High diving
High diving is an extreme aquatic discipline in which athletes perform acrobatic dives from elevated platforms—27 meters for men and 20 meters for women—into a deep body of water, executing maneuvers such as somersaults and twists before entering feet-first to minimize impact.[1] Governed by World Aquatics (formerly FINA), the sport emphasizes precision in takeoff, flight, and entry, with divers reaching speeds of up to 90 km/h and experiencing forces of around 10G upon impact after approximately 3 seconds in the air.[2] Unlike traditional platform diving, which uses lower heights of 10 meters or less, high diving requires specialized training for the heightened physical and psychological demands, including mandatory feet-first entries to ensure safety. The origins of high diving trace back to the late 18th century in Hawaii, where King Kahekili II mandated warriors to leap from cliffs up to 25 meters into shallow waters as a test of bravery, a practice that evolved into recreational cliff diving in locations like Acapulco, Mexico.[2] By the early 20th century, structured high diving gained traction in Europe and North America, with exhibitions and competitions featuring artificial platforms, though it remained distinct from Olympic platform diving due to its extreme heights. World Aquatics formally recognized high diving as an official discipline in 2013, debuting it at the World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona, where men's events used 27-meter platforms and women's 20-meter ones, marking the sport's integration into international competition.[2] In contemporary competitions, such as World Aquatics Championships and World Cups, athletes must be at least 18 years old and perform six dives (three required with prescribed minimum degrees of difficulty and three optional with unlimited difficulty), drawn from five groups (forward, backward, reverse, inward, and armstand).[1] Scoring involves panels of five or seven judges awarding 0 to 10 points (in half-point increments) for approach, flight, and entry, with the highest and lowest scores discarded before multiplying the total by the dive's degree of difficulty to determine final rankings.[1] Platforms must comply with World Aquatics facilities standards, often using natural or temporary setups inspected in advance, and events prioritize safety with on-site medical teams and rescue equipment due to the risks of injury from high-impact entries.[1] While high diving shares roots with cliff diving, modern iterations focus on judged performances in controlled environments, attracting global participation and showcasing athleticism in venues like Budapest and Doha.[2]Definition and Basics
Overview of High Diving
High diving is a discipline of aquatics in which competitors perform acrobatic dives from elevated platforms, towers, or cliffs into bodies of water, typically executing rotational maneuvers such as somersaults and twists before entering feet-first.[3] Unlike lower-height forms, it emphasizes precision from greater elevations exceeding 10 meters (33 feet), with official competition standards set at 27 meters for men and 20 meters for women in controlled pool or tower settings. Participants must be at least 18 years old by December 31 of the competition year.[1] Cliff diving, a variant in natural environments, uses standardized heights of 27 meters for men and 21 meters for women in major competitions like the Red Bull series, adapting to geological features while maintaining similar technical demands.[4] The core mechanics of high diving revolve around four phases: takeoff, flight, body positioning, and entry. Takeoff requires a balanced launch—standing for backward and inward dives or with a run-up for forward and reverse—to generate height and distance.[3] During flight, divers adopt specific positions to control rotations: the pike (body bent at the hips with straight legs), tuck (knees and hips bent to form a compact shape), or layout (straight body with no bends).[5] Entry demands a vertical, feet-first alignment with arms positioned below the navel to minimize splash and impact, ideally achieving a "rip" effect for optimal scoring.[3] In competitions, dives are evaluated on difficulty (a degree value calculated from elements like somersaults, twists, and positions) and execution (scored 0-10 by judges assessing approach, flight control, and entry cleanliness, with half-point increments).[6] Final scores multiply execution by difficulty, with synchronization applied in paired events if specified. High diving remains a niche sport with limited global participation, primarily through elite international circuits like World Aquatics events, where fields typically include 12-16 athletes per gender, fostering accessibility via specialized training facilities and growing media exposure.[7]Distinctions from Other Diving Forms
High diving fundamentally differs from Olympic platform diving in terms of height and resulting physical demands. While Olympic platform diving is limited to a maximum height of 10 meters, high diving competitions involve platforms ranging from 15 to 28 meters, with standard World Aquatics events using 20 meters for women and 27 meters for men.[8][1] This increased elevation provides divers with significantly more air time—approximately 3 seconds compared to 1.5-2 seconds from a 10-meter platform—allowing for more complex acrobatic maneuvers but also amplifying the forces upon water entry, up to around 10 times body weight.[2] Cliff diving represents a specialized subset of high diving, distinguished primarily by its use of natural, uneven rock formations rather than controlled artificial towers or platforms over pools. In competitive cliff diving, such as the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series, athletes leap from coastal cliffs into open water bodies like the sea, where surface conditions can vary unpredictably, unlike the stable pool environments of tower-based high diving.[9] This natural setting introduces additional variables, including irregular takeoff surfaces and potential for wave interference, contrasting with the standardized, engineered facilities in organized high diving events.[1] In contrast to synchronized diving, which emphasizes teamwork and precise mirroring of movements between two athletes from the same height, high diving is strictly an individual discipline focused on personal execution of height-enhanced acrobatics. Synchronized events, common in Olympic formats, score pairs on their harmony and timing during shared dives from springboards or platforms up to 10 meters, whereas high diving prioritizes solo performances that showcase rotational complexity and entry precision without partner coordination.[10] Similarly, artistic swimming (formerly synchronized swimming) involves choreographed routines performed entirely in the water, combining swimming, dance, and gymnastics elements with music, diverging entirely from high diving's aerial emphasis on takeoff, flight, and vertical entry. Environmental factors further set high diving apart from more controlled forms like Olympic diving. High diving often occurs in outdoor settings, including natural sites where wind speeds above 40 km/h may prompt event delays and waves can affect entry, unlike the indoor, climate-regulated pools of Olympic venues that maintain consistent water temperatures around 26-28°C and minimal external interference.[1] Amateur recreational cliff jumping, typically an unstructured leisure activity from low to moderate heights without formal judging, contrasts sharply with professional high diving's scored competitions that demand technical proficiency, degree-of-difficulty ratings, and adherence to international rules. While recreational jumping prioritizes thrill over form and often occurs from unofficial spots like bridges or low cliffs, competitive high diving requires pre-approved dives, judge evaluations on execution and style, and safety certifications to mitigate risks.[1][11]History
Origins and Early Practices
The roots of high diving trace back to ancient cultural practices involving leaps into water, as evidenced by a late sixth-century BCE Etruscan tomb painting at Tarquinia, Italy, depicting a boy plunging from a high rock into the sea below, likely representing a ritual or acrobatic feat.[12] Similar water-based rituals appear in Mesoamerican traditions, where the Maya incorporated cenotes—natural sinkholes—as sacred sites for offerings and ceremonial immersions, though direct evidence of organized cliff jumps remains limited.[13] By the 18th and 19th centuries, high diving evolved into a structured gymnastic discipline in Europe, particularly in Sweden and Germany, where athletes performed tumbling routines from elevated platforms into water to practice aerial maneuvers safely.[14] These early tower dives, often from heights of 10 meters or less, marked the transition from recreational or ritualistic jumps to organized sport, with Swedish and German gymnasts pioneering somersaults and twists over water bodies.[14] In Hawaii during the late 18th century, native practitioners engaged in lele kawa, a traditional feet-first cliff leap popularized by King Kahekili of Maui around 1770, who challenged warriors to jump from sites like Puʻu Kekaʻa (Black Rock) on Maui and later Ka Lae (South Point) on Hawaiʻi Island, from heights up to 40 feet into the ocean as tests of courage and skill.[15] The 19th century also saw high diving popularized through daring public spectacles in the United States, influenced by circus and vaudeville performers who staged high falls for entertainment. On May 19, 1885, swimming instructor Robert Emmet Odlum became the first documented person to jump from the Brooklyn Bridge, plunging approximately 135 feet into the East River in an attempt to demonstrate the safety of such feats; he died from internal injuries shortly after.[16] The following year, on July 23, 1886, Steve Brodie claimed to survive a similar 135-foot leap from the same bridge, sparking widespread fame and inspiring imitators, though the veracity of his survival remains debated among historical accounts.[17] Pre-20th-century safety innovations were rudimentary, focusing on preparatory jumps from progressively higher but controlled platforms into deeper water to build technique, as seen in European gymnastic training where water served as a forgiving landing surface compared to land.[14] Early performers like Odlum relied on physical conditioning and shallow-water rehearsals rather than specialized gear, often without protective mats, highlighting the high risks before modern standards emerged.[16]Development in the 20th and 21st Centuries
In the early 20th century, high diving emerged as a formalized extension of platform diving, initially termed "fancy high diving" in Olympic contexts. It was featured as an official event at the 1912 Stockholm Olympics, where competitors dove from 10-meter platforms, marking its inclusion in major aquatics exhibitions across Europe and North America.[18] By the 1920s, the sport gained prominence in international meets, with the United States rising to dominance after early leadership from Sweden and Germany, though events remained limited to platforms up to 10 meters due to safety concerns.[19] Following World War II, high diving experienced gradual growth through informal exhibitions and national championships, transitioning from Olympic platform events to more adventurous forms like cliff jumping. While FINA (now World Aquatics) focused primarily on standard diving disciplines, By the 1990s, precursor world championships emerged, including the 1990 World Cup in Italy, which featured dives from 25-27 meters and attracted international talent, signaling a shift toward organized extreme competitions.[20] The 21st century marked a boom in high diving's globalization and institutionalization. The Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series launched in 2009 in La Rochelle, France, establishing annual professional circuits with dives from 27 meters for men and 21 meters for women, drawing competitors from over 20 countries and elevating the sport's visibility through televised events across continents.[9] In 2013, World Aquatics (then FINA) officially recognized high diving as a discipline, debuting it at the World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona, Spain, where Orlando Duque won the men's 27-meter event and Cesilie Carlton claimed the inaugural women's 20-meter gold, integrating it into the global aquatics framework.[21] This recognition spurred annual world championships, expanding participation to include mixed-gender formats and fostering rivalries between cliff and tower specialists. Technological advances have underpinned this growth, including the construction of permanent 27-meter towers, such as China's first high diving stadium in Zhaoqing opened in 2018, influenced by the need for safe training facilities post-2008 Beijing Olympics' platform success.[22] Video analysis tools, utilizing multi-camera systems and motion capture software, became standard in training by the 2010s, allowing divers to dissect entry angles and reduce injury risks through biomechanical feedback.[23] Recent expansions highlight inclusion in multi-sport events like the 2025 World Aquatics Championships in Singapore, featuring the largest field yet with 28 men and 24 women competing, alongside Southeast Asia's first 27-meter tower; James Lichtenstein of the United States won the men's event, while Rhiannan Iffland of Australia took the women's gold.[24][25] Women's participation has surged, with equal roster sizes in major series and athletes like Rhiannan Iffland securing nine titles since 2013 in the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series, promoting gender parity.[9] Sustainability efforts in cliff events, such as Red Bull's 2019 Clean Cliffs Project led by athletes to remove 30,000 pounds of trash from dive sites, underscore environmental commitments amid growing global tours.[26]Techniques and Equipment
Diving Techniques
High diving techniques emphasize precise body control to generate height, initiate rotations, and ensure a safe entry from extreme platform heights, typically 27 meters for men and 20 meters for women. The takeoff phase begins with either a standing or running approach on the fixed platform. In a standing takeoff, the diver pushes off with both legs while swinging the arms upward and backward to maximize vertical propulsion and initiate rotation, ensuring the body clears the platform edge cleanly. For running takeoffs, the approach involves a controlled run-up of several steps to build momentum, culminating in a powerful leg extension and coordinated arm swing to achieve greater height and distance from the platform, with the arms reaching overhead at the peak of the push to counterbalance and direct the body's trajectory.[3] During the aerial phase, divers execute complex maneuvers leveraging the extended flight time, which lasts approximately three seconds from a 27-meter platform. Somersaults can be forward, backward, or reverse, performed in tuck (thighs drawn to chest for compact rotation), pike (body bent at hips with legs straight), straight (fully extended body), or free positions, often combining multiple half-somersaults—such as 3.5 or 4.5—for heightened difficulty. Twists, initiated by asymmetric arm or shoulder movements rather than from the platform itself, are typically executed in the free position and integrated with somersaults, with combinations like a forward 3½ somersaults with 2½ twists achieving degree of difficulty (DD) factors exceeding 4.0, calculated via the FINA formula incorporating somersault count, twist count, position, and approach type. These elements demand precise spotting—using visual references to track orientation and adjust mid-air—to maintain control and alignment. Armstand dives (group V) also follow these principles, starting from a handstand position on the platform edge.[3][6][27] The entry phase focuses on a vertical, streamlined "pencil" position to minimize surface impact and splash, executed feet-first for all dives, including armstand, as required by World Aquatics rules to ensure safety at these heights. The body aligns fully straight with feet together and toes pointed leading into the water, arms positioned below the navel to avoid score penalties, and head in a neutral position looking upward for alignment. This configuration reduces drag and distributes force upon impact, where speeds reach about 85 km/h, prioritizing a "rip entry" that appears perpendicular to the surface for optimal judging.[3][27] Extreme heights in high diving allow for advanced adjustments, as the prolonged flight time enables additional rotations not feasible from lower platforms, such as up to five somersaults in a single dive from 27 meters. Divers must generate sufficient angular momentum during takeoff to complete these maneuvers before initiating the entry sequence, often opening the body position later in flight to time the vertical descent precisely. This extended aerial duration—contrasting with under two seconds from a 10-meter platform—permits higher DD dives but requires heightened awareness of acceleration and orientation to avoid over-rotation.[3][27] Training for high diving progresses methodically from lower heights to build proficiency and safety. Athletes begin with drills on 10-meter platforms, incorporating height boxes to simulate elevated starts, and perform approximately 100 preparatory lead-up dives before advancing to intermediate levels like 12 or 14 meters. Techniques are refined using spotting rigs or harnesses on trampolines and dry platforms to practice rotations and spotting without water impact, gradually transitioning to wet-board sessions and full-height dives only after mastering control at reduced elevations, typically 1-3 times weekly in the two months leading to competition.[3]Safety Gear and Facilities
High divers utilize specialized protective gear to mitigate risks associated with extreme heights and water entry. In World Aquatics competitions, standard approved swimwear is required, such as one-piece suits for women and briefs for men. In cliff diving events or cold-water conditions, neoprene wetsuits may be used, providing thermal insulation to maintain body temperature during prolonged exposure and minor protection against abrasions from rocky cliffs or platform edges.[28][29] Nose clips are permitted to prevent water ingress into the sinuses, aiding in controlled breathing and reducing discomfort upon impact.[30] Ear plugs are commonly employed to block water from the ear canals, minimizing the risk of infections like swimmer's ear in high-velocity entries.[31] Facilities for high diving adhere to strict standards set by World Aquatics to ensure structural integrity and participant safety. Artificial setups feature standardized towers reaching 27 meters in height, such as the one at the Fort Lauderdale Aquatic Center in Florida, which includes multiple platforms for progressive training.[32] Platforms must measure 2 meters in width and between 1.5 and 5 meters in length, constructed from rigid materials like concrete or steel with slip-resistant, terracotta-colored surfaces to prevent falls.[33] Handrails, 1 meter high with two horizontal crossbars, surround platforms, offering 1.8 meters of clearance for safe access via non-slip stairs.[34] Cliff-based venues incorporate temporary platforms elevated 20 to 28 meters above water, often in natural settings like those used in Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series events, ensuring a minimum approach distance of 5 meters from the cliff edge.[35] Receiving pools or bodies of water require a minimum depth of 5 meters directly beneath the entry point, extending horizontally to accommodate splash dispersion and diver recovery, with legacy facilities grandfathered at this depth.[33] For certification, pools must be rectangular (minimum 17.5 meters wide by 14 meters long) or circular (17 meters in diameter), verified by certified surveyors using precise total station instruments.[34] Water management protocols prioritize consistency and safety. Artificial pools are heated to a preferred minimum of 26°C to prevent hypothermia, while natural venues maintain at least 18°C, with competitions halted if temperatures drop below these thresholds.[33] Outdoor facilities employ horizontal water sprays, limited to 1.5 meters above the surface, to agitate the water for better visibility of entries without creating excessive turbulence.[34] Wave barriers or modular containment systems are integrated in open-water sites to stabilize the landing zone against currents or wind-induced ripples. Maintenance standards, governed by World Aquatics guidelines, emphasize platform stability and water quality. Towers must withstand winds up to 54 km/h, with maximum longitudinal and latitudinal oscillation of 2.7 centimeters for a 27-meter structure, measured during full-water conditions.[33] Platforms exhibit no more than 2-3 millimeters of downward flex at the diving end, approved by local authorities, while water undergoes regular testing for pH, clarity, and contaminants to meet health certification requirements.[33] All facilities require wind monitoring devices and scuba-assisted recovery teams positioned in the pool for immediate post-dive support.[34]Competition and Events
Governing Organizations
World Aquatics, formerly known as FINA and founded in 1908, serves as the primary international governing body for high diving as one of its six aquatic disciplines.[36] It comprises 210 national member federations and oversees the development, standardization, and regulation of the sport globally, including the organization of World Aquatics Championships featuring high diving events since 2013.[37][38] Under its authority, World Aquatics establishes technical rules, such as platform heights standardized at 27 meters for men and 20 meters for women, and enforces judging protocols involving 5 to 7 judges who score dives on execution (0-10 scale) and difficulty.[1][39] Additionally, it implements anti-doping policies in alignment with the World Anti-Doping Agency to ensure fair competition.[40] Within World Aquatics, the Technical High Diving Committee (THDC) plays a specialized role in advising on technical aspects, including rule refinements, event formats, and official appointments for high diving competitions from 2022 to 2025.[41] Regional organizations affiliated with World Aquatics, such as European Aquatics, further govern continental high diving activities, organizing events like the European Aquatics Championships that align with international standards.[42] At the national level, organizations like USA Diving maintain dedicated high diving committees to promote the discipline domestically, select athletes for international events, and adapt World Aquatics rules to local contexts.[43] Similarly, the Chinese Swimming Association oversees high diving training and competition in China, leveraging its expertise in tower diving to support national teams excelling in global events.[44] As of 2025, World Aquatics continues to advocate for high diving's inclusion in the Olympic program, submitting proposals to the International Olympic Committee for future Games, while advancing gender equity through equal event structures for men and women and initiatives to increase female participation and leadership in the sport.[45][46]Major Competitions and Formats
High diving competitions primarily feature individual events from fixed heights, with men diving from 27 meters and women from 20 or 21 meters, depending on the venue—either purpose-built towers or natural cliffs. Athletes must be at least 18 years old and perform dives drawn from five groups (forward, backward, reverse, inward, and armstand). The standard format involves multiple rounds where divers perform a predetermined list of dives, judged on execution by a panel of five to seven officials scoring from 0 to 10 in half-point increments. The highest and lowest scores are discarded, the average of the remaining scores is multiplied by the dive's difficulty coefficient (ranging from 1.2 to 4.0 for high diving maneuvers), and totals determine rankings across preliminaries, semifinals, and finals where applicable.[1][47][48] The World Aquatics Championships, held biennially since high diving's inclusion in 2013, serve as the sport's premier global event, awarding medals in men's 27-meter tower and women's 20-meter tower categories. Competitions typically span four days, featuring preliminaries to narrow the field, followed by semifinals and finals, with up to 40 divers starting and the top 12 or 18 advancing per gender. The 2025 edition in Singapore featured a modified format with longer preliminaries requiring four dives per athlete instead of two, to optimize competition flow. Organized under World Aquatics (formerly FINA), these championships emphasize tower-based diving in controlled aquatic facilities, drawing elite athletes from over 50 nations.[49][24][50] The Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series, launched in 2009 for men and expanded to women in 2014, represents the leading cliff-based circuit, typically consisting of 6 to 8 annual stops at scenic global locations such as Polignano a Mare, Italy, and Boston, USA, though the 2025 season featured 4 stops. Each event unfolds over two days with four competitive rounds: divers submit their dive lists in advance, perform one dive per round in a drawn order, and accumulate scores to determine event winners, with overall series standings based on points from all stops. Men leap from 27-meter cliffs, while women use 21-meter platforms, highlighting the sport's adventurous roots in natural environments. The 2025 season culminated in Boston Harbor, marking only the second U.S. finale in series history.[4][48][51] Notable non-competitive spectacles include the La Quebrada Cliff Divers in Acapulco, Mexico, a tradition dating to the 1920s where professional divers perform daily exhibitions from 35-meter cliffs into a narrow cove, often synchronized with torch-lit night shows for tourists. While not a scored competition, Acapulco has hosted formal events like the International Cliff Diving Competition, featuring 27-meter jumps into the Pacific Ocean. From 2020 to 2025, high diving evolved with adaptations to COVID-19 restrictions, including hybrid virtual qualifiers and postponed series stops, alongside growth in prize money—reaching over €100,000 annually in the Red Bull Series—and expanded live streaming on platforms like YouTube, boosting global viewership to millions per event.[52][53][54][55][44]Records and Achievements
Men's World Records
The men's world records in high diving distinguish between extreme height achievements, often from purpose-built platforms or cliffs, and performance benchmarks in standardized competitions from 27-meter towers governed by World Aquatics. These records highlight the evolution of the sport, balancing daring feats with technical precision under strict safety protocols. The highest verified platform dive stands at 58.8 meters (192 feet 10 inches), set by Lazaro "Laso" Schaller of Switzerland (with Brazilian heritage) on August 4, 2015, in Maggia, Ticino, Switzerland, where he reached speeds exceeding 120 km/h upon entry. This Guinness World Record surpassed previous marks, including Dana Kunze's 53-meter cliff dive in 1983, and remains unbroken as of 2025. Historical progression traces back to the early 20th century, when exhibition divers attempted jumps from over 30 meters, often from bridges or natural heights without modern safety measures; by the 1920s, records approached 45 meters in professional shows, though documentation was limited to eyewitness accounts and early films. Post-1980s advancements in equipment and training enabled verified dives like Rick Winters' 52.4-meter (172-foot) platform record in 1983, paving the way for controlled extreme attempts in the 2000s.[56][57] In competitive high diving from the standard 27-meter men's platform, records emphasize execution, degree of difficulty (DD), and total scores across six dives, judged on a 0-10 scale by seven panels. The current World Aquatics Championships record is 428.90 points, achieved by American James Lichtenstein at the 2025 event in Singapore, featuring a standout final dive scoring 143.10 points. Technical records include the highest DD executed, such as Aidan Heslop's 6.2 DD forward 4 somersaults with 3.5 twists pike in 2024, and innovative rotations like Steven LoBue's pioneering inward 5 somersaults ½ twist in tuck (DD 5.1) in the 27-meter final at the 2017 World Championships, which contributed to his gold medal with 397.15 points. These feats represent the pinnacle of controlled complexity within the three-second freefall window.[58][59][60][61]| Record Type | Diver | Height/DD/Score | Date | Location/Event | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Highest Platform Dive | Lazaro Schaller (SUI) | 58.8 m | August 4, 2015 | Maggia, Switzerland | Guinness World Records[56] |
| Highest Competition Score (27 m) | James Lichtenstein (USA) | 428.90 points | July 27, 2025 | World Aquatics Championships, Singapore | World Aquatics[59] |
| Highest DD Dive (27 m) | Aidan Heslop (GBR) | 6.2 DD | February 15, 2024 | World Aquatics Championships, Doha | World Aquatics[62] |
| Most Somersaults Example (27 m) | Steven LoBue (USA) | 5 somersaults | July 30, 2017 | World Aquatics Championships, Budapest | World Aquatics[61] |