrostatics but without high voltages. This configuration yields low moving mass for rapid transient response and minimal distortion, with many designs achieving flat response from 40 Hz upward using quasi-ribbon elements for highs. Bass reproduction poses difficulties similar to electrostatics, often requiring panel sizes over 1 meter tall or integrated woofers, though dipole radiation enhances spaciousness at the cost of rear-wall efficiency. Manufacturers like Magnepan have popularized this technology in models such as the 2.7i, which uses aluminum foil panels for bass and midrange alongside a true ribbon tweeter.^[26]^[27]^[28] Air Motion Transformer (AMT) and isodynamic full-range speakers feature folded or pleated diaphragms that expand and contract like an accordion, squeezing air outward for accelerated motion and reduced beaming in high frequencies, achieving dispersion angles up to 180 degrees without the narrow directivity of flat panels. In AMT designs, the variable-velocity transform (VVT) folding allows extension down to 10 Hz in optimized variants, though most applications focus on mid-to-high coverage with sensitivities around 96 dB. Isodynamic variants, a subtype of planar magnetic, use symmetrical magnetic fields on both diaphragm sides for balanced push-pull operation, minimizing resonances and enabling full-range coherence in dipole configurations. Examples include HEDD Audio's VVT-equipped AMTs and Diptyque's DP160 MkII, which integrates a 55 cm ribbon for seamless spectrum coverage.^[29]^[30]^[31] Exotic full-range variants push boundaries further, such as plasma speakers that modulate ionized air plasma as the "diaphragm," eliminating mechanical parts for massless transduction and frequency responses from 100 Hz to 40 kHz with negligible resonance. These designs, however, generate ozone and require high-voltage RF modulation, limiting practicality to niche high-end uses. Full-range ribbon speakers extend the ribbon principle across the spectrum using elongated, ultra-thin aluminum or mylar strips in strong magnetic fields, delivering ultra-wide bandwidth—often 30 Hz to 40 kHz—with exceptional detail and low mass for instantaneous response. Alsyvox's Michelangelo employs multiple stacked ribbons in a symmetrical array for powerful, undistorted bass, contrasting typical cone limitations.^[32]^[33]^[34]

Technical Characteristics

Frequency Response

Full-range speakers typically exhibit a frequency response covering approximately 80 Hz to 18 kHz, with the lower limit determined by the driver's resonance frequency (Fs) and enclosure design, often rolling off at 12 dB per octave below the -3 dB point around 80-100 Hz.^[35] At the upper end, the response extends to 15-18 kHz before significant roll-off, though this varies with cone material and size; for example, a 3-inch full-range driver like the Dayton Audio DMA80-4 shows a usable range up to 13.5 kHz within ±4.5 dB.^[35] The -3 dB points define the bandwidth where output is within 3 dB of the reference level, providing a standard metric for comparing coverage across the audible spectrum from low bass to treble.^[36] A key limitation in full-range speakers is the beaming effect at high frequencies, where the driver's diaphragm size becomes comparable to the wavelength of sound, causing narrow dispersion and reduced off-axis response. For a typical 4-inch (0.1 m) full-range driver, beaming begins around 3.4 kHz, calculated as the speed of sound (343 m/s) divided by the effective diaphragm diameter, leading to a drop in high-frequency output for listeners off the central axis.^[37] This wavelength mismatch results in progressively narrower beaming above 5 kHz, with off-axis measurements showing up to 10 dB attenuation at 45° for frequencies beyond 10 kHz in small drivers.^[36] Cone resonances and breakup modes further shape the high-frequency response, often introducing irregularities in the 5-10 kHz range while extending the upper limit beyond what rigid pistonic motion alone would allow. These modes occur when the cone flexes unevenly, creating peaks and dips; for instance, the first breakup mode in a standard cone driver appears around 3-5 kHz, with higher-order modes causing undulations up to 10 kHz that can add 6-10 dB variations.^[38] Although these resonances enable broader treble coverage, they compromise smoothness, as seen in measurements of 2-inch drivers exhibiting breakup peaks starting at 21 kHz but with preceding irregularities.^[36] Frequency response is primarily measured in anechoic chambers to eliminate room reflections, following standards like those from the Audio Engineering Society (AES), where the speaker is positioned at least 1 meter from walls and microphones capture on- and off-axis responses from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.^[39] Thiele-Small parameters, such as Fs (free-air resonance, typically 70-100 Hz for full-range drivers) and Qts (total Q factor, influencing damping), predict the low-end bandwidth by modeling the roll-off in enclosures; a low Qts (e.g., 0.3-0.5) supports extended bass response near Fs, while higher values lead to earlier cutoffs.^[40] These parameters enable simulations of the -3 dB low-frequency point without full prototype testing.^[41]

Efficiency and Distortion

Full-range speakers generally exhibit sensitivity ratings of 85-95 dB/W/m, which is lower than many specialized drivers due to the design compromises required for a single unit to cover the full audio spectrum without dedicated components for specific bands.^[42] This reduced efficiency stems from the need to balance diaphragm size, excursion, and motor strength across frequencies, often resulting in less output per watt compared to optimized woofers or tweeters. For example, drivers like the Tang Band W4-2142 achieve 88 dB/W/m, while Fostex models such as the FE166En reach 93 dB/W/m, prioritizing compatibility with low-power amplifiers despite the overall lower benchmark.^[43] Power handling in full-range speakers is typically limited to 25-65 W RMS, reflecting the challenges of managing heat dissipation in a compact voice coil that must handle diverse frequency demands without specialized cooling. Exceeding these limits can lead to thermal compression, where rising coil temperature reduces sensitivity and output, or outright damage from coil overheating and mechanical failure. Manufacturers like Fostex rate models such as the FE108NS at 15 W RMS, emphasizing careful amplifier matching to avoid these risks at high volumes.^[44]^[45] Distortion characteristics in full-range speakers often include elevated intermodulation and harmonic distortion in the midrange, arising from the shared diaphragm's dual role in reproducing bass and treble signals, which causes nonlinear interactions such as Doppler distortion—where low-frequency excursions modulate higher frequencies, producing inharmonic sidebands. Total harmonic distortion (THD) remains low in well-designed units, typically under 1% over much of the passband (e.g., the Tang Band W4-2142 claims very low 2nd and 3rd order THD), but rises notably in the midrange under load due to these compromises.^[46]^[47]^[43] Several factors influence these distortion levels. The damping factor, ideally 50 or higher, quantifies the amplifier's control over cone motion post-signal, helping suppress resonances that exacerbate bass distortion. Voice coil impedance, commonly 4-8 ohms, impacts power delivery and damping effectiveness; lower values like 4 ohms demand more current but can enhance control in matched systems. Enclosure design plays a critical role in bass distortion, as sealed or ported cabinets with proper damping material minimize internal standing waves and nonlinear air loading, reducing THD at low frequencies by stabilizing cone excursion.^[48]^[49]^[50]

Applications

General Applications

Full-range speakers are widely employed in home audio and hi-fi systems, especially within small rooms, where the single-driver configuration enables coherent imaging by producing sound from a unified point source, resulting in a more natural and focused soundstage.^[51] These speakers are frequently configured in bookshelf or open-baffle enclosures, which leverage their inherent phase coherence to deliver balanced audio reproduction without the timing discrepancies that can occur in multi-driver designs with crossovers.^[51] In portable and battery-powered devices, compact full-range speakers serve as the core sound-producing elements in some Bluetooth speakers and portable radios, offering an all-in-one solution for comprehensive audio output in constrained spaces while maintaining efficiency for extended battery life. This design choice supports versatile, on-the-go listening by providing broad frequency coverage without the complexity of additional drivers. Full-range speakers play a key role in instrument amplification, particularly in guitar combo amplifiers using FRFR (full-range, flat-response) designs, where they preserve tonal consistency across the frequency range by providing a neutral, uncolored response suitable for amp modeling, avoiding the tonal coloration of traditional guitar speakers.^[52] In niche or DIY monitoring scenarios, such as custom nearfield setups, these speakers can prioritize midrange clarity to ensure reproduction of vocals and instruments, often at the expense of extended low-frequency response. Their characteristics make them well-suited for environments demanding moderate sound pressure levels rather than high-volume output.^[51]

Commercial Applications

In public address (PA) systems, horn-loaded full-range speakers are widely deployed for announcements in large venues such as stadiums, where they ensure directional sound distribution and maximum intelligibility even at high sound pressure levels.^[53] These systems prioritize voice clarity over music reproduction, leveraging the full-range capability to cover essential frequencies without the need for multiple drivers, which simplifies installation in outdoor or all-weather environments.^[54] For instance, AtlasIED's AH Series stadium horns, available in 8-inch to 15-inch configurations, provide robust performance for sports venues and commercial paging, with weather-resistant designs featuring multiple protective screens for reliable operation.^[53] In live sound reinforcement, full-range speakers serve as stage monitors and fill speakers in theaters and mid-sized venues, where their point-source design promotes coherent sound radiation from a single enclosure, minimizing comb filtering effects that arise from phase interference between multiple sources.^[55] This coherence enhances performer monitoring and audience coverage in low-ceiling or intimate spaces, allowing for consistent intelligibility and direct sound quality without extensive tuning.^[55] Point-source full-range units are particularly valued for quick setups in clubs or houses of worship, offering wider vertical dispersion compared to line arrays for targeted reinforcement.^[55] Automotive audio systems in budget vehicles often incorporate full-range coaxial speakers for dashboard and door installations, delivering full-spectrum sound reproduction without requiring complex external crossovers, which reduces manufacturing costs and simplifies integration with factory head units.^[56] These speakers combine a woofer for low frequencies and a built-in tweeter for highs in a single unit, making them suitable for entry-level upgrades with power handling around 50 watts RMS and high sensitivity exceeding 90 dB for efficient operation on low-powered amplifiers.^[56] Common sizes like 5-1/4 inches or 6x9 inches fit standard vehicle locations, providing balanced audio for everyday driving without the need for separate components.^[56] Prominent brands such as Fostex, Lowther, and Jensen supply full-range drivers for professional audio kits, enabling custom builds in PA and reinforcement applications.^[57] Fostex offers high-efficiency 8-inch full-range speakers with DIY kits that include cabinet plans, tailored for pro audio setups emphasizing clarity and power handling up to 30 watts.^[57] Lowther's drivers, renowned for their dynamic full-range performance from 30 Hz to 22 kHz, are integrated into high-sensitivity horn systems for professional use, delivering detailed sound from a single voice coil.^[58] Jensen's vintage-inspired full-range speakers, such as the JS Series 6x9-inch triaxial models with 75 watts RMS (as of 2023), support pro kits for mains and monitors, focusing on balanced frequency response.^[59] Additionally, larger systems from JBL and Electro-Voice incorporate full-range configurations as mains, like JBL's 10-inch 2-way units for live reinforcement and EV's ELX series for portable PA, ensuring scalable deployment in commercial environments.^[60]

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages

Full-range speakers offer superior coherence and imaging due to their single-driver design, which acts as a unified point source for all frequencies, minimizing phase shifts that can occur in multi-driver systems with crossovers. This results in precise soundstaging and a more natural timbre, as the sound emanates from one coherent origin rather than multiple offset drivers.^[61] The absence of crossover networks in full-range speakers simplifies the overall design by eliminating the need for additional components, such as separate filters and wiring for multiple drivers, which reduces manufacturing complexity and associated costs. This streamlined approach not only lowers the parts count but also avoids potential issues like energy losses or dynamic compression from crossover elements.^[61] Full-range speakers enable more compact enclosures because they rely on a single driver rather than accommodating multiple specialized units, making them suitable for installations where space is limited. The unified vibration source inherent in this design further supports smaller form factors without compromising the fundamental principles of sound reproduction.^[62] Timbral consistency is another key benefit, as the uniform diaphragm handles the entire frequency spectrum, preventing coloration differences that arise when different drivers reproduce separate frequency bands in multi-way systems. This ensures a seamless tonal quality across highs, mids, and lows from a single material and vibration mechanism.^[1]^[61]

Disadvantages

Full-range speakers often struggle with limited bass extension, typically unable to reproduce frequencies below 60 Hz effectively without employing large cone diameters or supplementary woofers, which results in reliance on room acoustics for any perceived low-end reinforcement.^[63] This limitation arises from the inherent design constraints of a single driver attempting to handle deep bass, where small cone sizes lead to a gradual roll-off and insufficient air displacement for substantial output in the sub-bass region.^[64] Another key drawback is high-frequency beaming, where the driver's cone size relative to shorter wavelengths causes directional narrowing at higher frequencies, thereby shrinking the listening sweet spot and reducing off-axis response.^[65] This beaming concentrates sound forward, resulting in treble over-emphasis on-axis while creating deficiencies in high-frequency dispersion for listeners positioned away from the direct path.^[64] Compromised dynamics represent a further trade-off, as full-range speakers exhibit lower power handling capabilities and elevated distortion levels at frequency extremes due to the single driver's overload under demanding signals.^[64] The Doppler effect from large cone excursions modulates higher frequencies, introducing intermodulation and frequency modulation distortion that becomes audible during peaks, while thermal limits on the voice coil restrict sustained high-volume performance.^[64] Scalability issues also hinder full-range designs, making it challenging to achieve high sound pressure levels (SPL) without deploying multiple units or horn-loading, which confines their practicality to smaller venues or intimate settings.^[64] Low inherent sensitivity exacerbates this, demanding excessive amplifier power for elevated volumes and limiting overall efficiency in larger spaces.^[64]

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The origins of full-range speakers trace back to the late 19th century with early dynamic driver innovations designed for basic audio reproduction. In 1874, Ernst W. Siemens described the first dynamic or moving-coil transducer, featuring a circular coil of wire in a magnetic field supported to allow movement, which laid the groundwork for single-unit drivers capable of handling a broad frequency range for voice signals in early telephone receivers.^[66] This concept evolved further in 1898 when British physicist Oliver Lodge patented the first practical moving-coil loudspeaker, incorporating nonmagnetic spacers and a conical diaphragm to improve sound radiation across frequencies, marking an early step toward full-range performance in compact devices like telephones.^[66] These precursors functioned as rudimentary full-range units, prioritizing voice intelligibility over high-fidelity music reproduction. The 1920s radio era propelled full-range speaker development, driven by the need for affordable, compact units in mass-market receivers. A pivotal advancement came in 1925 with the seminal paper by Chester W. Rice and Edward W. Kellogg at General Electric, which outlined the principles of direct-radiator loudspeakers using a small, mass-controlled conical diaphragm in a baffle to achieve uniform midfrequency response without a horn.^[67] This design established full-range speakers as the standard for consumer audio, enabling natural sound reproduction at conversational levels and quickly adopted by RCA for their 1926 Radiola AC-powered radios.^[67] To extend high-frequency response in these small drivers, innovations like the whizzer cone—a lightweight secondary cone attached to the voice coil—emerged, allowing single units to handle treble alongside bass in early radio cabinets. Western Electric played a key role in scaling full-range technology for public applications during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1924, Western Electric introduced the hornless 540 A-W loudspeaker, a direct-radiator cone design that eliminated bulky horns while maintaining broad coverage, influencing theater installations and early home audio setups.^[68] These contributions solidified full-range cones as a practical alternative to horn-loaded systems, bridging the gap between experimental drivers and commercial viability.

Modern Advancements

Following the decline of full-range speakers in mainstream applications after World War II, a niche revival emerged in the 1950s among audiophiles seeking high-fidelity sound reproduction. Lowther Loudspeakers, established earlier but gaining renewed popularity, developed high-efficiency models like the 1951 Hegeman Sound Reproducer, which incorporated improved paper cones with specialized coatings to enhance durability and frequency extension while maintaining the whizzer cone legacy for high-frequency dispersion.^[69] Similarly, in the 1970s, Fostex, founded in 1973 as a subsidiary of Foster Electric, introduced full-range drivers such as the early FE series, designed for DIY audiophile projects with high sensitivity exceeding 90 dB/W/m and lightweight coated paper cones to support efficient, coherent sound in horn-loaded enclosures.^[70] These developments catered to enthusiasts prioritizing single-driver coherence over multi-way complexity, fostering a dedicated community in Europe and Japan.^[71] The integration of digital signal processing (DSP) in the 2000s marked a pivotal non-physical enhancement for full-range speakers, enabling electronic equalization (EQ) to address inherent response irregularities like midrange peaks or bass roll-off without modifying driver mechanics. DSP units, such as those from brands like miniDSP, allow real-time parametric EQ adjustments, improving flatness across the audible spectrum—often extending effective response to 40 Hz–20 kHz—while preserving phase coherence in live sound and home audio setups.^[72] This approach, increasingly adopted in professional and consumer systems, compensates for room acoustics and driver limitations, boosting overall fidelity without the added complexity of passive crossovers.^[73] Advancements in materials have further refined full-range driver performance, with carbon fiber and Kevlar cones introduced to minimize breakup modes and enhance piston-like motion at higher frequencies. Carbon fiber composites, prized for their extreme stiffness-to-weight ratio (over 200 GPa modulus), reduce unwanted resonances above 5 kHz, resulting in cleaner transient response and lower distortion in wideband operation.^[18] Kevlar (aramid fiber) cones, often blended into paper matrices, provide similar rigidity with superior internal damping, suppressing modal breakup and improving midrange clarity in drivers up to 8 inches.^[18] Complementing these, neodymium magnets—offering magnetic flux densities up to 1.4 Tesla in compact forms—replace heavier ferrite alternatives, yielding lighter voice coils (under 5 grams) for faster acceleration and stronger fields that boost efficiency by 3–6 dB without increasing size.^[74] Hybrid configurations represent an ongoing innovation, augmenting traditional full-range drivers with dedicated subwoofers for sub-60 Hz extension and supertweeters for ultrasonic detail above 20 kHz, effectively creating "augmented" systems that retain single-driver midrange purity while rivaling multi-way bandwidth. For instance, designs like the Von Schweikert UniField series pair a 7-inch full-range unit with powered subs and ribbon supertweeters, achieving seamless integration via active DSP crossovers at 80 Hz and 12 kHz, blurring distinctions with conventional setups.^[75] This modular approach, popularized since the early 2010s, allows scalability for audiophile and professional use, enhancing dynamics without compromising the coherent imaging of pure full-range reproduction.^[76]

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https://listenroom.com/products/magnepan-2-7i-planar-magnetic-floorstanding-loudspeakers
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The HEDD Air Motion Transformer Driver - Clarity and Innovation
With VVT, the AMT's diaphragm features folds that vary both in width and depth and can therefore reproduce the full audio spectrum from 10 to 40 kHz. VVT was ...
[30]
Original ESS Heil Air Motion Transformer™ (AMT) Tweeter
May 24, 2025 · It's worth noting that the driver can cover a wide frequency range reaching down to 800Hz with reasonably high sensitivity of 96dB.
[31]
https://tmraudio.com/speakers/floorstanding-speakers/diptyque-dp160-mkii-isodynamic-floorstanding-speakers-pair/
[32]
Class-E Plasma Speaker Kit - Eastern Voltage Research
The Class-E Plasma Speaker Kit uses high voltage plasma modulation to create audio, is the most powerful available, and has a 100hz to 40kHz frequency response.
[33]
Alsyvox - Audio Design
FULL RANGE RIBBON LOUDSPEAKERS “they do what your mother told you that a planar speaker could never do: really deep, undistorted and powerful bass”Products · News · Distribution · Company
[34]
AlsyVox Announces New Flagship Full-Range Ribbon Speaker
Jul 22, 2024 · The new Michelangelo is a three-panel symmetrical design with two planar woofer panels flanking the center panel containing five ribbon drivers.
[35]
Test Bench: The Dayton Audio DMA80-4 3” Full-Range Driver
Jan 8, 2020 · Test Bench: The Dayton Audio DMA80-4 3” Full-Range Driver. January 8 ... Figure 10: Dayton Audio DMA80 on-axis frequency response.
[36]
Test Bench: The Dayton Audio DMA58-4 2" Full-Range Speaker Driver
Feb 19, 2020 · Test Bench: The Dayton Audio DMA80-4 3” Full-Range Driver · Read more...
[37]
beaming - Troels Gravesen
As a rule of thumb, speaker drivers will start beaming a frequency having a wavelength equal to the diameter of the radiating cone.
[38]
[PDF] Measurement and Visualization of Loudspeaker Cone Vibration
The first cone break-up mode occurs at 3. kHz where again both points vibrate in phase. At higher frequencies the dust cap has a higher amplitude than the.
[39]
Measure speaker frequency response - Different techniques
Apr 16, 2016 · Speaker frequency response can be measured using anechoic, half-space, ground-plane, near-field, or gated measurement techniques.
[40]
Thiele-Small parameters - MONACOR
The Thiele-Small parameters show how a driver will work in a device. We learn about the position, speed and acceleration characteristics of the cone, the ...
[41]
Revisiting Subwoofer Design and Thiele-Small Parameters | FOH
Apr 10, 2015 · Numerous programs are available to predict the frequency response of vented boxes. With the apparent ease of predicting vented loudspeaker ...
[42]
Fostex FE166NV2 - 6.5″ Full-range 8Ω - Loudspeaker Database
Technical parameters and comparison of the Fostex FE166NV2 6.5″ Full-range 8Ω · Resonance frequency 49Hz · Power handling 65W · Sensitivity 93dB.
[43]
W4-2142 - 4" Paper Full Range - TB SPEAKER CO., LTD.
Description : Full range design. Underhung motor design with ferrite magnet, Xmax = 2.4 mm. Very low THD ( 2nd and 3rd harmonic distortion).
[44]
Fostex FE108NS - 4″ Full-range 8Ω - Loudspeaker Database
Technical parameters and comparison of the Fostex FE108NS 4″ Full-range 8Ω · Resonance frequency 75Hz · Power handling 30W · Sensitivity 90dB.
[45]
[PDF] Understanding Loudspeaker Power Handling - EAW
Power Calculation: The RMS voltage at the loudspeaker is measured. The power is then calculated based on the RMS voltage and the minimum impedance of the driver.
[46]
Red Shift: Doppler distortion in loudspeakers - Stereophile.com
Nov 21, 2004 · This inevitably means that, for a given diaphragm size, Doppler distortion will be worst in loudspeakers that use a single, full-range drive- ...
[47]
The audibility of Doppler distortion in loudspeakers
This distortion, for a 200-Hz modulating signal equal in power to a 50-Hz modulating signal in the recording with full-bass input to the • speaker, would be ...
[48]
https://us.kef.com/blogs/news/damping-factor-explained
[49]
Speaker Specs 101: Impedance, Sensitivity, Resonant Frequency
Apr 20, 2023 · Impedance is measured in Ohms and most speakers will be rated at 4, 6, 8, or 16 Ohms by their manufacturer. The lower the impedance, the more ...
[50]
The Audibility of Distortion At Bass Frequencies - Audioholics
Aug 13, 2015 · This article discusses some of the ways speakers and subwoofers distort accurate playback of low frequency content.
[51]
Full-Range Drivers | All Sizes | Madisound
### Summary of Full-Range Speaker Applications
[52]
Marshall Tufton Speaker Review - RTINGS.com
Mar 26, 2025 · The Tufton, conversely, is a portable Bluetooth speaker meant to be used at home and outside. ... It uses a subwoofer, two full-range drivers (one ...
[53]
The 411 on FRFR Speakers - InSync - Sweetwater
Dec 26, 2024 · These self-contained systems more closely resemble PA speakers than traditional guitar cabinets, with built-in power amplifiers, two-way speaker systems, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[54]
Using Full range speakers as Near Field monitors
May 14, 2019 · pozz said: Nice speakers. Only thing I'd mention is that you're likely getting desk bounce which is affecting the clarity of the mids.
[55]
High-Output Commercial Paging Loudspeaker Systems | AtlasIED
### Summary of Full-Range Horn-Loaded Speakers for Stadium Public Address Systems
[56]
https://www.crutchfield.com/learn/learningcenter/car/speakers.html
[57]
Line Array vs Point Source Speakers: Best Choice for Live Sound
### Summary of Point-Source Full-Range Speakers in Live Sound Reinforcement
[58]
Car speakers buying guide - Crutchfield
We'll cover all of the questions a first-time car audio shopper needs to answer to find great car speakers.Missing: dashboard | Show results with:dashboard
[59]
https://jensenmobile.com/shop/speakers/js69t/
[60]
Lowther™ | Full Range Horn Speakers
### Summary of Lowther Full-Range Driver Specs
[61]
Jensen Loudspeakers: Home
Jensen Loudspeakers provide the richest and most dynamic sound in the industry. Jensen speakers assist you in having an incredible performance.Vintage Alnico · Vintage Ceramic · Jet Series · History PageMissing: full- kits
[62]
JBL Pro Live Sound Reinforcement Speakers
Free delivery over $7910" 2-way full-range system. YES, in stock. List Price: $1,090.00. Product Price: $731.00. Free Shipping.
[63]
Single Driver vs. Multiple Drivers: Which Is Better? - Sound & Vision
May 24, 2022 · A single driver design, they say, can deliver greater dynamics and a level of “immediacy” that brings the listener closer to the experience of hearing live ...
[64]
Low Frequency in Loudspeakers: It's All About the Bass! | audioXpress
Apr 3, 2024 · Most nearfield monitor speakers use ported enclosure to enhance bass response, but the result is sloppy transient response. Adding a subwoofer ...
[65]
[PDF] An Introduction to Loudspeakers and Enclosure Design
While high-frequency beaming can be useful to a limited extent to ... Instead, a single well-designed full-range driver was decided on. To reduce.<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
Fujitsu Ten Eclipse - Sound On Sound
For example, the decision to use a single full-range driver is not only ... Firstly, the high-frequency beaming means that, unless you are positioned ...
[67]
Loudspeaker History - Audio Engineering Society
Aug 2, 2001 · 1874 - Ernst W. Siemens was the first to describe the dynamic or moving-coil transducer, with a circular coil of wire in a magnetic field and supported so that ...
[68]
Rice-Kellogg
Jan 25, 2001 · The research paper in 1925 by Chester W. Rice and Edward W. Kellogg at General Electric was important in establishing the basic principle of the direct- ...
[69]
1924 Western Electric 540 A-W Speaker Restoration - YouTube
Jun 21, 2024 · In 1924 Western Electric introduced the "Hornless" 540 A-W loudspeaker. It was innovative and opened the door to a new radio experience.Missing: full- range
[70]
Lowther Hegeman Sound Reproducer - Hi-Fi+
Jun 27, 2024 · Lowther's legendary Hegeman Sound Reproducer loudspeaker dates from 1951. Large and impressively retro, it stands around 4ft tall, 4ft wide, 2ft deep – and ...
[71]
Fostex — Madisound's Loudspeaker Library
In 1978 Fostex started to developed speakers units for professional use. With these loudspeakers, Fostex began to export worldwide causing the brand to became ...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[72]
A Primer on the Popular Lowther Horn Loudspeaker - Stereophile.com
Oct 18, 1998 · Lowther horn speakers and their "clubs" have been important to do-it-yourself hi-fi hobbyists in Europe for decades.<|separator|>
[73]
Using DSP with full range - diyAudio
Jul 19, 2020 · Is it a bad idea to use DSP to correct the upper range and use it as a full range? So far I've only used DSP for lower end corrections where it works nicely.
[74]
[PDF] Technology Trends in Audio Engineering
Sep 21, 2011 · It is common to use DSP (digital signal processing) in recording and mastering sys- tems. A new trend can be seen in the appli- cation of ...
[75]
Neodymium Speaker Magnets Explained - Fluance.com
Neodymium magnets are the strongest natural magnets, packing high magnetic energy in a small size, making them powerful and light for speakers.
[76]
Von Schweikert Audio UniField 3 Floorstanding Speaker Review
It is a hybrid design composed of three separate chambers coupled to the room by a tuned vent at 32 Hz. The chamber filling is acoustic foam and Dacron. The 2″- ...
[77]
Why Aren't More Speaker Designers Building Augmented ...
May 6, 2018 · I have a Feastrex Full range driver, 9inch field coil. It practically covers from 60 Hz to 18khz. I augment with a pair of subwoofers (REL) and ...