Hand of Irulegi
The Hand of Irulegi is a bronze artifact shaped like a right hand, measuring approximately 14.5 centimeters in length and weighing 35.9 grams, discovered in 2021 at an Iron Age archaeological site near Pamplona in Navarre, Spain.[1][2] Dating to the 1st century BCE during the late Iron Age, it features an inscription of 40 symbols arranged in four lines, representing the oldest and longest known written text in a precursor to the Basque language, known as Proto-Basque or Vasconic, as confirmed by a 2024 study.[3][4][5] The artifact, likely an apotropaic amulet or door-hanging charm intended to ward off evil or bring good fortune, was unearthed in a mud-brick building destroyed during the Sertorian Wars (82–72 BCE), which preserved it through a fire.[1][3] Composed primarily of copper (40.87%) and tin (53.19%) with traces of lead (2.16%), the flat, life-sized hand was crafted using a double engraving technique—sgraffito and stippling—suggesting the work of one or possibly two scribes.[1][2] The inscription employs a unique Paleo-Hispanic script adapted from the Iberian system but modified to represent distinct Basque phonemes, comprising five or more words; the first, "sorioneku," closely resembles the modern Basque term "zorioneko," meaning "of good fortune" or "good omen," potentially invoking protection or blessing.[4][3] Scholars debate its exact purpose and the remaining words, which may reference a divinity, a war-related vow, or serve as a votive offering, though its association with the pre-Roman Vascones tribe underscores its role in domestic or ritual contexts.[2] The discovery challenges long-held assumptions that the ancient Vascones, ancestors of the Basques, lacked a writing system, providing the first direct evidence of literacy among this isolate language community over 2,000 years ago.[1][4] Experts such as linguist Javier Velaza have emphasized its incontrovertible linguistic links to modern Basque, while epigrapher Joaquín Gorrochategui notes it "upends how we’d thought about the Vascones and writing until now."[3] Currently housed in the Museum of Navarre, the Hand of Irulegi continues to inform ongoing research into the origins and continuity of the Basque language, one of Europe's few surviving pre-Indo-European tongues.[2]Discovery and Excavation
The Irulegi Site
The Irulegi archaeological site is situated on the summit of Mount Irulegi, at an elevation of 893 meters above sea level, in the eastern part of the Aranguren Valley in Navarre, northern Spain, approximately 10 kilometers south of Pamplona.[5][6] This hilltop location provided strategic visual control over the surrounding landscape, between the western Pyrenees and the Ebro Valley, making it a fortified settlement characteristic of Iron Age oppida.[5] The site dates primarily to the Late Iron Age, with occupation from the third to the first centuries BCE, though evidence indicates earlier foundations in the Middle–Late Bronze Age (15th–11th centuries BC).[5] It is associated with the Vasconic culture of the Vascones, a pre-Roman Iron Age people whose language is considered an ancestor of modern Basque.[5] The settlement's final active phase coincided with the Sertorian Wars (82–72 BCE), a Roman civil conflict on the Iberian Peninsula, during which the site likely suffered violent destruction by Roman forces, evidenced by widespread burning of structures.[7][5] Excavations at Irulegi have been conducted by the Aranzadi Society of Sciences since 2007, initially focusing on the overlying medieval castle before shifting to the prehistoric layers in 2018.[5] These ongoing digs have uncovered a 2.5-hectare settlement featuring fortifications, mud-brick houses, and storage areas, along with artifacts such as coins, weapons, and imported Campanian ware pottery dating to 150–80 BCE.[5][3] The findings point to a prosperous community engaged in trade networks, as indicated by metallurgical remains and ceramics from distant regions, as well as daily life activities reflected in domesticated animal bones and tools suggesting literacy.[5] In the broader context of pre-Roman Iberia, Irulegi exemplifies the trend of elevated, defended settlements emerging in the Ebro Valley from the eighth century BCE onward, highlighting regional patterns of conflict, economic exchange, and cultural continuity amid Roman expansion.[5] During the 2021 excavations, a significant artifact known as the Hand of Irulegi was unearthed, underscoring the site's importance for understanding Vasconic society.[7]Unearthing the Artifact
The Hand of Irulegi was discovered on June 18, 2021, by archaeologist Leire Malkorra of the Aranzadi Science Society during excavations at the Iron Age settlement of Irulegi in the Aranguren Valley, Navarre, Spain.[8][1] The artifact, initially identified as a bronze fragment shaped like a hand, was unearthed near the entrance of a mud-brick house within a domestic structure, part of routine digging in a Vasconic settlement dating to the 1st century BCE.[9][1] Following its recovery, the piece was carefully documented on-site with georeferencing and audiovisual records before being bagged with adhering sediment and transported to the Department of Restoration at the Government of Navarre for laboratory analysis.[8] No immediate signs of inscription were apparent due to the soil encrustation, and it underwent initial surface cleaning using a binocular loupe and microscope.[5] The inscription emerged into view on January 18, 2022, during further manual cleaning when restorer Carmen Usúa, contracted by the Government of Navarre, removed remaining sediment and observed the etched markings.[8] Subsequent epigraphic examination confirmed the presence of an ancient script, prompting detailed study by linguists and archaeologists.[10] The discovery was publicly announced on November 14, 2022, in a press conference attended by officials from the Government of Navarre, highlighting its significance as the oldest known Vasconic inscription.[10][9]Physical Characteristics
Form and Design
The Hand of Irulegi is a flat bronze plaque crafted in the shape of a slightly schematic right human hand, depicting an open-palm gesture comparable in size to that of a small adult.[5] The design features a flat palm on one side and a dorsal surface with a subtly raised outline, including representations of fingernails on the extant digits, which contribute to a stylized yet realistic portrayal of the hand's anatomy.[5] A small hole near the wrist base suggests it was intended for attachment, possibly by nailing to a wooden support such as a door lintel.[5] This form evokes protective symbolism, likely functioning as an apotropaic talisman to ward off evil or invoke good fortune, aligned with ritualistic traditions in Iron Age Iberian and Pyrenean cultures.[5] Archaeologists interpret its placement near a house entrance as indicative of domestic ritual use, where the open hand gesture may have served as a symbolic barrier or offering to deities.[5] The artifact's design parallels other regional examples, such as a lead hand from El Puy de Alcalá in Huesca and monumental depictions of right hands at sites like La Vispesa and El Palao in the Ebro Valley, though it remains distinctive in its Vasconic stylistic execution.[5]Material and Dimensions
The Hand of Irulegi is crafted from a bronze sheet, consisting of 53.2% tin, 40.9% copper, and 2.2% lead, which reflects a distinctive alloy typical of Iron Age metallurgical practices in the region.[11] This material was cut into the shape of a right hand, demonstrating the use of sheet metalworking techniques rather than casting, with the edges formed by direct cutting and the central hole (6.51 mm in diameter) likely created by hammering a nail for suspension.[11] The artifact measures 143.1 mm in length and 127.9 mm in width, with a uniform thickness of 1.09 mm throughout, resulting in a total weight of 35.9 grams.[11] These dimensions indicate a lightweight yet durable object suitable for ritual or protective use, while the thin profile allowed for detailed surface engraving. Upon discovery, the hand exhibited a greenish patina from prolonged burial and oxidation, with the tips of the ring, middle, and index fingers missing due to corrosion, though the palm and overall structure remain largely intact.[11] No remnants of attachments, such as nails or fixtures, were preserved in the hole at the wrist, which aligns with its probable function as a hanging amulet.[11] The manufacturing process highlights skilled local craftsmanship in Iron Age Iberia, evident in the precise cutting, schematic detailing of digits, and combined sgraffito (scratching) and stippling (punching) techniques used for the inscription on the dorsal side.[11]The Inscription
Script and Inscription Methods
The inscription on the Hand of Irulegi employs the Northeastern Iberian semi-syllabic script, a Palaeohispanic writing system adapted for a non-Indo-European language known as Vasconic, distinct from the Indo-European languages prevalent in the region. This script consists of 18 distinct signs, including vowels (a2, e1, i1, o3/o1, u3) and consonants (be1, ta1, te1, ka1, ke2, ki1, ko1, ku1, r1, ŕ3, n2, s1, and a unique T sign), forming a total of 40 symbols arranged in four lines on the dorsal side of the bronze hand. The signs align closely with variants documented in the BDHesp epigraphic database, confirming their compatibility with known Northeastern Iberian forms from the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE.[5] The text was created using a combination of incised and dotted techniques, with incisions executed first via sgraffito—a method involving scratching lines into the bronze surface using a sharp tool, likely an iron burin—followed by secondary highlighting through closely spaced punched dots superimposed on the incisions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis at the Public University of Navarre revealed no direct tool marks but confirmed that the incisions precede the dots, as the latter do not interrupt the former, suggesting the dotting served to emphasize or enhance visibility rather than as the primary marking method. This dual approach results in slight discrepancies between incised and dotted versions of some letters, indicating possible on-site adjustments during execution.[5] The layout follows the natural contours of the hand's palm, with the four curved lines oriented for reading when the fingers point downward and the attachment hole is at the top, beginning near the base of the thumb and extending across the dorsal surface. Three rough guidelines were lightly incised to structure the text, though spatial miscalculations are evident, such as the final 'n' on the second line positioned above its intended alignment. Interpuncts—small separators—divide the inscription into five distinct strings, inferring at least five words based on epigraphic conventions, while the overall design integrates the text with symbolic palm lines associated with ancient divination practices. 3D scanning at 0.06mm resolution further corroborated these layout details, matching the artifact's 14.5 cm length and bronze composition (53.2% tin, 40.9% copper, 2.2% lead).[5]Transcription and Translation
The inscription on the Hand of Irulegi consists of four lines of text engraved on the back of the bronze artifact using a combination of sgraffito incisions and punched dots, read from the palm toward the fingers in a downward direction.[5] The full transcription, as proposed by linguists Joaquín Gorrochategui and Javier Velaza, is as follows:- sorioneku ⋅
- kunekebeekiŕateŕe//n
- oTiŕtan ⋅ eseakaŕi
- eŕaukon ⋅