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Head-directionality parameter

In linguistics, the head-directionality parameter is a proposed binary parameter within Noam Chomsky's Principles and Parameters framework of generative grammar that classifies languages according to the consistent positioning of a syntactic head relative to its complements and specifiers in phrasal structures, determining whether a language is predominantly head-initial (where heads precede complements, as in English verb phrases like "eat an apple") or head-final (where heads follow complements, as in Japanese noun phrases like "ringo-o tabe-ru," meaning "apple-ACC eat-NONPAST").^[1]^[2] This parameter, first explicitly formulated in the early 1980s as part of efforts to explain cross-linguistic syntactic variation, builds on Joseph Greenberg's 1963 universals by positing that languages set this value early in acquisition, constraining the hypothesis space for grammar learning and linking observable word orders (e.g., SVO in English vs. SOV in Izon) to deeper structural properties like verb-object alignment and adposition placement.^[3]^[4] Key proponents, including Mark C. Baker in his 2001 work, argued it functions as a macro-parameter correlating multiple phenomena, such as prepositions versus postpositions and genitive-noun order, though later minimalist approaches (e.g., Kayne 1994) challenged its universality by deriving variations through movement from a uniform base structure rather than parametric choice.^[1]^[5] Empirically, head-final languages like Lakhota exhibit consistent rightward head placement (e.g., "Matȟó waŋ wičáša kiŋ khuwá," meaning "A bear chased the man," with the verb "khuwá" following objects), while head-initial ones like English show leftward tendencies, influencing not only syntax but also morphological patterns like suffixing prevalence.^[2]^[6] Despite debates over its status in light of inconsistent directionality in mixed languages (e.g., Chinese verbal contexts), the parameter remains influential in explaining typological correlations and language acquisition efficiency.^[1]^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition and Core Concept

The head-directionality parameter is a binary macro-parameter in generative linguistics that classifies languages according to the position of the head (the core element determining the category and properties of a phrase) relative to its complements and specifiers: in head-initial languages, the head precedes these dependents, while in head-final languages, the head follows them. This parameter captures systematic variations in phrase structure across languages, serving as a key mechanism for explaining typological differences in word order without resorting to language-specific rules. Proposed in the early 1980s as part of Noam Chomsky's principles and parameters framework, the parameter emerged to account for cross-linguistic word order patterns by positing a universal set of principles combined with finite parametric choices fixed during language acquisition. In this model, the head-directionality setting acts as a single switch influencing multiple syntactic domains, thereby simplifying the theory of universal grammar while accommodating diversity.^[7] The parameter's implications extend to the linearization and branching of syntactic phrases, such as verb phrases (VP), noun phrases (NP), and adpositional phrases (PP), where head-initial settings yield right-branching structures and head-final settings produce left-branching ones.^[8] For instance, in a basic transitive construction, head-initial languages linearize as "head complement" (e.g., "eat apple"), whereas head-final languages reverse this to "complement head" (e.g., "apple eat"). Within the evolution of generative grammar, particularly in the minimalist program, the head-directionality parameter has been reinterpreted as arising from derivational processes—such as feature-driven movement and linearization constraints—rather than a fixed, strictly parametric choice at the level of lexical insertion.^[8] This shift emphasizes economy and interface conditions over discrete parameter settings, aligning the parameter more closely with general computational principles of human language.^[8]

Relevant Phrase Types

The head-directionality parameter governs the ordering of heads relative to their complements within several major syntactic phrase types, including verb phrases (VPs), noun phrases (NPs) or determiner phrases (DPs), adjective phrases (APs), and prepositional or postpositional phrases (PPs). In a VP, the head is the verb, and its complements consist of objects such as direct or indirect arguments that complete the verb's subcategorization requirements. For an NP or DP, the head is the noun, with complements including possessives, prepositional phrases denoting relations, or relative clauses modifying the noun. An AP features the adjective as its head, taking complements like standards of comparison or adverbial modifiers that specify the degree or manner of the adjectival property. In a PP, the head is the preposition (in head-initial cases) or postposition (in head-final cases), with the complement being a noun phrase indicating the location, direction, or relation.^[1] Languages exhibit uniformity in the parameter's application across these phrase types in strict cases, where a single setting—head-initial or head-final—applies consistently, leading to harmonious word orders. For instance, head-initial uniformity positions heads before complements in all relevant phrases, while head-final uniformity reverses this order throughout. Variation arises when the parameter setting differs across phrase types, resulting in mixed orders; this inconsistency is common in languages where, for example, VPs are head-initial but NPs are head-final, disrupting overall syntactic harmony.^[1] Adjuncts, as non-subcategorized optional elements that modify phrases without fulfilling argument roles, interact with the parameter in ways that often display independent directionality from complements, thereby contributing to mixed patterns even in otherwise consistent languages. Unlike complements, which strictly adhere to the head's directionality, adjuncts such as adverbs, adverbial phrases, or secondary modifiers can adjoin to the left or right of the head based on category-specific rules or lexical properties, leading to asymmetries like pre-head adjuncts in head-final VPs. This autonomy underscores that the parameter primarily constrains core argument structure, while adjunct placement introduces additional variability that typologists use to refine models of word order.^[9]^[10] A key diagnostic for determining the parameter's setting involves observing the linear position of the head relative to its complements within these phrase types, such as the verb's order before or after a direct object in VPs, or a noun's position with respect to genitives in NPs. Typological correlations across phrases provide further evidence; for example, verb-object order strongly predicts the directionality of adpositions and genitive-noun sequences, with object-verb languages overwhelmingly favoring postpositions and noun-genitive orders.^[11]

Head-Initial Languages

English Examples

English exemplifies a prototypical head-initial language, where the head of a phrase consistently precedes its complements across major syntactic categories, aligning with the head-initial setting of the head-directionality parameter.^[1] This uniformity facilitates straightforward phrase structure analysis and contributes to the language's typological profile.^[12] In the verb phrase (VP), the head verb precedes its direct object complement, as in the sentence "John eats an apple," where "eats" (V) is followed by "an apple" (NP).^[1] Auxiliary verbs also precede the main verb, reinforcing the head-initial order within the VP, such as "John has eaten an apple," with "has" before "eaten."^[12] For noun phrases (NPs) or determiner phrases (DPs), determiners and adjectives precede the head noun, while complements follow it, as in "the book on the table," where "the" (determiner) and potentially adjectives come before "book" (N), and "on the table" (PP) serves as a postnominal complement.^[1] Genitive constructions, like "John's book," position the possessor "John" as a specifier before the head noun "book," maintaining head-initiality by treating the possessive as a specifier rather than a complement. Prepositional phrases (PPs) in English feature the preposition as the head preceding its noun phrase complement, exemplified by "in the house," where "in" (P) comes before "the house" (NP).^[1] English demonstrates near-uniform head-initiality across these phrase types, with possessives analyzed as specifiers to preserve consistency in the underlying structure.^[12] In syntactic representation under X-bar theory, a basic head-initial VP projects the head V to an intermediate V' level, with the complement attached to the right of V', as in the structure for "build a spaceship": the verb "build" forms V, combining with the NP "a spaceship" under V', which then projects to VP.^[13] This rightward complement placement visually captures English's head-preceding order in tree diagrams.^[13]

Indonesian Examples

Indonesian demonstrates head-initial characteristics in its clause structure, adhering to a subject-verb-object (SVO) order where the verb precedes its direct object. For instance, the sentence Saya makan apel ("I eat apple") places the verb makan ("eat") before the object apel ("apple"), reflecting the language's isolating nature with minimal inflectional morphology.^[14]^[15] From a dependency grammar perspective, heads such as verbs and nouns in Indonesian project their dependents primarily to the right, exhibiting minimal left-branching and a strong preference for head-initial directionality across syntactic relations. Corpus-based studies confirm this pattern, showing that Indonesian speakers tend to position heads before dependents to optimize dependency distances in phrases like verb phrases (VP) and noun phrases (NP).^[16]^[17] In terms of word order, Indonesian matrix clauses are predominantly head-initial, particularly in prepositional phrases (PP) where prepositions govern the following noun, as in di rumah ("in house") with the preposition di ("in/at") preceding the head noun rumah ("house"). This aligns with the language's overall SVO typology, though it incorporates some agglutinative elements through prefixes like meN- on verbs, without disrupting the dominant head-initial alignment.^[15]^[18] Recent post-2020 analyses reveal mixed tendencies in complex sentences, stemming from Indonesian's topic-prominent structure, which permits flexible word order variations such as scrambling and object shift, especially in spoken varieties like Jakarta Indonesian, while maintaining head-initial dominance in core constructions.^[19]^[20]

Head-Final Languages

Japanese Structure

Japanese exemplifies a canonical head-final language within the head-directionality parameter framework, where complements and modifiers consistently precede their heads across major phrasal categories.^[21] This strict adherence to head-final ordering distinguishes Japanese syntax from head-initial languages like English and contributes to its predominantly left-branching phrase structure trees.^[3] In the verb phrase (VP), Japanese follows a subject-object-verb (SOV) order, with the object preceding the verb as the head. For instance, the sentence John-ga ringo-o taberu ("John eats an apple") places the object ringo-o (apple-ACC) before the verb taberu (eat), reflecting the head-final configuration.^[21]^[10] Noun phrases (NPs) in Japanese also exhibit head-finality, with the head noun appearing after its modifiers, including possessives, adjectives, and relative clauses. An example is watashi no hon ("my book"), where the possessive watashi no (I GEN) precedes the head noun hon (book), or a relative clause construction like tabeta ringo ("the apple (that) I ate"), in which the modifying clause comes before the noun.^[22]^[21] Equivalent to prepositional phrases in other languages, Japanese postpositional phrases (PPs) position the postposition after its noun complement, underscoring head-finality. Consider ie no naka de ("inside the house"), where the noun ie no naka (house GEN inside) is followed by the postposition de (at/in), marking location.^[21] At the clause level, Japanese maintains SOV ordering, with particles such as nominative ga, accusative o, and dative ni marking dependents that precede the verbal head. This particle system reinforces the head-final pattern by clarifying grammatical roles without relying on word order alone for basic SOV structures.^[10]^[23] The uniformity of head-finality extends across syntactic categories in Japanese, resulting in consistently left-branching trees where dependencies resolve from left to right toward the head.^[21]^[24] This consistent parameter setting facilitates efficient incremental parsing in head-final languages like Japanese.^[25]

Turkish Structure

Turkish exhibits head-final properties across major phrasal categories, aligning with its classification as a synthetic, agglutinative language within the Turkic language family, where heads consistently follow their dependents.^[26] In the tense phrase (TP), tense markers are realized as suffixes attached to the verb, which occupies the final position after subjects and objects in the canonical subject-object-verb (SOV) order.^[27] This structure ensures that temporal information integrates post-verbally, reinforcing the head-final orientation of clausal projections.^[28] The verb phrase (VP) similarly places the verb at the end, with objects, adverbials, and other complements preceding it, as exemplified in the sentence Ali kitabı okudu ("Ali book-ACC read-PAST"), where the accusative-marked object kitabı follows the subject but precedes the head verb okudu.^[29] This configuration allows for the accumulation of morphological material on the verb stem, including aspectual and agreement suffixes, which further embed the head in a terminal position within the phrase.^[30] In the determiner phrase (DP), the noun serves as the head and appears finally, with adjectives, genitives, and relative clauses positioned before it to modify the nominal core.^[31] For instance, possessive or descriptive modifiers prefix the head noun, such as in constructions where a genitive phrase or attributive adjective precedes the possessed noun, maintaining strict head-finality in nominal projections.^[32] Relative clauses, which function as modifiers, also precede the head noun, embedding complex dependencies prior to the phrasal terminus.^[33] Postpositional phrases (PPs) in Turkish follow a head-final pattern, with postpositions attaching as suffixes or separate elements after the noun they govern, unlike prepositional systems in head-initial languages.^[34] A representative example is ev-de ("house-IN"), where the locative postposition -de follows the head noun ev, encoding spatial relations in a manner that positions the functional head terminally.^[26] This structure extends to directional and ablative postpositions, which similarly suffix to or follow their complements, contributing to the language's overall typological consistency.^[34] Matrix clauses in Turkish display word order flexibility, permitting scrambling of constituents due to rich case marking on nouns, yet retain an underlying head-final SOV template that governs the verb's position.^[29] Case suffixes, such as nominative for subjects and accusative for definite objects, disambiguate roles amid permutations, allowing topicalization or focus shifts without disrupting the core head-final architecture.^[35]

Mixed Word-Order Languages

German Patterns

German exhibits mixed head-directionality, with distinct patterns across phrase types and clause structures. In nominal and determiner phrases (NPs/DPs), the structure is head-initial, as determiners and adjectives precede the noun. For instance, in "der rote Apfel" (the red apple), the determiner "der" and adjective "rote" appear before the head noun "Apfel," positioning complements and modifiers after the head.^[3] This head-initial order aligns with the branching direction in NPs, where the noun projects to the right.^[3] Prepositional phrases (PPs) in German are predominantly head-initial, with prepositions preceding their complements. An example is "auf dem Tisch" (on the table), where the preposition "auf" heads the phrase and the NP "dem Tisch" follows.^[3] Although rare postpositions exist (e.g., "zufolge Gerüchten," according to rumors), the majority of PPs follow the head-initial pattern, contributing to the overall inconsistency in German's directionality.^[3] In contrast, verb phrases (VPs) display a directionality flip depending on clause type, marking German as a mixed word-order language. Main clauses adhere to the verb-second (V2) rule, resulting in a surface head-initial order resembling SVO, as in "Ich sehe den Hund" (I see the dog), where the finite verb "sehe" occupies the second position after topicalization or subject placement.^[36] However, this arises from an underlying head-final VP structure, with the verb moving to a functional head position.^[36] Subordinate clauses, introduced by a complementizer, enforce verb-finality, yielding SOV order, as in "dass ich den Hund sehe" (that I see the dog), where the verb "sehe" follows its complements. This complementizer-triggered shift serves as a key diagnostic for the head-final nature of embedded VPs. The resulting inconsistency in VP directionality—head-initial in main clauses due to V2 but head-final in subordinates—highlights German's mixed parametric settings, where functional projections in matrix contexts override the base VP order.^[3]

Chinese Patterns

Chinese exhibits mixed head directionality across phrase types, displaying head-initial patterns in verbal projections while showing head-final tendencies in nominal and certain peripheral structures, influenced by its analytic nature and topic-comment organization.^[37]^[38] In verb phrases (VPs), Mandarin Chinese is predominantly head-initial, following a subject-verb-object (SVO) order, as in the sentence Zhāngsān qù-guò Bālí le ("Zhangsan went to Bali before"), where the verb precedes its object.^[39] However, serial verb constructions introduce flexibility, allowing multiple verbs to chain without conjunctions, such as Tā qù Běijīng kàn péngyou ("He go Beijing see friend"), where the order can vary based on aspectual or semantic relations but generally maintains head-initial alignment within each sub-VP.^[9] Nominal phrases (NPs) contrastingly favor head-final order, with modifiers like adjectives, demonstratives, and relative clauses preceding the head noun. For instance, hóngsè de shū ("red color DE book") places the attributive adjective hóngsè ("red") before the noun shū ("book"), linked by the associative particle de.^[40] Relative clauses similarly front the modifying clause, as in wǒ zuótiān mǎi de shū ("I yesterday buy DE book"), reinforcing the head-final pattern in NPs.^[39] Prepositional phrases (PPs) are typically head-initial, with prepositions preceding their complement NPs, such as zài jiā lǐ ("at home inside"), where zài ("at") heads the phrase.^[41] Yet, locative expressions often postpose after verbs in VPs, yielding apparent head-initial VP embedding, as in fēi Běijīng ("fly Beijing"), where the locative follows the verb but functions as a complement.^[39] This disharmony—head-initial VPs alongside head-final NPs—marks Chinese as typologically mixed.^[42] The topic-comment structure further modulates these patterns, prioritizing pragmatic prominence over strict syntactic directionality; topics are fronted to sentence-initial position, followed by a comment clause, as in Zhè běn shū, wǒ kàn-guò ("This book, I read before"), where the NP topic precedes the VP comment, potentially overriding linear expectations in complex sentences.^[43] Recent analyses derive such peripheral head-finality in Chinese through complement-to-specifier movement in phase projections like sentence-final particles (SFPs), without invoking a dedicated head-directionality parameter, as proposed by Pan (2022).^[39] This approach unifies the mixed orders by attributing them to EPP-driven operations in the clausal periphery.^[39]

Gbe Patterns

The Gbe languages, a cluster within the Volta-Niger branch of Niger-Congo spoken primarily in West Africa (including Ewe in Ghana and Togo, and Fon in Benin), display mixed head directionality patterns that deviate from uniform head-initial or head-final structures typical of many Niger-Congo languages. This non-uniformity arises in verbal phrases through serial verb constructions that reinforce head-initial tendencies, while nominal phrases show variability, particularly in possessive constructions. Prepositional phrases exhibit mixed directionality, with both prepositions and postpositions. These patterns reflect inherent Niger-Congo typological features, such as SVO basic word order, combined with influences from regional substrate languages and contact dynamics in the Kwa linguistic area.^[44]^[45] In verbal phrases (VP), Gbe languages maintain an overall head-initial SVO structure, with serial verb constructions exemplifying chained head-initial ordering where multiple verbs function as a single predicate without coordination markers. In Ewe, for instance, serial verbs allow a sequence of V1-V2 followed by a shared object, as in Kofi kpo le ame ('Kofi took (it) (and) came home'), where kpo ('take') and le ('come') both precede the locative object ame ('home'), sharing the subject and tense-aspect properties. This construction underscores the head-initial chaining within the VP, aligning with the broader SVO syntax of Gbe. Similar patterns occur in Fon, where serial verbs like dè sɔ ('go buy') precede objects in purpose or manner expressions.^[46] Nominal phrases (NP) in Gbe languages are predominantly head-initial, with the noun preceding most modifiers such as adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, and relative clauses; determiners like the definite article la in Ewe follow the noun but maintain the head's precedence over complements. For example, Ewe agbalɛ la ('the cloth') places the head agbalɛ ('cloth') before the determiner la. However, possessive constructions introduce variability, often exhibiting head-final order where the possessor precedes the possessed noun via a linker ƒe, as in Kofi ƒe agbalɛ ('Kofi's cloth'), positioning the head noun after its dependent. This contrast highlights internal non-uniformity within NPs, with alienable possession favoring the head-final pattern more rigidly than inalienable relations. Fon mirrors this, with possessives like yɔ̀ núŋsú ('your head') showing possessor-head order.^[47] Prepositional phrases (PP) in Gbe show mixed directionality, with prepositions preceding their complement NPs and postpositions following. Prepositions, often derived from verbs or nouns, include examples in Ewe like le ame ('at home') or ɖe agbalɛ ('on the cloth'), where the head precedes the object. Postpositions, derived from body part nominals, also occur, such as in locative or associative functions (e.g., 'na' for 'near'). Fon exhibits parallel mixed patterns. This mix in PPs contributes to the overall mixed profile.^[44] The mixed directionality in Gbe stems from Niger-Congo typological preferences for head-initial orders in core syntax (e.g., SVO), overlaid with substrate influences from pre-existing Benue-Congo or other regional languages that may have introduced head-final elements in possession, compounding, and adpositions. Historical contact in the Lower Guinea linguistic area, including adstrate effects from Akanic or Gur languages, likely amplified this non-uniformity, as evidenced by lexical and structural borrowings that disrupt consistent parameter settings.^[45]^[48]

Theoretical Frameworks

Principles and Parameters Approach

The Principles and Parameters (P&P) approach, developed in the 1980s as part of generative grammar, posits that Universal Grammar (UG) consists of invariant principles shared by all human languages, alongside a finite set of parameters that account for cross-linguistic variation. Within this framework, the head-directionality parameter is a binary option determining whether the head of a syntactic phrase precedes or follows its complements, thus classifying languages as consistently head-initial (e.g., English, where verbs precede objects) or head-final (e.g., Japanese, where verbs follow objects). This parametric choice is assumed to apply uniformly across major phrasal categories (e.g., VP, NP, PP) within a single language, enabling learners to generalize the setting from limited input. The binary nature of the head-directionality parameter facilitates rapid first-language (L1) acquisition by allowing children to set it based solely on positive evidence from their linguistic environment, without requiring negative data or explicit instruction. For instance, exposure to a few head-initial structures in the input suffices for learners to project the parameter setting across the grammar, explaining the uniformity and speed of early syntactic development observed in L1 studies. Mark Baker formalized this parameter in 2001, stating it as a universal choice where "heads precede their complements" (head-initial) or "complements precede their heads" (head-final), emphasizing its role in deriving typological patterns like verb-object versus object-verb order. In second-language (L2) acquisition, the P&P framework predicts that adult learners initially transfer their L1 parameter setting but can reset it to match the L2, particularly when shifting from head-final to head-initial structures, through interlanguage strategies that exploit UG principles.^[49] Empirical evidence from L2 studies supports this, showing that learners of head-initial languages like English from head-final L1 backgrounds (e.g., Korean or Japanese) progressively adopt initial strategies, with resetting facilitated by input salience and markedness considerations. Recent 2020s research on L2 syntax reinforces the parametric view, demonstrating that such resetting aligns with UG-constrained processing, as seen in neuroimaging data where L2 learners exhibit native-like sensitivity to head directionality after intermediate proficiency stages.^[49] Post-1995 developments in the Minimalist Program reinterpret parameters, reducing their number by linking variation to more fine-grained feature specifications rather than macro-parameters like head directionality, though the core binary choice persists in analyses of phrasal projections.

Dependency Grammar Perspective

In dependency grammar, the head-directionality parameter is not treated as a binary switch within phrase structure rules but emerges directly from the asymmetric relations between heads and their dependents in a sentence. Dependency structures represent syntax as a tree where each word except the root serves as a dependent of exactly one head, and the direction of these head-dependent links determines linear order without invoking hierarchical phrases. This relational approach, pioneered by Lucien Tesnière, posits that directionality arises from valency patterns and linear precedence constraints specific to each dependency type, allowing for greater flexibility across languages.^[50]^[51] Head-initial configurations in dependency trees feature heads that govern their dependents to the right, resulting in right-projective arcs where complements and modifiers follow the head. For instance, in English, the verb "eat" in the sentence "The cat eats fish" forms a rightward dependency with "eats" as head and "fish" as its object dependent, reflecting the predominantly head-initial nature of English verbal projections. Conversely, head-final structures exhibit left-projective dependencies, with heads governing to the left; in Japanese, the verb "taberu" (eat) in "Neko ga sakana o taberu" (The cat eats fish) has its subject and object preceding it, creating leftward arcs from the head verb. These patterns are not uniform across all relations within a language but can vary, avoiding the need for a global parameter.^[52]^[3] This framework offers advantages in analyzing mixed word-order languages, where different dependency relations may exhibit inconsistent directionality, by permitting non-uniform linear precedence rules rather than enforcing a single head-direction setting. Languages like German, with head-final subordinate clauses but head-initial main clauses, are more naturally captured through relation-specific constraints in dependency trees, enhancing cross-linguistic comparability.^[53]^[52] Recent integrations with Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) further refine this perspective by incorporating dependency relations into sign-based models, bridging relational syntax with lexicalist phrase structures without parametric binaries. The 2025 HPSG handbook highlights how such developments enable projective dependency analyses in sign-based grammars, supporting applications in computational linguistics and typology.^[54]^[55]

Typological and Gradient Views

Typological studies classify languages according to the prevalence of head-initial or head-final structures across phrasal categories such as verb phrases (VPs) and adpositional phrases (PPs). In the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS), approximately 42% of 1,376 sampled languages show head-initial VP order (SVO or VSO), 41% head-final (SOV), and 14% lack a dominant order, indicating substantial variation. For PPs among 1,184 languages, 43% use prepositions (head-initial), 49% postpositions (head-final), 5% have mixed or no dominant adpositions, and 2.5% lack adpositions altogether. Regionally, head-initial patterns dominate in Europe and the Atlantic region (including parts of Africa), accounting for about 60% of languages in those areas, whereas head-final orders prevail in Asia, where SOV structures represent around 40% or more of cases in comprehensive samples. These distributions reflect areal influences rather than universal biases. Implicational hierarchies further illuminate consistent patterns in head directionality. Languages with head-final VPs (OV order) strongly correlate with head-final PPs (postpositions), as OV languages pair with postpositions in 107 out of 114 genera, while only 7 genera show OV with prepositions (head-initial PPs); conversely, VO languages pair with prepositions in 70 genera versus 12 with postpositions. This correlation, first systematically documented by Dryer in a 1992 analysis of 625 languages, holds across all six major linguistic areas (Africa, Eurasia, Southeast Asia and Oceania, Australia-New Guinea, North America, and South America). Updated databases from the 2020s, including WALS, reinforce these hierarchies with expanded samples exceeding 1,300 languages per feature, confirming the robustness of VP-PP alignment while noting rare exceptions in mixed systems. Gradient models treat head directionality as a continuous spectrum rather than a binary parameter, scoring languages by the proportion of head-initial dependencies (ranging from 0% fully head-final to 100% fully head-initial). Under this approach, consistently head-initial languages score high (e.g., English at ~90%), head-final ones low (e.g., Japanese at ~10%), and mixed languages occupy intermediate positions based on dependency frequencies across syntactic relations. For instance, analyses of 20 diverse languages using Universal Dependencies treebanks compute head-initial percentages for pairs like verb-object and noun-adjective, revealing gradients that better capture intra-language variation than categorical labels. Recent WALS updates (2023) estimate that 25% of languages exhibit mixed head directionality when aggregating multiple features, underscoring the prevalence of non-harmonic orders. The binary head-directionality parameter has faced critiques for its rigidity, as it struggles to accommodate the gradient nature of many languages' word orders. Newmeyer argues that such parameters fail to predict typological frequencies accurately, often assuming equal likelihood for initial and final settings despite empirical imbalances and mixed cases. In the 2020s, research on statistical learning has highlighted how children and computational models acquire head direction preferences through probabilistic tracking of input patterns, favoring gradient over discrete settings; for example, neural networks pretrained on multilingual data develop head-direction biases via statistical correlations, mirroring natural acquisition without invoking innate binaries. These views shift emphasis from parametric triggers to usage-based learning, better explaining the 25% mixed languages omitted in stricter models. Richard S. Kayne's antisymmetry hypothesis, introduced in his 1994 monograph The Antisymmetry of Syntax, posits that all languages share a universal underlying head-initial structure, eliminating the need for a head-directionality parameter. Instead, apparent head-final orders in languages like Japanese arise from phrasal movements, specifically remnant movement, where complements are displaced leftward to higher specifiers, creating a surface illusion of left-branching hierarchies. This approach relies on the Linear Correspondence Axiom (LCA), which maps asymmetric c-command relations to linear precedence, ensuring that specifiers precede heads and heads precede complements universally. In the derivation of head-final structures under antisymmetry, a complement phrase (e.g., VP) first merges head-initially with its head (e.g., V), but the complement then undergoes leftward movement to a specifier position, stranding the head on the right. Subsequent remnant movement of the entire modified phrase to a higher specifier reinforces this order, as seen in analyses of Japanese relative clauses or noun phrases, where the surface head-final appearance results from iterative leftward extractions rather than base generation.^[56] This movement-based account unifies cross-linguistic variation under a single hierarchical order, with right-adjunction prohibited to maintain antisymmetry. Related to antisymmetry is the Fundamental Principle of Placement (FPP), proposed by Winfred P. Lehmann in 1973, which asserts that in relational constructions, a head consistently precedes or follows its dependent elements across languages, reflecting a universal tendency in linearization. Expanding on Greenberg's universals, the FPP suggests that word order harmony derives from this consistent placement relative to sisters, influencing typological patterns without invoking parameters; for instance, head-initial languages exhibit right-branching, while head-final ones show left-branching dominance. Frederick J. Newmeyer, in his 2005 book Possible and Probable Languages, argues against the existence of directionality parameters altogether, contending that the head-directionality parameter fails due to its exception-ridden nature and inability to capture typological gradients, favoring functional explanations for word order variation instead. Recent critiques in the 2020s have questioned the universal head-initial base of antisymmetry; for example, Wei-wen Roger Liao (2023) challenges Kayne's 2022 extension of asymmetry into Merge itself, arguing that empirical asymmetries do not necessitate encoding order in core operations.^[57] Similarly, Victor Junnan Pan's 2022 analysis of Chinese peripheral projections derives head-final orders via complement-to-specifier movement driven by EPP features in phase heads, contradicting the LCA by allowing base flexibility and challenging the strict universal base hypothesis.^[39]

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### Summary of Head Directionality Parameter in Universal Grammar
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This paper reports on the results of a detailed empirical study of word order corre- lations, based on a sample of 625 languages. The primary result is a ...Missing: directionality | Show results with:directionality
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[PDF] INTD0112 Introduction to Linguistics
Nov 4, 2020 · The head directionality parameter. ➢ The head-initial setting of the HD parameter holds in English, Edo, Thai,. Khmer, Indonesian, Zapotec ...
[11]
6.14 Trees: Introducing X-bar theory - eCampusOntario Pressbooks
In this section we introduce X-bar theory, which aims to make stronger predictions by restricting the shape of possible trees.
[12]
[PDF] Syntactic underspecification in Riau Indonesian
The basic word order in the clause is SVO, with head preceding modifier in the phrase.
[13]
[PDF] The Syntactic Structure of Noun Phrases in Indonesian - MSpace
1.3 Basic Constituent Order. Indonesian is an isolating language with SVO word order. The head noun in Indonesian typically appears at the left edge of the ...
[14]
A Corpus Study of Head Directionality from a Dependency Perspective
Overall evaluation shows that aside to the minimization of dependency distance, Indonesian speakers might choose a certain position of the head to better ...
[15]
[PDF] A Gold Standard Dependency Treebank for Indonesian
While English usually uses head-final direc- tion for noun phrase, Indonesian mostly uses head- initial with some exceptions (Alwi et al., 1998).
[16]
Converting the Head-Directionality of Noun Phrases
Nov 17, 2020 · Noun phrases in English usually have head-final direction, while in Indonesian is the opposite, head-initial. We proposed a variant of tree ...
[17]
[PDF] word order: case study of scrambling & object shift in
This thesis explores non-canonical object positions in Indonesian, including sentence-initial and medial objects, and the contrast between long and short ...
[18]
[PDF] THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA - UA Campus Repository
there are adpositions (such as Indonesian oleh ... topic-prominent language (Li & Thompson 1976)), we ... site stays within VoiceP and thus violates ...
[19]
https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/2f0f3f0b-666a-41f3-8e30-69b3fe2e53a2/content
[20]
[PDF] Clausal Noun-Modification in Japanese - Yale Linguistics
Apr 21, 2021 · All examples in (1) are NPs with a head noun preceded by a full clause which modifies it (Japanese is a head-final language, hence all the heads ...
[21]
[PDF] Very Early Parameter-Setting: New Evidence
7 This contrast suggests that young Japanese-learning children already know that the head-final value is the correct setting, and that VO sentences have the ...
[22]
Localizing Syntactic Composition with Left-Corner Recurrent Neural ...
Importantly for the purpose here, given that Japanese is a head-final/left-branching language, this language should serve as an excellent testing ground to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[23]
[PDF] Head Finalization: A Simple Reordering Rule for SOV Languages
Jul 16, 2010 · The reason is simple: Japanese is a typical head-final language. That is, a syntactic head word comes after non- head (dependent) words. SOV is ...
[24]
A morphosyntactic analysis of the Turkish inflectional system | Glossa
Aug 1, 2025 · Turkish is a head–final, SOV, suffix–based language characterized by its vowel harmony and its agglutination across all classes of words.
[25]
(PDF) An Outline of Turkish Syntax - ResearchGate
Turkish is also a head-final language where modifiers and specifiers are always placed before heads (Erguvanlı, 1984; Göcmen et al., 1995; Knetch, 1985).
[26]
[PDF] Topics in Turkish Syntax: Clausal Structure and Scope - DSpace@MIT
Jan 11, 2022 · This dissertation asks two main questions for Turkish: (i) what is the interaction between verbal morphology and the structure?, and (ii) ...
[27]
[PDF] Comprehending Turkish Sentences using Word Order, Thematic ...
Turkish, a flexible word order language with accusative case-marking, allows us to compare the relative effect of word order, case-marking, and thematic ...
[28]
(PDF) A Sign-Based Phrase Structure Grammar for Turkish
This study analyses Turkish syntax from an informational point of view. Sign based linguistic representation and principles of HPSG (Head-driven Phrase ...<|separator|>
[29]
[PDF] Partitivity and case marking in Turkish and related languages | Glossa
Mar 24, 2017 · typological and phrase-structural characterization of Turkish (and its DP) as head-final. This approach allows us to state co-occurrence ...
[30]
[PDF] Definiteness, Structure and Agreement in Turkish Possessives
The present study argues for different levels of definiteness in the nominal domain based on an analysis of two different kinds of possession phrases in Turkish ...Missing: final | Show results with:final
[31]
[PDF] Syntax of Head-Final Relative Clauses – The Case of Turkish
In this paper, based on Turkish, a strictly head-final language, we propose a solution that circumvents these problems, is compatible with language processing ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[32]
[PDF] 1 On the Structure of Postpositional Phrases in Turkish This paper ...
On the Structure of Postpositional Phrases in Turkish. This paper proposes an analysis of postpositional phrases (PPs) in Turkish based on their semantic.
[33]
(PDF) Comprehending Turkish sentences using word order ...
Since Turkish has a flexible word order due to its rich case-marking system, this change was not expected to meaningfully impact the results (Ergin & Stromswold ...
[34]
Information structural effects in processing contrastive ellipsis
Feb 3, 2023 · This provides novel evidence for fine-grained information-structural representations guiding the processing of contrastive ellipsis.
[35]
[PDF] The Shift to Head-Initial VP in Germanic - Stanford University
An interesting asymmetry in syntactic change is that OV base order is commonly replaced by VO, whereas the reverse development is quite rare in languages.1.
[36]
[PDF] More on Chinese word order and parametric theory
The linear position of the head with respect to the peripheral elements is left open as a parameter whose value has to be fixed on the basis of experience, the ...
[37]
(PDF) Features of Mandarin Chinese in Parameters - ResearchGate
Mar 29, 2024 · This paper focuses on the features of Mandarin Chinese in terms of head parameter, V-to-T parameter as well as the order of subject, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
Deriving Head-Final Order in the Peripheral Domain of Chinese
Jan 5, 2022 · This article proposes a unified analysis of the peripheral projections in Chinese, which does not rely on a head-directionality parameter.
[39]
[PDF] Chinese Word Order and the Two Typological “Exceptions”
We assign a score of [-1] to the head-initial pattern parameter, [+1] to the head-final pattern parameter, and [0] for patterns accommodating both.
[40]
[PDF] Postpositions vs. prepositions in Mandarin Chinese
Disharmonic orders found in Chinese languages include head initial VP-internal order coincident with head final NP-internal order and clause-final ...Missing: directionality | Show results with:directionality
[41]
Disharmony between head-directionality in Cantonese NP and VP
It has been intriguing to linguists that Chinese languages or dialects have a head-initial VP and yet a head-final NP. This property is typologically marked ...
[42]
Topic-comment sentences - Chinese Grammar Wiki
In a topic-comment sentence, the usual word order is rearranged a bit, in order to emphasize a certain part of a sentence. The part that is to be emphasized ...
[43]
None
### Summary of Ewe Language: Word Order, Syntax, Head Directionality, and Morphological Headedness
[44]
[PDF] GBE AS A GROUP OF MIXED LANGUAGES? ITS CONTRIBUTION ...
GBE is a group of languages in Niger-Congo, classified as Kwa, Benue-Congo, or both, and seems to have items from both.Missing: head | Show results with:head
[45]
[PDF] Basic Ewe for foreign students
We hope that “Basic Ewe for foreign students” will serve as a useful tool for teachers and students of this beautiful language. Köln, May 2015. Ulrike Claudi ...
[46]
Classroom:Ewe Noun Phrases - TypeCraft
Ewe noun phrases can be simple (nucleus), complex (nucleus + modifiers), or possessive (NP ƒé NP). Simple phrases can have a noun, pronoun, or quantifier.
[47]
[PDF] 9 Niger-Congo Linguistic Features and Typology - eScholarship
Feb 28, 2019 · Niger-Congo languages favor open syllables, often lacking consonant clusters, and have syllabic nasal syllables that may contrast tone.Missing: directionality | Show results with:directionality
[48]
The role of Universal Grammar and crosslinguistic influence in the ...
Aug 17, 2025 · Assuming that a UG principle is parameterized, as for example in relation to Head directionality (i.e., head-first versus head-last) or ...<|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Dependency Grammar
The head of a Verb Phrase is a verb/modal/…. • The head rules can be used to extract a dependency parse from a CFG parse. • The closure of dependencies.
[50]
https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/cs/cs224n/cs224n.1162/handouts/SLoSP-2014-4-dependencies.pdf
[51]
[PDF] Dependency direction as a means of word-order typology
Dryer defined correlation pairs as the following: ''If a pair of elements X and Y is such that X tends to precede Y significantly more often in VO languages ...Missing: directionality | Show results with:directionality
[52]
[PDF] Dependency and Directionality - Eastern Generative Grammar (EGG)
Dependency and Directionality ... Because (37) cannot force placement of the PP to the right of the verb when PP is head-final, the general parameter.
[53]
Reviews: Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar: Stefan Müller ...
Aug 27, 2025 · The handbook starts by introducing and presenting HPSG linguistic modeling of the sign as a constructionist lexical theoretical approach that ...
[54]
HPSG and Dependency Grammar
Nov 6, 2024 · The ``head-driven'' part of HPSG corresponds in Word Grammar to a taxonomy of dependencies which distinguishes grammatical functions, with ...
[55]
https://zenodo.org/records/13645023
[56]
[PDF] Symmetry in the Asymmetric Universe: Remarks on Kayne (2022)
Jun 19, 2023 · All in all, the asymmetric patterns identified by Kayne can hardly support the idea that the linear order is encoded in the operation Merge per ...Missing: critiques 2020s