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Degree of difficulty

Degree of difficulty, often abbreviated as DD and also known as tariff or grade, is a numerical rating system employed in various sports and competitions to quantify the technical complexity, risk, and execution demands of specific maneuvers, elements, or routines, thereby contributing to an athlete's overall score by rewarding more challenging performances.^[1] This concept ensures that competitors are incentivized to attempt advanced skills while maintaining a balance between ambition and precision in execution.^[2] In diving, governed by World Aquatics (formerly FINA), the degree of difficulty is a fixed tariff assigned to each dive type, calculated using a formula that considers components such as board height, number of somersaults, twists, position (e.g., pike or tuck), and approach direction, with values typically ranging from 1.2 to 4.7 for elite dives.^[3] For example, a forward 2½ somersaults in pike position from a 3-meter springboard has a difficulty of 2.4, and this value is multiplied by the averaged execution score (out of 10) from the judges to determine the dive's total points. These tariffs are standardized in official tables updated periodically, such as the 2025 edition, to reflect evolving techniques while preventing excessive risk.^[4] Artistic gymnastics, under the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG), integrates degree of difficulty into the Difficulty Score (D-score) of the Code of Points, where individual skills on apparatuses like vault, bars, or floor are valued from 0.1 to 1.0 or higher based on factors including acrobatic content, flight elements, and turns, with routines composed of up to eight counted elements for a maximum D-score often exceeding 6.0 in elite competitions. The 2025–2028 Code of Points, for instance, emphasizes variety and connection bonuses to further elevate difficulty, ensuring scores reflect both the routine's ambition and the gymnast's technical mastery when combined with the Execution Score (E-score). This system, in place since the 2006 overhaul, promotes innovation while penalizing incomplete or downgraded elements.^[5] In figure skating, the International Skating Union (ISU) employs a similar approach through base values for jumps (e.g., a triple Axel at 8.0 points) and Levels of Difficulty (1–4) for spins, steps, and lifts, which add incremental points for increased rotations, features, or complexity, allowing skaters to maximize their Technical Element Score (TES) in short programs and free skates.^[6] As outlined in the 2025–2026 ISU Judging System, higher levels require specific features like difficult positions or additional turns, with the total TES capped indirectly by program length but unbounded in potential difficulty.^[7] Across these disciplines, the degree of difficulty not only standardizes judging but also drives athletic progression, as seen in records like Simone Biles' routines exceeding 6.5 D-score or divers pushing tariffs beyond 3.5.^[8]

Overview

Definition

The degree of difficulty is a numerical rating assigned to individual skills, elements, or entire routines in performance-based sports competitions to objectively quantify their technical complexity and inherent challenge. This metric evaluates factors such as the number of rotations, body positions, approach techniques, and synchronization requirements, providing a standardized measure independent of the athlete's execution quality. Scales vary by sport but are typically bounded, such as from 1.2 to over 4.0 in diving, where higher values reflect greater demands on strength, precision, and risk.^[9] Unlike execution scores, which assess the performer's control, form, amplitude, and artistry during the skill—often starting from a perfect base like 10.0 and deducting for flaws such as wobbles or incomplete rotations—the degree of difficulty focuses solely on the predefined technical demands of the move itself. For instance, in diving, it incorporates components like somersault count (A), twist count (B), armstand difficulty (C), approach and position (D), and height adjustments (E), summed to yield the total rating. This separation ensures that athletes are rewarded for attempting challenging elements without penalizing innovation based on subjective performance judgments.^[10]^[9] Basic types of skills rated by degree of difficulty encompass aerial maneuvers, such as somersaults with increasing twists that elevate the score through added rotational complexity; apparatus interactions, like vaults in gymnastics with fixed D-values from about 1.6 for basic techniques to over 6.0 for elite ones, based on entry, height, and somersaults; and artistic elements, including jump combinations in figure skating, where base values scale with revolutions—for example, a triple toe loop at 4.2 points versus a quadruple at 9.5 points.^[11]^[10]^[12] These ratings promote balanced competition by normalizing complexity across diverse techniques.

Purpose in Judging

The degree of difficulty serves as a core component in the judging of subjective sports such as diving, gymnastics, and figure skating, primarily to reward athletes for incorporating technically demanding elements into their performances. By assigning predefined ratings to skills based on their complexity, this metric incentivizes competitors to push boundaries and innovate, rather than opting for safer, less ambitious routines that might yield higher execution marks but lower overall potential. This approach fosters progression in the sport, as athletes are motivated to attempt higher-risk maneuvers to maximize their scores.^[13]^[6] In scoring systems, the degree of difficulty integrates with execution evaluations to form a composite total, often through multiplication or addition, which balances risk and quality. For instance, in diving, judges' execution scores are summed and multiplied by the dive's difficulty rating, ensuring that a flawlessly performed high-difficulty dive can outperform a perfect but simpler one. Similarly, in gymnastics, the difficulty score—comprising element values, connections, and requirements—is added to the execution score, while in figure skating, it contributes to the technical element score via base values adjusted by grade of execution. This structure guarantees that higher-risk performances hold the potential for greater rewards, aligning technical ambition with scoring outcomes.^[13]^[14]^[6] The metric enhances competition fairness by standardizing assessments across participants, mitigating subjective biases inherent in execution judging, and providing an objective counterbalance akin to measurable metrics in objective sports like racing times. In subjective disciplines, where human judgment can introduce variability, separating difficulty—rated via established tables—from execution reduces favoritism and ensures equitable comparison of diverse routines. This promotes a level playing field, as athletes from different styles or backgrounds can compete based on comparable technical benchmarks.^[15]^[13] Over time, the purpose of degree of difficulty has shifted from qualitative evaluations in early 20th-century competitions, where judges subjectively weighed risk without formal metrics, to quantitative tools developed post-1950s that objectively promote athletic advancement and innovation. This evolution, seen in the adoption of standardized difficulty tables by governing bodies like FINA for diving and FIG for gymnastics, addressed inconsistencies in prior systems and encouraged sustained technical growth in the sports.^[16]^[14]

Historical Development

Origins in Early Competitions

The concept of assessing the degree of difficulty in athletic performances emerged informally in 19th-century Europe, particularly within gymnastics exhibitions and circus acrobatics, where judges and audiences qualitatively evaluated the complexity of routines without numerical scoring systems. Modern artistic gymnastics, formalized during this period, emphasized physical prowess and apparatus work, with early competitions relying on subjective appreciation of maneuver intricacy to distinguish exceptional displays from basic ones.^[17] Similarly, circus acts, which gained popularity in the mid-1800s, highlighted acrobatic feats like aerial trapeze work that increased in sportiness and technical demand, often noted for their daring complexity in contemporary accounts, though evaluations remained descriptive rather than quantified.^[18] Diving marked one of the earliest formalized incorporations of difficulty considerations in Olympic competition at the 1904 St. Louis Games, where platform events debuted with basic categorizations distinguishing plain dives—straight entries without twists or somersaults—from emerging fancy variations that incorporated rotational elements. Scoring focused on execution and form, rated out of a maximum of 18 points by judges, but the inherent complexity of dive types influenced overall placement without dedicated numerical ratings for difficulty.^[19] This approach reflected a transitional phase, prioritizing observable technical demands over precise metrics. The roots of such difficulty judgments also extended to figure skating, where compulsory figures introduced in the 1870s were judged on precision and form, with increasing numbers of figures adding to the technical challenge by the early 20th century.^[20] A pivotal early milestone occurred at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics, the first to include women's apparatus work, where gymnastics competitions relied on judges' subjective appreciation of compositional complexity and advanced elements, building on earlier evaluations amid the sport's growing international structure. The FIG report suggested establishing standards for difficulty and originality in optional exercises, setting the stage for more systematic approaches in subsequent decades, though no numerical bonuses were implemented at the time.^[21]

Modern Standardization

The formalization of degree of difficulty ratings accelerated after World War II through the efforts of international governing bodies, which established codified systems to ensure consistency in judging across competitions. The Fédération Internationale de Natation Amateur (FINA, now World Aquatics), founded in 1908, began standardizing diving protocols in the mid-20th century, with significant advancements in the 1960s that incorporated structured degree of difficulty calculations based on dive components like somersaults, twists, and approach. Similarly, the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) introduced its inaugural women's Code of Points in 1958, categorizing skills into difficulty levels such as A, B, and C, each assigned numerical values (e.g., A for basic elements worth 0.10 points, progressing to higher tiers for complexity). In figure skating, the International Skating Union (ISU) used the 6.0 ordinal system from the 1970s, which implicitly rewarded difficulty through technical merit scores and ordinal placements for elements like jumps and spins, before modernizing with the 2004 launch of the International Judging System (IJS). The IJS replaced the 6.0 scale with a points-based framework emphasizing base values and levels of difficulty for jumps, spins, and footwork to enhance objectivity following the 2002 Winter Olympics scandal.^[22]^[23]^[24] Key milestones underscored this standardization. At the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, FINA implemented its first official degree of difficulty tables for diving events, where competitors executed compulsory dives with predefined limits on difficulty (e.g., six required dives on the platform with capped ratings) alongside voluntary ones, marking a shift from subjective assessments to tabulated metrics. In gymnastics, the 1972 Munich Olympics highlighted the evolution of FIG's system, where A-B-C classifications transitioned toward more granular numerical difficulty scoring, rewarding routines with escalating values for advanced elements like aerials and combinations, as seen in performances by athletes such as Ludmila Tourischeva. These events established benchmarks for international adoption, influencing non-Olympic disciplines through federations.^[25]^[26] The spread of these systems extended to emerging sports via international bodies. Trampoline gymnastics, initially overseen by the Fédération Internationale de Trampoline (FIT) from the 1960s, integrated degree of difficulty ratings into world championships by the 1980s, evaluating routines on factors like height, form, and complexity before FIT's dissolution and integration into FIG in 1999. FINA similarly adopted degree of difficulty for artistic swimming (formerly synchronized swimming) routines in the 2010s, starting with technical events in the 2013–2017 rules, assigning values to elements based on synchronization, lifts, and boosts to balance artistic and technical merit in team and solo events.^[27]^[28] Technological advancements supported these refinements, particularly from the 1980s onward when video analysis tools, such as VHS-based replay systems, enabled committees to scrutinize performances frame-by-frame for accurate difficulty assignments in sports like diving and gymnastics. This facilitated objective verification of elements, contributing to structured updates; for instance, FINA's diving tables have been revised approximately every four years since the 1970s, while FIG and ISU issue biennial communications or quadrennial codes incorporating committee-reviewed adjustments to difficulty values based on athlete submissions and expert panels.^[29]^[30]

Principles of Calculation

General Methodology

The general methodology for determining the degree of difficulty in judged sports follows a standardized, multi-step process designed to quantify the technical complexity of skills objectively while allowing for updates to reflect evolving athletic capabilities. The process begins with the decomposition of a skill into its core components, such as the number of rotations, somersaults, twists, height achieved, or positional variations, which are analyzed to capture the inherent challenges involved.^[9] These components form the basis for rating, ensuring that the assessment breaks down complex maneuvers into measurable elements rather than relying on holistic impressions. Next, expert panels assign difficulty values to these decomposed skills using predefined tables or scales developed by international governing bodies, such as the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) or World Aquatics.^[31] These panels, typically composed of coaches, former athletes, and technical specialists from diverse national federations, review video footage, biomechanical simulations, and performance data to validate or adjust ratings, with decisions on new elements requiring majority consensus to maintain impartiality. Common scales range from 0 to 10 or 0 to 4 points per element, using increments of 0.1 for precision, and are periodically revised—often every four years—incorporating athlete feedback from competitions and empirical data like motion capture studies to refine values for fairness and relevance. In diving, the total score for a dive is computed by multiplying the degree of difficulty by the average execution score from judges (out of 10), before applying synchronization adjustments if applicable.^[32] A representative generic formula for aggregating difficulty across a routine is:

DS = \sum (\text{Base Value of Elements}) + \text{Bonuses for Combinations}

where DS represents the total difficulty score, base values are drawn from the predefined tables, bonuses account for linked or innovative sequences, and the score may be capped to align with routine limits set by the governing body. This framework ensures scalability across disciplines, though minor variations exist in application.

Factors Influencing Ratings

Biomechanical factors play a central role in determining the degree of difficulty for aerial skills in sports such as diving and gymnastics, where physical principles like height of release, angular momentum, and aerial time are quantified to assign numerical values. In diving, the degree of difficulty is calculated based on components including the approach and height of takeoff, which contribute to potential energy and rotation initiation, as well as the number of somersaults and twists executed during flight.^[33] Angular momentum, conserved in the absence of external torques during aerial phases, allows athletes to achieve higher twists per second by reducing their moment of inertia through tucked positions, directly influencing the assigned difficulty rating for elements involving rapid rotations.^[34] Similarly, in gymnastics vaulting, biomechanical parameters such as horizontal velocity on the springboard and post-flight time correlate with higher difficulty values, as greater speed and air time enable more complex rotations and flips.^[35] Risk and innovation further elevate difficulty ratings by rewarding elements that introduce novelty or increased complexity, such as combining multiple high-risk maneuvers or adding repetitions without intermediate support. In gymnastics, the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) assigns higher values to innovative skills that incorporate unusual hand placements or flight paths, with bonuses applied for linking elements seamlessly without ground contact to encourage creative yet controlled risk-taking. For instance, novel combinations on uneven bars that integrate release moves with saltos receive elevated difficulty scores to reflect the heightened instability and execution demands. In pairs events, synchronization introduces additional criteria that can modify effective difficulty through timing rewards or penalties, while apparatus-specific factors tailor ratings to equipment constraints. For synchronized diving, the degree of difficulty is the same as for individual diving, but a separate synchronization score (0-10) is awarded, with deductions up to 2.0 points for poor timing, affecting the overall score.^[33] In gymnastics, apparatus like the uneven bars demand adjustments for height differentials between rails, which increase difficulty for skills requiring precise bar changes or releases compared to floor exercises where ground support aids momentum. Pair lifts in figure skating similarly factor in synchronized positioning, with the International Skating Union (ISU) awarding higher levels for timed rotations that enhance rotational difficulty without separation. Federations conduct periodic reviews to adjust difficulty ratings, ensuring balance and sustainability amid evolving techniques, particularly for high-difficulty jumps prone to injury. The FIG's 2025-2028 Code of Points scales the value of dismount element groups to the difficulty value of the dismount (e.g., 0.4 for a D-rated dismount), with a cap of 0.5 for the group to promote balance, and includes a 0.1 bonus for stuck landings on C+ dismounts. In figure skating, ISU annual communications, such as the 2025-2026 updates, refined jump base values and level features for quadruple rotations, emphasizing sustainability by adjusting grade of execution guidelines to reward clean landings over marginal high-risk attempts.^[36] World Aquatics similarly updated its diving degree of difficulty tables in the 2022-2025 rules to incorporate new twisting combinations, maintaining equilibrium between innovation and performer safety.^[33]

Applications by Sport

Diving

In diving, the degree of difficulty (DD) is determined using the standardized World Aquatics table, which organizes dives into six distinct groups: forward dives, backward dives, reverse dives, inward dives, twisting dives, and armstand dives.^[33] This table, applicable to both springboard (1m and 3m) and platform (5m, 7.5m, and 10m) events, lists over 80 possible dives, each assigned a DD value based on components such as the number of somersaults, twists, body position (straight, pike, tuck, or free), and starting position.^[4] Dives are coded numerically (e.g., 407C for an inward 3½ somersault pike from a 3m springboard), with DD ratings ranging from 1.2 for basic maneuvers to higher values for complex ones; for instance, an inward 4.5 somersault tuck (207D) carries a DD of 4.2 on 3m springboard.^[4] New dives are periodically added through World Aquatics-sanctioned trials and technical congresses to reflect advancements in technique, ensuring the table remains current for international competitions including the Olympics.^[33] The scoring integration of DD emphasizes rewarding technical risk, particularly in Olympic formats where individual events limit total DD across dives (e.g., up to 9.5 for men's 3m finals voluntary list) while allowing single dives up to approximately 3.8 DD, such as the reverse 2½ somersaults with 2½ twists (5255D, DD 3.2 on 3m).^[4]^[32] In synchronized events, higher single-dive DDs exceeding 4.0 are common—up to 4.1 for certain twisting dives—to compensate for the dual execution demands, with teams performing fewer dives (five for women, six for men) but targeting elevated overall difficulty.^[37] The total score for an individual dive is computed by selecting the three middle execution scores from seven judges (discarding the two highest and two lowest, each scored 0-10 in half-point increments), summing them, and multiplying by the DD; for example, three middle scores of 7.5 on a 2.0 DD dive yield 22.5 × 2.0 = 45 points.^[38] For synchronized dives, eleven judges score execution for each diver (three per) and synchronization (five), with middle three scores summed and averaged across categories, then multiplied by 0.6 and the DD to align with individual scaling.^[32] The DD system originated in the early 20th century amid debates between European emphasis on form and American focus on difficulty, evolving into a formalized FINA framework by the mid-20th century to balance execution and complexity in judging.^[39] Significant reforms occurred in 2009, when FINA (now World Aquatics) enhanced DD ratings for somersault-heavy and twisting dives to encourage innovation, raising values by up to 20% for select maneuvers used in Olympic competition.^[40] The table, as updated in the 2022-2025 technical rules with clarifications effective December 2024 for 2025 competitions, incorporates refined formulas (DD = A + B + C + D + E components) and expanded options for platform events, maintaining objectivity through predefined ratings while allowing voluntary dives without per-dive limits in finals. In December 2024, World Aquatics clarified certain DD rules and added options like straight-position dives for high diving, influencing platform events.^[33]^[41] This structure ensures divers strategically select combinations from the groups to maximize total scores, with armstand and twisting dives often providing the highest potential DD in platform synchro events.^[11]

Gymnastics

In artistic gymnastics, the degree of difficulty is quantified through the Difficulty (D) score, which contributes to the overall start value of a routine calculated as SV = D + E, where E is the execution score deducted from 10.0 for faults. Individual elements are assigned values ranging from A (0.1 points) to J (1.0 points or higher), based on their technical complexity, with higher letters indicating greater risk and skill required; for instance, a basic mount might be an A element, while an elite dismount could be a J. This system, governed by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG), encourages routine composition that balances difficulty with feasibility, as only the eight most difficult elements count toward the D score, supplemented by composition requirements worth up to 2.0 points.^[42] Apparatus-specific variations highlight how difficulty is tailored to each event's demands. On vault, the D score derives directly from the Table of Vaults, emphasizing entry type, somersault count, and twist; for example, the Amanar—a Yurchenko entry followed by a layout somersault with 2½ twists—is valued at 5.4 points due to its high entry height and rotational demands. In contrast, floor exercise rewards multi-element connections, granting bonuses such as 0.1 points for each direct link between same-level saltos (e.g., two D-level elements connected) or 0.2 for mixed-level combinations, promoting fluid, high-difficulty tumbling passes. These bonuses can add up to 1.0 or more per routine, incentivizing ambitious choreography without isolated high-value skills.^[42] The D score is computed as the sum of the selected element values plus connection value bonuses and composition requirements, minus neutral deductions for falls or unallowable skills, resulting in maximum achievable difficulties of approximately 6.0 to 7.0 points per routine under the 2022–2024 FIG Code of Points. This cap reflects practical limits on elite performance, where routines exceeding 6.5 are rare and require near-perfect element selection across bars, beam, or floor. Trampoline gymnastics, as a distinct FIG sub-discipline, employs a separate difficulty system where the D score sums the values of 10 sequential elements—each based on somersaults (e.g., 0.5 per 360°) and twists (0.1 per 180°)—with no fixed maximum but typical elite routines around 20.0 total, prioritizing rebound height and aerial form evaluated in execution rather than apparatus interaction.^[42]^[43]

Figure Skating

In figure skating, the degree of difficulty is evaluated under the International Skating Union (ISU) Judging System (IJS), which quantifies technical elements through assigned Base Values (BV) reflecting their complexity and risk. Each performed element, such as jumps, spins, and step sequences, receives a BV that rewards higher difficulty; for example, a triple Axel jump carries a BV of 8.0 points for male singles skaters. The total technical score for an element combines this BV with the Grade of Execution (GOE), a judge-assigned adjustment ranging from -5 to +5 that accounts for execution quality beyond mere completion.^[44] Jumps form a core component of difficulty assessment, with BVs scaled according to the number of rotations completed, providing incremental credit for added revolutions (e.g., progressing from a double to a triple or quadruple increases the value substantially based on type and rotation). Spins are leveled from 1 to 4 depending on incorporated difficult positions, variations, and features like changes of foot or flying entrances, yielding BVs typically between 2.0 and 4.0 for advanced spins such as combination spins with change of foot. These elements contribute to the Technical Element Score (TES), emphasizing rotational control and positional intricacy as primary difficulty markers.^[44] Program Component Scores (PCS), evaluated across five categories—skating skills, transitions, performance, composition, and interpretation—indirectly incorporate difficulty by favoring programs that integrate ambitious technical content with artistic flow, though PCS are scored separately from TES on a 0.25 to 10 scale per component. For the 2022 Beijing Olympics, the ISU updated the system to cap GOE at +5 (previously +3 in some contexts) to better distinguish elite performances amid rising technical standards. In senior men's short programs, maximum achievable BVs often range from 30 to 40 points, achieved through combinations like quadruple jumps and a triple Axel.^[44]^[45] The IJS was introduced in 2004 in response to the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics judging scandal, adopting a points-based model inspired by gymnastics to promote objectivity by separating technical difficulty from subjective artistry.^[24]

Freestyle Skiing and Snowboarding

In freestyle skiing and snowboarding, the degree of difficulty (DD) plays a central role in scoring aerial and halfpipe events, where athletes perform high-risk maneuvers involving rotations, flips, and grabs. The International Ski Federation (FIS) assigns specific DD values to individual tricks based on their technical complexity, such as the number of rotations and inversion levels, with values published in official charts and updated periodically. For instance, rotations like a 1440° contribute to higher difficulty in halfpipe without a fixed DD, unlike aerials.^[46]^[47] In aerial events, competitors launch from ramps to perform judged jumps, with DD determined by the maneuver's rotation and somersault count, requiring a minimum takeoff height of 5 meters for validity. Tricks like a back double full (1080° rotation) are assigned a DD of 2.9, emphasizing clean form and precise body control during flight. The scoring integrates DD as a multiplier applied to component scores: air (20% weight, evaluating takeoff and height), form (50%, assessing body position and technique), and landing (30%, focusing on stability), where five judges score each up to a maximum of 10 points total per jump, dropping the highest and lowest scores before summing and multiplying by DD.^[48]^[49]^[47] Halfpipe events in both skiing and snowboarding extend this system by incorporating amplitude—the height achieved relative to the pipe walls—as a key modifier, with multipliers up to 1.2 applied for exceptional wall height that enhances air time and trick execution. Unlike aerials' isolated jumps, halfpipe scoring evaluates the entire run under an overall impression system (out of 100 points), where rotations and corks like 1440° contribute to the difficulty criterion alongside amplitude, variety, execution, and progression, without fixed per-trick DD values. This approach rewards sustained high amplitude throughout six hits on the pipe, amplifying the base difficulty for complex sequences.^[46]^[47] Total scores in competitions, including super finals, average the top valid runs from multiple judges (typically dropping outliers), with maximum DD reaching approximately 5.0 for elite maneuvers in aerials, as seen in the 2022 Beijing Olympics where athletes like Mark McMorris executed 1440 spins contributing to high-difficulty runs. Snow conditions uniquely influence ratings, as softer or variable surfaces can reduce achievable amplitude and require judges to adjust for environmental factors in execution deductions. The FIS annually tweaks the system for objectivity, such as 2024 additions recognizing switch takeoffs (backward approaches) as increasing difficulty by up to 0.5 for added rotational complexity.^[50]^[46]^[47]

Other Sports

In gridiron football, the National Football League (NFL) utilizes completion probability as an unofficial metric to gauge the degree of difficulty for passes, incorporating factors such as air yards—the distance the ball travels through the air—and defender positioning; for example, passes beyond 20 air yards often carry high difficulty, with completion rates dropping below 50%.^[51] This approach, powered by Next Gen Stats, enables evaluations like Completion Percentage Over Expected (CPOE), which quantifies quarterback performance relative to throw difficulty.^[52] Additional examples appear in surfing, where the World Surf League (WSL) judges wave rides on a 1-to-10 scale that inherently factors in difficulty via the surfer's commitment to the wave's size and power, as well as maneuver innovation on challenging sections.^[53] In climbing, the International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) employs the V-scale for bouldering problems, classifying V8 routes as high difficulty due to demands on power, precision, and dynamic movement through overhangs and small holds.^[54] Emerging applications include e-sports, where post-2020 advancements in dynamic difficulty adjustment algorithms modify obstacle complexity in racing and action games—such as increasing track hazards or enemy patterns based on player skill—to maintain optimal challenge levels.^[55] Similarly, drone racing tracks post-2020 have evolved with algorithmic designs that escalate difficulty through layered gates, sharp turns, and variable elevations to test pilot expertise in obstacle navigation.^[56]

Controversies and Reforms

Criticisms of Subjectivity

Criticisms of the degree of difficulty (DD) ratings in sports like diving, gymnastics, and figure skating often center on their subjective nature, which can introduce biases and inconsistencies in evaluation. Panels of judges, despite training and guidelines, rely on human judgment to assess the complexity and risk of maneuvers, leading to variations that undermine perceived fairness. These issues are exacerbated in international competitions where cultural, national, or experiential differences among judges influence ratings. One prominent concern is panel biases favoring athletes from established or bloc nations, as exposed in the 2002 Winter Olympics figure skating scandal. In the pairs event, judges from Russia, France, and other aligned countries engaged in vote-trading, artificially inflating scores for Russian skaters Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze over Canadians Jamie Salé and David Pelletier, despite comparable technical elements including difficulty components. This incident highlighted how national bloc voting could skew DD approvals and technical scores, prompting International Skating Union (ISU) reforms but revealing persistent favoritism in pre-reform judging. Post-scandal analyses confirmed that such biases reduced after transparency measures but lingered in subjective elements like DD interpretation. The overemphasis on DD has also drawn criticism for encouraging athletes to attempt excessively risky maneuvers, increasing injury rates. In gymnastics, the 2013–2016 FIG Code of Points intensified the focus on difficulty to separate elite performers, leading to high-risk vaults like the Produnova (6.4 DD), which has contributed to severe accidents due to its forward entry and blind landing. High-risk elements like these have resulted in multiple falls and long-term harms like wrist fractures, as gymnasts prioritize score maximization over safety. Gender disparities further compound subjectivity, with women's routines historically undervalued through restrictive DD caps in FIG codes. Women's artistic gymnastics has historically counted only eight elements toward the D-score compared to ten for men until the 2025-2028 code, limiting maximum scores on apparatus like floor exercise where men's routines could achieve higher totals (e.g., up to 7.0+ DD versus women's 6.5 cap in some cycles). As of the 2025-2028 Code of Points, men's routines now count eight elements for the D-score, aligning with women's to address prior disparities. Studies on judging bias confirm this undervaluation, with research showing females experience a larger difficulty bias, where execution scores receive greater leniency for high-D routines compared to males, though overall equity remains affected. Empirical data underscores human error in DD judgments, particularly in diving where inter-judge variability arises from perceptual differences. Similar variances appear in gymnastics and skating, where subjective validation of elements leads to disputes, highlighting the need for more robust objective criteria.

Efforts to Improve Objectivity

Efforts to enhance objectivity in degree of difficulty (DD) assessments have involved rule reforms by international governing bodies to minimize bias and introduce technological aids for precise evaluation. The International Skating Union (ISU) abolished anonymous judging in figure skating effective from the 2016-2017 season, requiring judges' names to be publicly associated with their scores to promote accountability and transparency in elements including DD components.^[57] Similarly, the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) formalized separate Difficulty (D) Panels in its 2022-2024 Code of Points for women's artistic gymnastics, where D-Panels—appointed directly by the FIG Technical Committee—are responsible for independently evaluating and verifying the difficulty value of performed elements, distinct from Execution (E) Panels. The introduction of the International Judging System (IJS) in figure skating starting in the 2004-2005 season shifted from ordinal rankings to an ordinal final results system with electronic scoring, aiming to reduce nationalistic biases and judging controversies by focusing on quantifiable elements like DD.^[24] Technological integrations, particularly AI and motion capture systems, have been deployed to provide real-time support for DD verification, primarily in gymnastics. At the 2024 Paris Olympics, Fujitsu's Judging Support System (JSS)—utilizing AI-driven image analysis and 3D motion tracking via cameras—was applied across all gymnastics apparatuses to assist judges in confirming difficulty scores for skills such as handstands and splits, enhancing accuracy by analyzing biomechanical angles without relying on pre-measured athlete data.^[58] This system, first trialed at the 2019 World Championships and refined for subsequent events including Tokyo 2020, helps mitigate human error in assessing DD by providing objective visual feedback on technique execution.^[59] In diving, while not yet standard at major competitions, research employing inertial measurement units (IMUs) has demonstrated potential for motion capture to quantify flight phases and angular velocities, aiding in objective DD predictions for springboard and platform dives.^[60] International collaborations among sports federations have fostered shared standards for DD evaluation through technical exchanges. Complementary to these efforts, biomechanical modeling has emerged as a key tool for predicting and standardizing DD, incorporating equations such as angular momentum L = I \cdot \omega, where I is the moment of inertia and \omega is the somersault angular velocity, to simulate dive trajectories and optimize objective scoring in research settings.^[61] Looking ahead, future directions include expanded use of emerging technologies for DD approvals, with recent updates to DD frameworks by federations such as the FIG prioritizing inclusivity through adaptations for varied athlete capabilities and equitable access across genders.

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Judging | USA Diving
Each judge scores a dive between zero and 10 points, in half-point increments. Scores are defined as follows: 10: Excellent 8½-9½: Very good 7-8: Good<|separator|>
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FIG News - How do judges calculate Difficulty scores in Women's ...
Apr 9, 2020 · The calculation of the E-score is based on the following principle: Judges start from 10 and deduct throughout the routine where they see imperfections.
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Relationship between judges' scores and dive attributes from a ... - NIH
Aug 24, 2022 · Sports such as diving, gymnastics, and ice skating rely on expert judges to score performance accurately. Human error and bias can affect ...
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The History of Gymnastics – From Ancient Greece to the Modern ...
Mar 31, 2025 · By the mid-20th century, gymnasts were rated on execution, difficulty, and artistry to create a more objective scoring process. Set routines ...
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Artistic gymnastics | Olympics, Apparatus, Definition, & Facts
Oct 8, 2025 · Modern artistic gymnastics was formalized as a sport in 19th-century Europe. In 1881 the Fédération Internationale Gymnastique (FIG) was ...
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Origins | BnF / CNAC
The circus use of the trapeze developed in the second half of the 19th century, when physical exercises became sportier (Vigarello, 2002), and the show trapeze ...
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[PDF] aquatics st. louis 1904: fancy diving - Olympic World Library
Of the possible 18 points of the contest, Dr. George Sheldon of Missouri scored 16 2/3 giving the first place to him."Missing: system | Show results with:system
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https://www.isu.org/figure-skating/history
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Brief History of Fencing - BRITISH FENCING
Epee fencing was introduced in France in the 1860s as a reaction against the artificial conventions of foil. Many fencers wanted to recreate the conditions of a ...
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1928: The FIG's Report on the Olympic Games in Amsterdam
Aug 15, 2022 · Pardon this remark, we know that judging in gymnastics with apparatus is very difficult since it is exclusively based on appreciation and ...
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History of Diving - Diving Australia
Diving developed further with the creation of the FINA International Diving ... Technical improvements in equipment, new dives with higher degrees of difficulty ...
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1958: The Very First Women's Code of Points - Gymnastics History
Mar 18, 2022 · An Overview of the 1958 Code of Points · The spread between the middle three scores could not exceed 0.5 if the scores were greater than 8.5.Missing: 1950s numerical
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ISU Changes Judging System - Los Angeles Times
Jun 10, 2004 · Prodded into overhauling figure skating's judging procedures after a controversy at the Salt Lake City Olympics, the International ... 2004 ...
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Micki King Hits Board - Opens Door For Sue Gossick
Oct 18, 2018 · I use the ones with the highest degree of difficulty. The one and a half sommersault with one and a half twists was not my best dive. I hit it ...
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https://agf.az/en/disciplines/tra/
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Trampoline Gymnastics | Disciplines
Difficulty and execution of ... FIT was dissolved in 1998 and Trampoline became discipline of the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) since 1999.
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Artistic Swimming History
1954 - FINA, the international aquatics federation, is formed .... FINA makes synchronized swimming a competitive division of aquatics. ... 1990s. 1990 ...
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The evolution of video analysis in sports - Ludimos
May 9, 2022 · Initially, video analysis was limited to replays. Now, it's extensive with real-time processing, and is now a necessity for all sports teams.
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[PDF] diving - World Aquatics
Jan 11, 2021 · Diving made its appearance into the Olympics in 1904, in St. Louis (USA). 1891. The first diving rules were adopted. 1912. Women's diving was ...
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[PDF] fina diving rules - 2022-2025
Nov 30, 2022 · The degree of difficulty as determined by the Formula described in Rule D 1.6. D 4.10 The dives in each round shall be executed by all the ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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About - Technical Committees - FIG
The GfA Committee is responsible for Gymnastics for All matters. The Technical Committees are made of one President and 6 other members (including the Vice- ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
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Diving 101: Olympic scoring, rules and regulations
Apr 11, 2024 · ... degree of difficulty to determine the total score of the dive. Synchronized events. Synchronized diving events are scored by a total of 11 ...
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Comparisons of angular momentum at takeoff in six types of jumps ...
Aug 29, 2025 · Assuming that air drag is negligible, there is no external torque in the air, thus angular momentum is conserved and constant. The moment of ...Missing: aerial rating
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RELATION BETWEEN VAULT DIFFICULTY VALUES AND ...
Oct 11, 2011 · The aim of the paper is to define which biomechanical parameters explain and define the difficulty vault value.
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[PDF] Communication No. 2701
Apr 25, 2025 · Difficult exit: Any movement or jump that makes the exit significantly more difficult. The exit must have a significant impact on the balance, ...
[38]
None
### FINA Table of Degrees of Difficulty Summary
[39]
How diving works at 2024 Olympics: Rules, scoring, format, more
Jul 19, 2024 · Men's events feature six dives per round while women's events have five. Individual competitions include a preliminary round followed by an 18- ...
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How Is Diving Scored? | Britannica
Individual events are scored by a panel of seven judges who recommend a score between 0 (completely failed) to 10 (excellent).Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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https://www.worldaquatics.com/news/4186172/world-aquatics-updates-competition-regulations-2025
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(PDF) Analysis of Olympic Games - Men's Springboard Diving
The turning point came in 2009, when FINA made a significant rule change enhancing the degree of difficulty score for more difficult dives (Noth & Kothe, 2013) ...
[43]
None
Summary of each segment:
[44]
None
Summary of each segment:
[45]
None
### Summary of Scoring Cheat Sheet (https://www.usfigureskating.org/sites/default/files/media-files/Scoring%20Cheat%20Sheet.pdf)
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[PDF] Official Figure Skating Results Book - V2.0 - 20-MAR-2022
Mar 20, 2022 · The range of the grade of execution (GOE) for the judges is extended from +3 to -3 to new +5 to -5. That provides the judges with a wider range ...Missing: cap | Show results with:cap
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[PDF] snowboard & freeski park & pipe judges handbook - FIS
Snowboard and Freeski judges utilize the following judging systems for scoring different event formats. ... • Average degree of difficulty and execution ...
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[PDF] FIS FREESTYLE SKIING JUDGING HANDBOOK
Oberhofen, October 2025. Page 3. FIS Freestyle Skiing Judging Handbook. October 2025. Page 3. 'We, the judges, promise to judge all competitions with complete.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Aerial Jump Code and Degree of Difficulty Chart - FIS
Jun 23, 2023 · Aerial Jump Code and Degree of Difficulty Chart. 1. Jump Code with Degree of Difficulty. Jump Description. Jump Code DD Men. DD Women. Back Tuck.
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Freestyle Skiing 101: What to know about Olympic aerials
Jul 28, 2025 · How does the scoring work in Olympic aerials? The scoring for aerials can be summed up in this formula: Component Scores x Degree of Difficulty ...
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Snowboarding 101: What to know about Olympic halfpipe
a trick that has three inverts and four rotations — arguably is the hardest trick being done in halfpipe right now, as ...Missing: FIS | Show results with:FIS
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Next Gen Stats: Introduction to Completion Probability - NFL.com
Sep 21, 2018 · Passes traveling more than 40 air distance yards have roughly a 20% chance of completion, while passes traveling 10 air distance yards have a ...
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Next Gen Stats: Intro to Passing Score metric - NFL.com
Jan 13, 2022 · CPOE is a derivative of completion probability, which measures the success of a pass relative to the difficulty of the throw. The CPOE feature ...
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Trampoline gymnastics scoring guide
Jun 24, 2021 · Difficulty Two judges work out the 'degree of difficulty' (DD or tariff) of the routines. Each skill has a prescribed rating according to ...
[55]
Rules and Regulations | World Surf League
A panel of five judges scores each wave on a scale of one to ten. For every ... A surfer loses priority once they catch a wave and/or a surfer paddles for but ...Missing: 1-10 | Show results with:1-10
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Climbing Grades: Climbing/Bouldering Ratings | REI Expert Advice
Learn about climbing and bouldering ratings, including how route difficulty is measured and the difference between a rating and a grade.
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Exploring Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment Methods for Video Games
Jun 7, 2024 · Dynamically modifying game difficulty, considering players' affective states and in-game performance can enhance playtime and satisfaction. Such ...Missing: esports obstacle
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https://www.fujitsu.com/global/about/resources/news/press-releases/2019/1002-01.html
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ISU vote to abolish anonymous judging system in figure skating to ...
Jun 8, 2016 · Anonymous judging is to be scrapped at all figure skating events organised by the International Skating Union (ISU) after a near-unanimous ...
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The International Gymnastics Federation (FIG),Fujitsu Limited
Oct 2, 2019 · For the first time, the system will be officially used in an FIG competition as an additional tool for confirming difficulty scores on four ...
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How was AI used at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games? - TTMS
Aug 13, 2024 · Let's explore some of the most interesting examples of how artificial intelligence was utilized during the Paris 2024 Olympics.
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The validation and application of Inertial Measurement Units to ...
In Part 2, the aim was to examine and understand how dive flight angular velocity time series plots change and increase according to dive degree of difficulty.Missing: verification | Show results with:verification
[63]
Splashing physics of springboard diving - IOPscience
Jan 10, 2025 · The athlete's angular velocity during the somersault can be numerically computed as the derivative of the somersault angle.
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https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2025/11/11/bjsports-2025-111063