Guianan squirrel monkey

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) is a small, arboreal New World primate endemic to the tropical rainforests of the Guiana Shield in northern South America, including French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, northern Venezuela, and northern Brazil north of the Amazon River.^[1] This species, classified in the family Cebidae, features a slender body measuring 25–35 cm in length, a non-prehensile tail up to 41 cm long for balance, and weighs 600–1,200 grams, with adults displaying grayish to yellowish fur, bright yellow legs, white facial markings around the eyes, and black-tipped tails.^[2] Highly social and diurnal, it inhabits the middle canopy of primary and secondary lowland forests, where it forages omnivorously on fruits, insects, leaves, seeds, and small vertebrates while living in female-dominant troops of 25–300 individuals.^[3] Although adaptable and widespread, the Guianan squirrel monkey is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its large range, but populations are declining from habitat loss, deforestation, and capture for the pet and research trades.^[1] Guianan squirrel monkeys exhibit agile locomotion, leaping up to 5 meters between branches and using their nimble hands and nails (rather than claws) for grasping, which enables efficient movement through dense forest strata.^[4] Their social structure is multi-male and multi-female, with females establishing dominance hierarchies and males competing seasonally for mating access; troops often fission into smaller foraging subgroups by age and sex, showing little territoriality.^[2] Reproduction is seasonal, with mating occurring from September to November and a gestation period of 150–170 days, resulting in single births typically from February to April; females reach sexual maturity at 2.5–3 years, males at 4–5 years, and mothers provide sole initial care, though allomaternal assistance from older females occurs.^[5] In the wild, they can live over 20 years, though captive lifespans may be shorter due to research use.^[3] Ecologically, Guianan squirrel monkeys play a role in seed dispersal and insect population control within their habitats, which include mature rainforests, gallery forests, and edges of disturbed areas, demonstrating some tolerance for secondary growth.^[2] Despite their Least Concern status, ongoing threats like agricultural expansion and illegal trade underscore the need for monitoring, as regional subpopulations may warrant closer assessment under frameworks like CITES, where the species has been listed in Appendix II since 1977 with quotas and export regulations in place.^[5]

Taxonomy and Evolution

Taxonomy

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) is a species within the family Cebidae, subfamily Saimiriinae, and genus Saimiri, part of the New World monkeys in the order Primates. It is classified under the infraorder Simiiformes and parvorder Platyrrhini.^[6] The binomial nomenclature Saimiri sciureus was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, originally described as Simia sciurea in Systema Naturae.^[7] The genus name Saimiri originates from the Tupi language of indigenous South Americans, where it means "little monkey" (from sai for monkey and mirim for small).^[8] The specific epithet sciureus derives from the Latin sciurus, meaning squirrel, alluding to the monkey's bushy tail and agile, squirrel-like movements.^[8] S. sciureus is currently considered monotypic with no recognized subspecies. The nominal form (S. s. sciureus, Linnaeus, 1758) is distributed in the Guianas, Venezuela, and northern Brazil.^[6] Formerly, subspecies such as S. s. albigena (Pusch, 1942; central Colombia) and S. s. macrodon (Elliot, 1907; Ecuador and northern Peru) were included, with distinctions based on geographic ranges and morphological variations like fur coloration and cranial features.^[7] However, taxonomic revisions in the 2000s and 2010s, driven by mitochondrial DNA analyses and morphological reassessments, have elevated these to distinct species—S. cassiquiarensis (including albigena) based on a 2009 genetic study, and S. macrodon—alongside separating the Guianan squirrel monkey from the broader "common squirrel monkey" complex and elevating or redefining other taxa like S. collinsi (Osgood, 1916).^[9]^[10]^[11] These changes highlight the rapid diversification of Saimiri species across the Amazon basin during the Pleistocene.^[10]^[12]

Phylogenetic Relationships

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) belongs to the Platyrrhini clade of New World monkeys, which diverged from the Catarrhini clade of Old World monkeys and apes approximately 35 million years ago during the late Eocene to early Oligocene.^[13] This ancient split, estimated between 33.9 and 37.1 million years ago, marks a key event in primate evolution, with Platyrrhini dispersing to South America via a transatlantic rafting event or similar mechanism.^[14] Within Platyrrhini, the genus Saimiri originated around 3–5 million years ago in South America during the Pliocene, representing a relatively recent radiation within the Cebidae family.^[10] Fossil evidence for Saimiri-like primates dates to the Miocene epoch, approximately 13–16 million years ago, with Neosaimiri fieldsi from the La Venta locality in Colombia providing the earliest known ancestor closely related to modern squirrel monkeys.^[15] These fossils exhibit dental and postcranial features transitional between early cebines and extant Saimiri, supporting an Amazonian origin for the genus. Genetic studies using mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA have further clarified intra-generic relationships, revealing that S. sciureus forms a clade closely related to S. boliviensis and S. oerstedii, with divergence times from these sister taxa estimated at 1.1–2.3 million years ago during the Pleistocene.^[16] Hybridization zones occur where S. sciureus overlaps with S. boliviensis subspecies, such as S. b. peruviensis and S. b. boliviensis, leading to admixed populations evidenced by shared mitochondrial haplotypes and non-monophyletic phylogenies.^[17] Cytogenetic analyses distinguish S. sciureus through its karyotype of 2n=44 chromosomes, characterized by variations in acrocentric pairs (typically 10–12) and heterochromatin distribution, which differ from other Saimiri species like S. ustus.^[18] These markers, including G- and C-banding patterns, highlight subtle genomic differences that correlate with geographic isolation.^[19] The evolution of Saimiri, including S. sciureus, reflects adaptive radiations driven by Amazonian forest dynamics, such as Pleistocene climate fluctuations and riverine barriers, fostering arboreal locomotion, frugivory, and complex social structures in response to fragmented habitats.^[10] This diversification underscores the genus's resilience in tropical ecosystems, with phylogeographic patterns indicating multiple refugia during glacial periods.^[20]

Physical Description

Morphology

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) is a small New World primate characterized by a compact, agile build adapted for arboreal locomotion. Adults typically weigh between 0.55 and 1.4 kg, with males averaging slightly heavier than females. The head-body length measures 25–37 cm, while the tail extends 36–47 cm, often curling over the back for balance during rest.^[21]^[2]^[22] The species possesses dense, short fur that provides insulation in tropical environments. Coloration features a grayish-brown back and shoulders, olive-gray crown, and yellowish to orange hues on the limbs and torso, with reddish-orange forearms and thighs. The face is pale with a distinctive black mask encircling the eyes and muzzle, accented by white arches above the eyes and small white tufts at the ears; the tail is gray at the base, tipped black.^[3]^[22]^[23] Key anatomical adaptations include a long, non-prehensile tail that aids in balance during leaping and climbing, and hindlimbs that are longer than forelimbs to facilitate agile movement through forest canopies. The dental formula is 2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3, supporting a mixed diet of fruits and insects through efficient grinding and tearing. Tiny hands bear nails rather than claws, enabling precise grasping of branches and food.^[3]^[22]^[24] Sensory features emphasize diurnal activity, with large, forward-facing eyes providing binocular vision for navigating dense foliage. Females exhibit polymorphic trichromatic color vision, allowing discrimination of red-green hues, while males are dichromatic.^[25]^[26] In the wild, the average lifespan is 15–20 years, though individuals in captivity can reach up to 30 years with optimal care.^[27]^[3]^[2]

Variations

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) displays slight sexual dimorphism, with adult males being slightly larger and heavier than females. Males weigh 550–1,400 g (0.55–1.4 kg) and females weigh 550–1,200 g (0.55–1.2 kg); this size difference is most evident during the breeding season when males develop temporary fat deposits on the head and shoulders.^[28]^[29] Males also exhibit more prominent sagittal crests and significantly larger upper canines compared to females, contributing to strong dental dimorphism.^[30]^[2] Age-related physical changes are notable in the Guianan squirrel monkey. Infants are born with pinkish faces and overall adult-like coloration, though female infants undergo a subsequent shift in pelage tone; by 6 months, when weaning occurs, they develop the full adult coloration and fur texture.^[31] Juveniles remain smaller than adults, with body weights around 400 g at weaning and softer, less dense fur that matures into the short, thick adult coat by sexual maturity (females at 2.5 years, males at 4–5 years).^[22]^[27] Health indicators in adult males often include scarring from intergroup conflicts and intra-group aggression, which is more prevalent in males due to their role in territorial defense and dominance hierarchies; these scars can be disfiguring and result from violent encounters that occasionally cause lasting injuries.^[32]^[33]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) is endemic to northern South America, with its primary range encompassing the Guiana Shield region and adjacent areas of the northern Amazon basin. This includes the countries of Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, northern Brazil (from Amapá state eastward to Amazonas), eastern Venezuela, and northern Colombia. The species' distribution is largely continuous across lowland tropical forests in these areas, though it is bounded to the south by major river barriers such as the Amazon and to the west by the Orinoco River.^[29]^[22] The overall extent of occurrence for S. sciureus is large and widespread, reflecting its status as one of the more common squirrel monkey species within the genus Saimiri. Elevations within this range typically span from sea level to 1,500 m, though records extend up to 2,000 m in some Andean foothills.^[34] In regions of overlap, S. sciureus exhibits sympatry with closely related species such as Saimiri cassiquiarensis, where interbreeding may occur in hybrid zones. These zones represent areas of genetic admixture, contributing to the complex taxonomy within the genus. The species does not undertake long-distance migrations, but troops engage in local movements within their home ranges, often tracking seasonal fruiting patterns to optimize foraging efficiency. Home range sizes typically vary from 2.5 to 3 km², allowing flexibility in response to resource availability without extensive relocation.^[17]^[29]

Habitat Preferences

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) primarily inhabits tropical lowland rainforests, including primary and secondary growth forests, gallery forests along waterways, and seasonally flooded varzea forests. These monkeys show a strong affinity for areas near rivers, lakes, and floodplains, where inundation supports diverse vegetation, and they are rarely found in terra firme forests distant from water sources.^[10]^[2]^[3] Within these ecosystems, the species favors multi-layered forest canopies reaching 20-30 meters in height, with dense understories rich in vines, lianas, and epiphytes that facilitate arboreal locomotion. They predominantly utilize the middle canopy and lower strata for movement and rest, though they occasionally descend to the forest floor or ascend to emergent layers.^[35]^[2]^[3] Climatically, Guianan squirrel monkeys require warm, humid conditions typical of Amazonian lowlands, with annual rainfall between 2,000 and 3,000 mm and average temperatures of 24-28°C. They tolerate seasonal flooding but avoid drier savanna regions or areas with prolonged dry periods. Altitudinally, they occur from sea level up to 1,500 m on various soil types, including nutrient-rich alluvial soils associated with riverine and floodplain habitats.^[10]^[36]^[37] In human-modified landscapes, these monkeys increasingly occupy forest edges and secondary regrowth adjacent to their core habitats in northern South America, including parts of Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela, while generally avoiding intensive monoculture plantations.^[2]^[3]^[35]

Behavior and Ecology

Guianan squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) live in multimale-multifemale troops that typically range from 20 to 75 individuals, though group sizes can vary from fewer than 20 in fragmented habitats to over 100 in undisturbed forests.^[22] Both males and females disperse from their natal troops, promoting gene flow and preventing inbreeding, with adolescent and young adult males often traveling in small coalitions of 3 to 5 individuals to reduce risks during transfer.^[38] Males integrate into new troops through gradual affiliation rather than immediate dominance challenges.^[38] Social hierarchies within Guianan squirrel monkey troops are relatively loose and context-dependent, lacking a strict linear ranking across the entire group. Among females, dominance is kin-based, with related individuals forming stable affiliative bonds and coalitions that influence access to resources and reduce intragroup aggression; these relationships are reinforced through grooming and proximity maintenance.^[39] Males, in contrast, form temporary coalitions for mutual support during interactions, particularly with unfamiliar individuals, but their status is more fluid and less tied to kinship due to dispersal.^[29] Overall, dominance contests are frequent but brief, often resolved through submissive displays rather than prolonged fights, reflecting the species' emphasis on cohesive group living amid high within-group competition. Intergroup relations involve frequent encounters with neighboring troops, as home ranges overlap extensively, leading to outcomes ranging from aggressive defense of fruit-rich patches to mutual avoidance or neutral passing.^[34] Aggression, when it occurs, is typically initiated by both sexes through whooping vocalizations and charges, but escalations are rare, with groups often disengaging to minimize energy costs.^[29] Allomothering plays a key role in group dynamics, with non-maternal females and sometimes subadult males carrying, grooming, and protecting infants, which enhances infant survival and strengthens social bonds across the troop.^[40] Communication in Guianan squirrel monkeys relies on a rich repertoire of vocalizations and olfactory signals to maintain group cohesion and coordinate responses. High-pitched trills serve as alarm calls to alert the troop to predators or threats, prompting rapid evasion behaviors.^[41] Olfactory marking, primarily through urine washing on substrates, conveys individual identity, reproductive status, and territorial information, with both sexes engaging in these behaviors more frequently during periods of social tension.^[42] Troops exhibit fission-fusion dynamics, temporarily splitting into smaller foraging subgroups of 10-30 individuals during the day to exploit dispersed food patches efficiently, before reforming at dusk for communal roosting in tall trees.^[2]

Daily Activities

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) exhibits a strictly diurnal activity cycle, remaining active for approximately 10-12 hours each day from shortly after dawn until dusk. Groups typically initiate the day with vocalizations around 06:00, marking the start of travel and foraging, and retire to sleep sites in the forest canopy by evening, often clustering together for protection against predators. This pattern aligns with the availability of daylight in their tropical habitat, where activities are centered around water sources and canopy resources.^[2]^[22]^[29] Locomotion in the Guianan squirrel monkey is predominantly quadrupedal, involving rapid running along branches and leaps of up to 5 meters between supports in the middle and lower canopy levels. Their long, non-prehensile tail serves primarily for balance during these agile movements, aiding stability without functioning as a grasping appendage. This mode of travel allows efficient navigation through dense vegetation, with groups covering daily distances of 1,100 to 4,500 meters while patrolling and exploiting resources within core areas.^[29]^[43]^[35] Resting periods include brief midday siestas, during which individuals may pause activity to conserve energy, comprising a small but notable portion of the day alongside other non-locomotive behaviors. Allo-grooming, often performed mutually within the group, reinforces social bonds and occupies about 4-6% of the activity budget as part of broader social interactions. Territorial patrolling involves groups defending core areas within larger home ranges of 75-123 hectares through scent marking and avoidance of neighboring troops, rather than overt aggression, with extensive overlap between ranges facilitating occasional temporary associations during resource-rich periods.^[44]^[22]^[3] Seasonal adjustments to activity occur in response to environmental conditions, with reduced movement and overall activity during the rainy season due to flooding and heavy precipitation, which limit access to certain canopy areas and increase predation risks. In contrast, the dry season sees heightened travel and foraging to capitalize on insect abundance, though groups maintain their core ranging patterns year-round. These adaptations ensure survival in the variable Amazonian climate, where brief group travel often integrates social maintenance without dominant hierarchical displays.^[22]^[45]^[46]

Diet and Foraging

Food Composition

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) maintains an omnivorous diet dominated by frugivory and insectivory, with overall composition reflecting approximately 55% reproductive plant parts—primarily ripe fruits such as figs and berries—and 45% arthropods, including insects like orthopterans, lepidopterans, and spiders.^[47] Occasional items include seeds, flowers, plant gums, small vertebrates such as lizards, and bird eggs, which contribute minor but nutritionally significant portions to the intake.^[23] This dietary profile provides high levels of simple sugars from fruits for quick energy and proteins from insects for growth and maintenance, with gums serving as a carbohydrate supplement during periods of fruit scarcity.^[48] The balance supports the monkey's high metabolic demands in tropical forest environments, where energetic efficiency is crucial for active foraging lifestyles.^[49] Seasonal shifts in food availability drive pronounced changes in composition: during the dry season (June–October), the diet is heavily insectivorous (up to 80% animal matter, as observed in August), reflecting reduced fruit abundance and increased reliance on protein-rich arthropods.^[50] In contrast, the wet season (November–May) features fruit-dominated intake (up to 80% plant matter, as in January), aligned with peak fruiting of trees like those in the Leguminosae and Sapotaceae families.^[50] Digestive adaptations include a simple, non-compartmentalized stomach and a cecum lacking extensive folds, facilitating rapid transit times suited to processing fibrous fruits and easily digestible animal prey without specialized fermentation. These features enable efficient nutrient extraction from a variable, opportunistic diet.^[51] Hydration is largely met through moisture in fruits and insects, supplemented by dew on foliage, with free-standing water consumed infrequently from sources like tree holes or ground puddles.^[52]

Foraging Strategies

Guianan squirrel monkeys primarily locate insects through visual scanning of foliage and substrate gleaning, rapidly capturing prey with precise hand grabs while moving through the understory and subcanopy.^[53] Fruits are typically hand-plucked from branches during opportunistic encounters in the canopy.^[46] These techniques allow efficient exploitation of dispersed resources, with foraging adjusted seasonally to prioritize insects during dry periods (up to 80% animal matter) and fruits during wet seasons (up to 80% plant matter); studies report insect intake ranging from 79–97% and fruits from 3–21% across various contexts.^[54] In large multimale-multifemale groups of 15–50 individuals, foraging occurs collectively, often in mixed-species associations with capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella), which enhances access to disturbed insects and provides mutual antipredator benefits through shared vigilance.^[54]^[53] While cooperative scanning is limited, group members disperse slightly during feeding bouts to reduce competition over clumped resources like fruit patches. Sex-based differences influence efficiency: males often achieve higher insect capture rates (up to 72% of attempts in related populations), potentially leading insect hunts, whereas females allocate more time to plant foraging during reproductive peaks.^[55] Overall, groups dedicate 4–5 hours daily to foraging, representing about 50% of their activity budget, with success varying by prey abundance and individual experience.^[46] To manage predation risks, particularly from raptors, foragers emit alarm calls upon detecting threats, prompting group evasion into dense understory cover where aerial attacks are minimized.^[56] Fallback to less nutritious but safer foods like mature fruits sustains energy intake during high-risk periods.^[54] Juveniles develop these strategies through observational learning from mothers, achieving adult-level insect capture proficiency by 6 months via trial-and-error practice, with efficiency improving steadily through the prolonged juvenile phase.^[57]^[58]

Reproduction and Development

Mating Behavior

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) exhibits a promiscuous polygynandrous mating system within its multimale-multifemale social groups, where females mate with multiple males during their estrous cycles, and males compete for access to receptive females. This polyandry promotes paternity confusion, as multiple sires within a troop reduce the likelihood of targeted infanticide by non-fathers, though infanticide remains rare and undocumented in this species. Mating occurs seasonally, typically spanning 8-9 weeks in the early dry season (September to November in northern South American populations), aligning with environmental cues that synchronize breeding across the group.^[59] Females do not initiate mating but exercise choice through dominance, rejecting unwanted advances and tolerating proximity to preferred males. Courtship involves active male pursuit, including chases and solicitation of copulations, often lasting around 11 seconds on average. Males employ genital displays, presenting an erect phallus as a signal during courtship interactions, which can blend with aggressive or affiliative contexts to assert status or attract females. Female dominance over males influences mate selection, with higher-ranking females gaining priority access and lower-ranking males relying on peripheral strategies or opportunistic consortships—temporary close associations lasting from 17 minutes to over 4 hours, during which 31% of copulations occur. Male-male aggression peaks during this period, accounting for 62% of annual interactions, as subordinates challenge dominants for mating opportunities. Breeding results in a gestation period of 150-170 days, with births highly synchronous across the troop, typically five to six months following the mating season (February-April).^[59]^[2] Each female produces usually one offspring annually, though twins occur rarely; this single-birth norm supports high infant survival amid the species' seasonal reproductive constraints. The risk of infanticide, while minimal due to female control and group cohesion, could theoretically accelerate female re-entry into estrus if unrelated infants are targeted, underscoring the adaptive value of promiscuity in obscuring paternity.

Life Stages

The Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) typically gives birth to a single infant following a gestation period of 150–170 days, with births occurring synchronously within groups during the early wet season when food resources are abundant.^[2]^[60] Twinning is rare, occurring at rates comparable to humans (approximately 0.6–1%).^[34] Newborns weigh around 100–140 g and are initially carried ventrally by their mothers for the first 1–2 months, transitioning to dorsal carrying as the infants become more mobile and prehensile tails develop for clinging.^[34]^[8] Mothers provide primary care during the infancy period, supplemented by allomaternal assistance from other group members, particularly older females, with weaning occurring at 4–6 months when infants begin foraging independently.^[23]^[34] During the juvenile phase, which lasts until about 1 year of age when full independence is achieved, young monkeys engage extensively in social play, including chasing, jumping, and play-fighting, to develop motor skills, social hierarchies, and cognitive abilities for group living.^[22]^[52] Sexual maturity follows, with females reaching reproductive capability at 2.5–3 years and males at 4–5 years, marking the transition to adulthood.^[22]^[2] In adulthood, females typically remain in their natal group, contributing to matrilineal social bonds, while males emigrate from the natal troop at maturity, often joining other groups or living peripherally to avoid inbreeding and competition.^[60]^[61] Infant mortality in the wild is high during the first year, primarily due to predation by raptors and snakes, as well as diseases transmitted within dense groups. Senescence begins around 15 years of age in the wild, where fertility declines significantly after the mid-teens, though individuals may survive up to 20 years; post-reproductive females often provide alloparental care to grandchildren and other kin, enhancing group survival through indirect fitness benefits.^[3]^[62]^[63]

Conservation Status

Population Trends

The global population of the Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) lacks a precise estimate but is regarded as widespread and common across its range in northern South America, with numbers likely in the hundreds of thousands to low millions of mature individuals based on its extensive distribution and local abundances.^[22] The species is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, though the overall population trend is decreasing due to habitat loss, while remaining stable in core ranges with continuous forest cover.^[1] Population densities vary widely depending on habitat quality and location, typically ranging from 8 to over 400 individuals per km². In optimal, undisturbed Amazonian forests, densities can reach 256–453 individuals per km², reflecting high resource availability and large group formations.^[48] In contrast, fragmented or degraded areas support much lower densities, often below 20 individuals per km², which contributes to reduced overall viability.^[64] Populations are declining overall due to ongoing habitat loss, though protected areas exhibit relative stability.^[1] Monitoring efforts employ line transect surveys and distance sampling to estimate abundance and trends, supplemented by camera traps for detection in dense vegetation and genetic sampling to evaluate subpopulation connectivity.^[65] Subpopulation dynamics are influenced by habitat continuity, with larger troops of 50–100 or more individuals common in intact forests, facilitating social cohesion and gene flow. Habitat fragmentation results in smaller, isolated groups of fewer than 20 individuals, increasing risks of inbreeding and demographic instability.^[22]

Threats and Protection

The primary threats to the Guianan squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) stem from habitat destruction driven by deforestation for agriculture, logging, and mining activities, which have resulted in the loss of approximately 8% of Amazonian forest cover between 2000 and 2018 across its range.^[66] Hunting poses another significant risk, particularly for the illegal pet trade where infants are captured after mothers are killed, and to a lesser extent for bushmeat consumption despite the species' small size.^[3]^[2] Climate change exacerbates these pressures by altering flooding regimes in floodplain forests, potentially disrupting seasonal habitats and food availability in the species' lowland range.^[1]^[67] Emerging risks include increased disease transmission due to human encroachment, such as yellow fever outbreaks where non-human primates like squirrel monkeys act as reservoirs or amplifiers, heightening vulnerability in proximity to human settlements.^[1]^[68] Expanding infrastructure, including roads and railways, contributes to habitat fragmentation and direct mortality through roadkill, particularly in northern Brazil and the Guianas where development is accelerating.^[3]^[69] Conservation efforts classify the Guianan squirrel monkey as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (assessed 2020), reflecting its wide distribution, though with a decreasing population trend amid ongoing threats; it is also listed under CITES Appendix II to regulate international trade.^[1]^[70] The species occurs in several protected areas, including Iwokrama Forest Reserve in Guyana and Tumucumaque Mountains National Park in Brazil, which safeguard portions of its tropical forest habitat.^[71]^[72] Active conservation actions include reforestation initiatives in the Amazon region to restore degraded habitats and community-based ecotourism programs, such as those in Iwokrama, which promote sustainable economic alternatives to deforestation while funding primate monitoring.^[73]^[74] Research efforts also encompass reintroduction trials, as demonstrated in French Guiana where rehabilitated individuals have shown survival post-release into suitable forests.^[75] Looking ahead, strengthened Amazon-wide policies since 2023, including reduced deforestation rates under Brazilian leadership, offer potential for improved protection; as of July 2025, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon fell by 11% compared to the previous year, possibly stabilizing or enhancing local populations if sustained.^[76]^[77]