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Indian pangolin

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), also known as the thick-tailed pangolin, is a medium-sized, solitary, and primarily nocturnal mammal in the order Pholidota, distinguished by its body armor of overlapping keratin scales that cover about 20% of its surface and enable it to roll into a defensive ball when threatened.^[1] Native to South Asia, its range spans from Pakistan through India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, where it occupies diverse habitats including tropical forests, grasslands, savannas, and agricultural lands up to elevations of 2,500 meters.^[2] This species measures 60–78 cm in head-body length with a tail up to 67 cm, weighs 10–20 kg, and possesses powerful forelimbs equipped with large claws for digging and tearing open ant and termite nests.^[1] Adapted as a myrmecophagous specialist, the Indian pangolin uses its elongated, protrusible tongue—lacking teeth and coated in sticky saliva—to consume vast quantities of ants and termites, comprising nearly its entire diet, while its keen sense of smell aids in locating subterranean colonies.^[3] Despite behavioral plasticity allowing persistence in human-modified landscapes, populations have declined due to intensive poaching for scales used in unverified traditional medicines and for meat consumed as a delicacy, exacerbated by habitat fragmentation.^[3] Classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2014, with suspected reductions exceeding 50% over three generations, the species receives protection under CITES Appendix I, prohibiting international trade, though enforcement challenges persist amid high black-market demand primarily from East Asia.^[4]^[2] Conservation measures emphasize anti-poaching patrols, community education on the inefficacy of scales for purported medicinal benefits—chemically akin to human fingernails—and habitat restoration, yet empirical data indicate ongoing trafficking as the principal driver of decline over incidental habitat loss.^[3]^[4]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Classification and nomenclature

The Indian pangolin, Manis crassicaudata, belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Pholidota, family Manidae, genus Manis, and species M. crassicaudata.^[5]^[6] The order Pholidota encompasses the eight extant pangolin species, distinguished by their keratinous scales and myrmecophagous diet, with Manidae as the sole family.^[7] The binomial name Manis crassicaudata was formally described by French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1803.^[8] The genus name Manis derives from Latin roots potentially linked to manes (spirits or ghosts), reflecting early associations with elusive or mythical qualities, though etymological hypotheses remain speculative.^[9] The specific epithet crassicaudata combines Latin crassus (thick or stout) and cauda (tail), denoting the species' notably robust, prehensile tail adapted for climbing and balance.^[10] The common English name "pangolin" originates from the Malay pengguling ("one who rolls"), referencing the animal's defensive behavior of curling into a ball.^[11] Alternative common names include thick-tailed pangolin and scaly anteater, the latter emphasizing its scaled armor and insectivorous habits. Synonyms encompass Phatages crassicaudata and Pholidotus indicus, reflecting historical taxonomic revisions.^[5] No subspecies are currently recognized, with genetic studies confirming M. crassicaudata as a distinct Asian pangolin lineage separate from African taxa.^[7]

Evolutionary history

The order Pholidota, encompassing all pangolins including the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), originated in Laurasia during the Eocene epoch, with the earliest known fossils recovered from European deposits dating to approximately 50 million years ago.^[12] These primitive forms, such as Eomys and Pholidocercus, exhibited early scalation and myrmecophagous (ant- and termite-eating) adaptations but lacked the full keratinous armor of modern species.^[13] The fossil record remains sparse through the Paleogene, primarily confined to isolated remains in Europe and North America, supporting a Laurasian cradle for the clade before subsequent dispersals.^[14] Phylogenetic analyses, integrating morphological and molecular data, position Pholidota within Ferae (alongside Carnivora), with pangolins diverging from carnivorans around 60–70 million years ago based on calibrated molecular clocks.^[15] Within Pholidota, extant species form two major clades: African (Smutsia and Phataginus) and Asian (Manis), with divergence estimated at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, approximately 23 million years ago, coinciding with tectonic shifts and climatic changes that fragmented forest habitats.^[16] The Asian lineage, including M. crassicaudata, radiated during the Miocene, adapting to tropical and subtropical environments of South and Southeast Asia as pangolins colonized the Indian subcontinent via land bridges.^[17] For M. crassicaudata specifically, mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequencing reveals its placement as a basal member of the Asian Manis clade, diverging from sister species like the Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla) around 10–15 million years ago, though exact timings vary with calibration methods.^[18] Sequence divergence within Manis ranges from 1% to 14%, underscoring M. crassicaudata's distinct evolutionary trajectory shaped by isolation in the Indian subcontinent's diverse terrains during the Pliocene-Pleistocene, when modern distributions solidified amid glacial cycles.^[19] No direct fossils of M. crassicaudata are known, but Plio-Pleistocene records of advanced pholidotans in Asia align with the emergence of thick-tailed forms akin to this species.^[20]

Physical description

External morphology

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) exhibits an elongated, cylindrical body adapted for a fossorial lifestyle, with adults typically measuring 84–122 cm in total length, including a head-body length of 50–75 cm and a tail length of 33–55 cm.^[1]^[21] Weights range from 8–17 kg on average, though exceptional males reach up to 48.8 kg and 177 cm total length.^[1]^[22] The dorsal surface is armored by large, overlapping keratinous scales, numbering approximately 511 ± 21 in total, arranged in 11–13 longitudinal rows that increase in size from head to tail.^[22]^[1] These scales, which constitute 1/4 to 1/3 of body mass, are blonde to yellowish-brown, striated, and the largest among Asian pangolin species, providing defense against predators when the animal curls into a ball.^[1]^[2] The ventral side lacks scales and is covered in coarse, yellowish-brown hairs, while sparse bristles emerge between dorsal scales, a trait unique to Asian pangolins.^[2] The head is conical with a long, tubular snout, small eyes shielded by thick eyelids, and no external ears or teeth; the tongue, though internal, extends up to 25 cm for feeding.^[2]^[1] Limbs are short and sturdy, with forelimbs bearing five curved claws—the central three enlarged for digging and tearing termite mounds—and hindlimbs featuring smaller claws and soft pads for traction.^[1]^[2] The tail is thick, muscular, and prehensile, nearly as wide as the body proximally and tapering distally, with a length-to-body ratio of about 0.87; it aids in climbing, balance, and defense, featuring a distinctive terminal ventral scale absent in related species.^[22]^[2] Scale types include dominant broad rhombic forms (80%), along with elongated kite-shaped and folded variants, varying by body region.^[22]

Sensory and physiological adaptations

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) exhibits poorly developed senses of vision and hearing, which limits its reliance on these modalities for environmental interaction and foraging.^[23] In contrast, its olfactory sense is highly acute, facilitating the location of subterranean ant and termite colonies as well as intra-specific communication through scent marking.^[23] This sensory specialization aligns with the species' nocturnal, fossorial lifestyle, where chemical cues predominate over visual or auditory signals in prey detection and navigation.^[24] Physiologically, the Indian pangolin lacks teeth, adapting instead through a bi-chambered stomach that mechanically processes chitinous insect exoskeletons via powerful muscular contractions, supplemented by deliberately ingested pebbles, sand, and clay acting as gastroliths for grinding.^[23] The tongue, a key adaptation for myrmecophagy, is elongated, narrow, and protrusible—extending well beyond the snout—while coated in viscous, adhesive saliva secreted by enlarged sublingual glands to capture and transport prey directly to the stomach.^[23] Additionally, posterior scent glands produce odorous secretions employed for territory demarcation, which may secondarily serve in chemical defense against threats.^[23] These features underscore a digestive and sensory physiology optimized for an exclusively ant- and termite-based diet, with minimal capacity for alternative food processing.^[25]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) inhabits regions across South Asia, with confirmed presence in eastern Pakistan (including parts of Punjab and Sindh provinces), throughout much of India (spanning states from Gujarat in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the northeast), northern and central Bangladesh, southern Nepal south of the Himalayas, and Sri Lanka.^[26]^[27]^[28] Its distribution is discontinuous in some areas due to habitat fragmentation and poaching pressures, but it remains the only pangolin species in Sri Lanka and Pakistan.^[26]^[29] Historically, the species occupied a broader continuous range across the Indian subcontinent, but current records indicate patchy occurrence, particularly in drier western regions of Pakistan and elevated terrains up to about 1,500 meters in Nepal and India.^[28]^[29] No verified populations exist in Myanmar, despite occasional unconfirmed reports, and the species is absent from higher Himalayan elevations or arid deserts beyond its eastern Pakistani limit.^[27] Conservation assessments note ongoing range contraction driven by habitat loss and illegal trade, with densities lowest in heavily trafficked border areas.^[30]

Habitat preferences and adaptability

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) occupies diverse habitats throughout its range in South Asia, including tropical forests such as wet evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous, thorn, and scrub types, as well as grasslands, savannas, open plains, and hilly areas.^[31]^[32] It frequently utilizes agricultural lands and areas near human settlements, particularly where soft, loamy soils facilitate burrowing for shelter and foraging.^[33]^[21] Habitat selection is driven by the availability of ant and termite colonies, which form the bulk of its diet, alongside soil suitability for excavation and vegetation providing cover.^[34] Studies in Pakistan's Potohar Plateau and ravine habitats at the Himalayan foothills reveal preferences for scrublands and forested edges over intensively cultivated fields, with occupancy higher in areas featuring loose soil and proximity to prey-rich understory.^[35]^[36] In Sri Lanka's tropical lowland rainforests, individuals favor sites with dense canopy and undergrowth for denning, constructing burrows up to 3.5 meters long in earthen banks or termite mounds.^[3] Demonstrating adaptability, the species persists in human-modified landscapes, including farmlands and degraded forests, by exploiting edge habitats where natural prey persists amid fragmentation.^[37] However, empirical data from occupancy modeling indicate lower detection rates in high-disturbance agricultural zones compared to wild or semi-natural areas, suggesting tolerance but suboptimal preference for anthropogenic environments.^[33] Factors like distance from roads and settlements, neutral to slightly acidic soil pH, and moderate canopy cover (20-50%) positively correlate with burrow density and habitat use across studied regions.^[38] This flexibility aids survival amid ongoing deforestation, though projected climate shifts may contract suitable ranges by altering soil moisture and prey distribution.^[32]

Behavior

Activity patterns and locomotion

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is primarily nocturnal, with activity peaking shortly after dusk and declining toward dawn. Individuals typically emerge from burrows around 20:00 hours to forage for ants and termites, remaining active through the night before returning to shelter by approximately 05:00 hours.^[39] Observations in both wild and captive settings confirm a high nocturnal activity level, quantified at 0.633 relative to overall activity of 0.336, with solitary foraging dominating behavior outside burrows.^[40] During daylight, pangolins rest concealed in burrows or under cover to avoid predation and heat.^[1] Locomotion in the Indian pangolin is predominantly quadrupedal, characterized by an arched back that elevates the trunk and tail parallel to the ground, facilitating efficient movement over terrain while protecting the underbelly.^[41] This gait employs powerful forelimbs for digging and propulsion, with hind limbs providing rearward thrust; upon detecting threats, individuals can accelerate into burrows or ascend obstacles.^[42] The species demonstrates climbing ability, using robust foreclaws to grip bark or trunks and a prehensile tail for balance and support during ascent or descent, particularly in forested habitats where arboreal escape aids defense.^[1] Though primarily terrestrial, this capacity allows navigation of low vegetation or termite mounds, with observed instances of scaling trees in response to disturbance.^[43] Bipedal stance occurs briefly for threat displays or manipulation of prey, but sustained quadrupedal progression underscores its ground-adapted morphology.^[23] The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) exhibits predominantly solitary behavior, with adults maintaining individual territories and avoiding conspecifics outside of brief reproductive encounters.^[1]^[42] Observations in both wild and captive settings confirm that pangolins do not form social groups or packs, and burrows are typically occupied singly except potentially during mating periods when males and females may temporarily share them.^[2]^[39] This isolation is facilitated by their nocturnal, cryptic habits and low population densities, which minimize incidental interactions.^[44] Social interactions are rare and primarily confined to mating and parental care. During the breeding season, which lacks a strict annual pattern but has been observed in captivity year-round with peaks in certain months, males pursue females through olfactory cues, initiating contact via noso-nasal or noso-genital inspections followed by chasing and mounting.^[41]^[45] Copulation durations range from 10 to 30 minutes in observed captive pairings, after which individuals often retreat to avoid further contact, reflecting precopulatory or postcopulatory evasion behaviors.^[42] Aggressive encounters, inferred from claw usage beyond foraging, may occur if territories overlap but are undocumented in detail due to the species' elusiveness.^[42] Parental care represents the most sustained social bond, with females giving birth to a single offspring after a gestation of approximately 65–70 days, after which the young clings to the mother's tail or back for protection and mobility until weaning around 2–3 months of age.^[1] Independence follows shortly thereafter, with no evidence of extended family groups or cooperative rearing.^[46] Captive studies at breeding centers, such as those in Odisha, India, corroborate these patterns, noting minimal non-reproductive interactions even in controlled environments.^[46]^[41]

Ecology

Diet and foraging behavior

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is a specialized myrmecophage, with its diet consisting almost exclusively of ants and termites, including all life stages from eggs to adults, and occasionally other insects such as beetles.^[24]^[47] Stomach content analyses from specimens in the Nilgiri Hills of India identified black ants, termite soldiers, and beetle wing cases as key dietary elements.^[47] In Gir National Park, faecal and stomach examinations revealed ants from genera including Camponotus, Crematogaster, Dorylus, Lophomyrmex, Monomorium, and Myrmicaria, alongside termites, with ants predominating.^[48] Foraging is predominantly nocturnal and solitary, guided by an acute sense of smell to locate ant and termite colonies in soil, mounds, logs, or arboreal sites.^[24] Individuals use their robust forelimbs and long, curved claws to tear open nests and excavate burrows, then extract prey with a highly protrusible tongue measuring up to 40-60 cm in length, which is covered in sticky saliva to ensnare insects efficiently.^[24]^[47] This method targets dense aggregations, such as termite fungus gardens, enabling rapid consumption while ingested grit facilitates mechanical breakdown of exoskeletons in the absence of teeth.^[24] Faecal analyses indicate that undigested insect remains comprise 37-56% of content by weight, with grit at 42-53%, underscoring the diet's fibrous nature.^[49]^[47]

Reproduction and development

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) exhibits a breeding season typically spanning July to October in regions such as the Potohar Plateau of Pakistan, with evidence suggesting an annual reproductive cycle.^[50] ^[1] During this period, females and males may share burrows, and limited observations indicate some diurnal activity associated with mating.^[41] Gestation lasts an average of 65 to 70 days, though periods up to 80 days have been recorded; data derive primarily from field observations and captive records, reflecting the species' elusive nature.^[1] Litters consist usually of one offspring, with occasional reports of two.^[50] ^[1] Birth occurs in burrows, where newborns weigh approximately 0.23 kg and measure 30 to 43 cm in length, initially lacking fully hardened scales.^[1] Maternal care involves the female carrying the juvenile on her back for the first several months, providing protection and facilitating foraging; some accounts suggest initial male involvement in rearing, though this remains unconfirmed across populations.^[1] Lactation persists for about 6 months, after which weaning introduces the young to an ant- and termite-based diet; juveniles reach approximately 2.5 kg by this stage, with scales progressively keratinizing.^[1] Independence follows at 5 to 8 months, coinciding with full foraging capability.^[41] Sexual maturity is attained between 1 and 2 years of age.^[1] Captive breeding successes, such as those at Nandankanan Zoological Park since the 1960s, affirm these parameters but highlight challenges in replicating wild conditions due to specialized dietary and environmental needs.^[41]

Predation and defense mechanisms

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is preyed upon by large carnivores including tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus), which target it opportunistically, particularly juveniles or individuals caught in open areas.^[9] Pythons (family Pythonidae) also pose a threat by constricting and attempting to swallow smaller specimens.^[9] Documented cases include predation by mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) in wetland habitats, as observed in Yala National Park, Sri Lanka, where the pangolin's scales offer limited protection against aquatic ambush.^[51] In regions like Gir Forest, Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica) have been recorded attempting to attack rolled-up pangolins, though success rates remain low due to the prey's defenses. The primary defense mechanism of the Indian pangolin involves curling into a tight spherical ball, facilitated by strong hind legs and a prehensile tail, which tucks the vulnerable face and underbelly inward while presenting an exterior armored solely by overlapping keratin scales.^[1] These scales, composed of the same material as human fingernails, interlock to form an impenetrable barrier against claws and teeth, deterring most predators from inflicting fatal damage.^[1] This posture can be maintained for extended periods, exhausting persistent attackers like leopards or lions, and is most effective against mammalian predators but less so against humans who employ tools or fire to uncoil the animal.^[1] Nocturnal activity and burrowing habits further minimize predation risk by reducing encounters with diurnal carnivores, though these behaviors do not eliminate threats from scent-tracking predators such as tigers.^[3] Field studies in Indian habitats report few confirmed natural predation events, attributing this scarcity to the efficacy of the ball-rolling defense rather than absence of predators.^[3]

Human interactions

Cultural significance

In the Eastern Ghats of southern India, local folklore attributes supernatural electrical properties to the Indian pangolin, with beliefs that it generates mysterious energy, causing its keratinized scales to emit sparks when probed by tools such as a testing screwdriver. These notions have been amplified by social media videos, often featuring staged demonstrations, which portray the animal as possessing an otherworldly power derived from its unique scalation.^[52] Pangolin scales hold symbolic value in certain tribal communities of the region, where they are crafted into pendants intended to repel evil spirits or adorned as earrings, reflecting a cultural association with spiritual safeguarding and adornment. Another enduring myth claims that the animal provokes forest fires by rubbing its scales against dry grass or leaf litter during the summer season, embedding the pangolin in narratives as an unwitting agent of environmental peril.^[52] Such superstitions, rooted in observations of the pangolin's elusive and armored form, underscore its role in regional oral traditions as a creature of enigma and potential hazard, though empirical evidence refutes these claims and highlights their origins in misinterpretation rather than verifiable phenomena.^[52]

Use in traditional medicine and cuisine

The scales of the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) are prized in traditional Chinese medicine for purported benefits including promoting lactation in postpartum women, alleviating rheumatic pain, and treating abscesses or blood stasis, typically processed through methods such as roasting, ashing, or cooking in oils or vinegars before use in powdered or whole form.^[53]^[54] In 2020, China excluded pangolin scales from its official pharmacopoeia amid international pressure and recognition of their critically endangered status, citing a lack of proven therapeutic value, though production and sale of scale-containing remedies persisted as of 2020.^[55]^[56]^[57] Within the Indian subcontinent, including regions of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, local traditional healers employ pangolin scales, bones, and other parts to address ailments such as convulsions, stomach ulcers, venereal diseases, and rheumatism, as well as for ritualistic purposes like protection against the evil eye.^[58]^[59]^[30] These uses drive poaching, with scales trafficked internationally despite legal prohibitions under CITES Appendix I since 2017.^[59] The meat of the Indian pangolin is consumed in select communities across India, particularly among tribal groups in areas like Assam, where it serves as an occasional protein source amid food scarcity, though not a preferred food.^[60] More broadly in Asia, including export markets in China and Vietnam, the meat is valued as a delicacy for its texture and alleged medicinal properties, such as boosting vitality, contributing to illegal trade volumes where entire animals or meat portions are seized alongside scales.^[61]^[62] Over 1 million pangolins, including Indian species, were estimated trafficked globally from 2000 to 2015, with meat demand exacerbating population declines.^[63]

Threats

Illegal poaching and trade

The Indian pangolin faces severe threats from illegal poaching and trade, primarily driven by demand for its scales in traditional Chinese medicine and its meat as a delicacy in certain Asian markets. Poachers target the species in forested habitats across India, using methods such as snares and direct hunting at night when the nocturnal animal forages. Scales are removed post-mortem, while live animals are trafficked for consumption or further exploitation.^[61]^[64] Seizure data underscores the scale of the illicit trade. Between 2018 and 2022, TRAFFIC and WWF-India documented 342 incidents involving the poaching and trafficking of 1,203 Indian pangolins, with approximately 50% of seizures comprising live animals and 40% consisting of scales. From 2009 to 2017, nearly 6,000 pangolins or their parts were seized in trade operations linked to India. Analysis of 426 seizures from 1991 to 2022 revealed persistent domestic and international trade networks, often routing through northeastern India toward China and Southeast Asia.^[61]^[65]^[66]^[64] Despite legal protections, including Schedule I listing under India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and CITES Appendix I status since 2017—which prohibits commercial international trade—the illegal trade persists unabated. A zero-export quota for Asian pangolins was established in 2000, yet enforcement challenges, including porous borders and limited monitoring, enable ongoing trafficking. Recent Wildlife Crime Control Bureau operations, such as the seizure of live pangolins in Maharashtra in February 2025 and scales in Bihar in July 2025, highlight continued efforts but also the resilience of criminal networks.^[27]^[67]^[68]

Habitat destruction

Habitat destruction poses a significant threat to the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), primarily through deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization, which fragment and reduce the availability of tropical dry forests, scrublands, and savannas essential for its foraging and burrowing behaviors.^[26]^[30] These activities clear ground cover and alter soil structures, diminishing ant and termite populations—the pangolin's primary food sources—and limiting suitable sites for constructing underground burrows used for shelter and thermoregulation.^[32] In regions like western and central India and Pakistan, such losses have been most pronounced, with modeling indicating up to 26.97% reduction in suitable habitat under future climate scenarios combined with ongoing land conversion.^[32] Agricultural intensification and infrastructure development exacerbate fragmentation, isolating pangolin populations and increasing vulnerability to edge effects, where altered microclimates and invasive species further degrade foraging grounds.^[69] For instance, in Pakistan's Potohar region, habitat loss from deforestation and farming has contributed to the species' disappearance from approximately 80% of its historical range, compounding isolation in remnant patches.^[70] Similarly, in India's Himalayan foothills and ravine habitats, uncontrolled land use has led to habitat deterioration, reducing burrow density and forcing pangolins into suboptimal, exposed areas.^[36] These changes disrupt the pangolin's solitary, nocturnal lifestyle, as fragmented landscapes hinder efficient movement between feeding sites and increase encounters with human activity. Mining and unregulated development add to the pressures, particularly in areas like Pakistan's Malakand district, where habitat degradation from extraction activities destroys soil ecosystems critical for invertebrate prey.^[71]^[72] Empirical studies confirm that such losses correlate with declining sighting frequencies and narrower habitat suitability ranges, with eastern regions experiencing relatively less impact due to denser forest cover but still facing incremental threats from expansion.^[32]^[73] Overall, while poaching remains the dominant driver of population decline, habitat destruction synergistically amplifies extinction risks by eroding the ecological foundation for recovery, as evidenced by range contractions documented in field surveys across South Asia.^[74]^[1]

Human-wildlife conflict

Human-wildlife conflicts involving the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) primarily stem from the species' overlap with agricultural landscapes and human settlements in its range across India, where foraging behaviors lead to negative interactions. Pangolins, seeking ant and termite nests, dig burrows that can disturb crop roots or soil structures, prompting farmers to perceive them as pests and respond with retaliatory killings.^[75]^[76] Such incidents are exacerbated by habitat fragmentation, pushing pangolins into farmlands, though quantitative data on conflict frequency in India remains limited compared to poaching records.^[77] These perceptions overlook the ecological benefits pangolins provide to agriculture, as they consume large quantities of termites and ants—key pests that damage crops and structures—potentially reducing the need for chemical pesticides.^[78] Their burrowing also aerates soil, enhancing water infiltration and nutrient cycling, though this is often unappreciated amid immediate concerns over visible digging.^[79] Retaliatory actions contribute to local population declines, with conservation efforts in adjacent regions like Pakistan documenting such killings alongside habitat encroachment.^[80] Mitigation strategies emphasize education to reframe pangolins as beneficial rather than harmful, including community programs that promote non-lethal responses such as relocation during encounters.^[75] In India, rescues from populated areas highlight ongoing issues, where individuals are frequently persecuted upon detection before authorities intervene.^[81] Buffer zones and awareness campaigns aim to reduce these conflicts by addressing misconceptions, though enforcement challenges persist in rural areas with high agricultural dependence.^[82]

Conservation

Status and legal protections

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to ongoing population declines driven primarily by illegal poaching and trade. This assessment reflects estimated reductions exceeding 50% over three generations, with threats persisting across its range in South Asia.^[83] In India, the species receives the highest level of legal protection under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended, which prohibits hunting, possession, sale, or transport of live or dead specimens and their parts, with violations punishable by fines and imprisonment up to seven years. This status aligns it with other critically threatened wildlife, emphasizing zero tolerance for exploitation.^[61] Internationally, M. crassicaudata is listed in CITES Appendix I, implemented following its transfer from Appendix II at the 17th Conference of the Parties in 2016, banning all commercial international trade in specimens to prevent further endangerment.^[84] Export permits are restricted to non-commercial purposes under stringent conditions, though enforcement gaps in source countries like India continue to challenge efficacy.^[61]

Population trends and monitoring

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) exhibits elusive, nocturnal behavior that complicates direct population assessments, necessitating reliance on indirect monitoring techniques such as camera trapping, burrow density surveys, and detection of feeding signs or tracks. Guidance from pangolin conservation specialists recommends occupancy modeling and capture-recapture analyses via camera traps to estimate relative abundance, as these methods account for imperfect detection in low-density populations. In India, field surveys in areas like the Eastern Ghats (750 km² sampled from December 2017 to April 2018) integrated camera traps with community interviews to map distribution and occupancy, revealing sporadic presence but low encounter rates indicative of sparse populations. Similarly, camera trap deployments in Jammu Shiwaliks (127 km², elevations 358–880 m) documented occurrences across 131 sites as of September 2024, highlighting the species' persistence in forested habitats but underscoring the need for standardized protocols to track changes over time.^[85]^[86]^[44] Population trends show consistent declines across the species' range, including India, primarily inferred from poaching records, habitat surveys, and trade seizures rather than absolute counts, as global estimates remain unavailable due to data gaps. The IUCN Red List classifies the Indian pangolin as Endangered, with a decreasing trend driven by exploitation, projecting reductions exceeding 50% over three generations (approximately 30 years) in exploited regions. In adjacent Pakistan, burrow densities fell from 0.78/km² in 2021 to 0.43/km² in 2023, reflecting poaching impacts that likely mirror patterns in Indian landscapes sharing similar threats and trafficking routes. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service analyses, based on trade data from the early 2000s onward, infer potential declines over 80% in source populations like India by mid-century if unregulated poaching persists, though direct verification in India is limited by underreporting outside protected areas. These trends emphasize the urgency of expanded monitoring, as detection rates from camera traps (e.g., varying capture rates of 6.94–35.71 events per site in analogous habitats) signal vulnerability to even moderate harvesting pressure.^[4]^[30]^[87]

In situ conservation initiatives

In India, in situ conservation efforts for the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) primarily involve habitat protection within protected areas, community-based monitoring, and ecological research to mitigate poaching and habitat loss. The species occurs in forested regions such as the Western Ghats, Madhya Pradesh forests, and Shivalik hills, where initiatives focus on enhancing law enforcement and restoring degraded habitats. For instance, over 95% of forests in the northern Western Ghats remain unprotected and community-owned, prompting projects to secure private lands through awareness and guardianship programs.^[88] The Wildlife Conservation Trust (WCT), in collaboration with the Madhya Pradesh Forest Department, has implemented radio-tagging of pangolins since 2022 to map home ranges and burrows, alongside deploying conservation dogs for non-invasive burrow surveys in key habitats. These efforts aim to inform targeted patrols and habitat management, with initial data revealing pangolin densities in tropical dry forests.^[89]^[90] In Maharashtra's Western Ghats, Sahyadri Nisarga Mitra (SNM) leads community-driven initiatives, including species mapping across the Konkan belt and awareness campaigns in 85 villages around Chiplun since 2019. These programs train local rangers for monitoring and conflict resolution, reducing incidental harm from agriculture while promoting eco-guardianship on private lands.^[91]^[92]^[93] Broader support comes from the Pangolin Specialist Group's 2014 global action plan, adapted locally through habitat restoration and anti-poaching units in Indian reserves like those in Jammu Shiwaliks, where camera-trap data since 2024 confirms pangolin presence amid ongoing threats. Challenges persist due to fragmented habitats and enforcement gaps, with calls for expanded protected area networks to cover predicted suitable ranges under climate scenarios.^[83]^[44]^[32]

Captive breeding and research

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) has been the subject of captive breeding programs primarily in India, driven by its endangered status and the need to bolster wild populations amid poaching pressures. The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) of India initiated a planned conservation breeding program for the species as part of efforts covering 73 priority taxa, emphasizing husbandry protocols to support reproduction and survival in controlled environments.^[94] Key facilities include the Pangolin Conservation Breeding Centre (PCBC), established in 2008 at Nandankanan Zoological Park in Odisha, which focuses on developing methodologies for long-term maintenance, breeding, and behavioral observation off-exhibit.^[95] This program has achieved notable successes, including the birth of two offspring in a single year through monitored pairings under CCTV surveillance, contributing to the zoo's recognition for innovative pangolin breeding practices in 2022.^[96] ^[97] Captive husbandry at Nandankanan has enabled sustained reproduction, demonstrating that the species can survive and breed with specialized enclosures featuring soil substrates for burrowing, termite mound access, and stress-minimizing designs that mimic natural habitats.^[41] Genetic assessments of 29 individuals in the program, conducted in 2024, established mitochondrial and nuclear DNA profiles to prioritize pairings, avoid inbreeding, and facilitate zoo exchanges, revealing moderate genetic diversity suitable for managed propagation.^[98] Gestation periods in captivity have been documented at approximately 65-70 days, aligning with limited wild data, though reproductive cycles remain inconsistent due to seasonal mating cues and nutritional challenges.^[99] Research in captivity has advanced understanding of pangolin biology, with ethograms derived from observations of seven individuals detailing behaviors such as foraging, defensive coiling, and nocturnal activity patterns peaking between 20:00 and 04:00 hours.^[100] ^[46] Studies on parasites and bacteria in captive and rescued pangolins identified common ectoparasites like ticks and endoparasites such as nematodes, informing quarantine and health protocols to reduce mortality, which historically exceeds 60% from stress and diet deficiencies.^[101] The National Studbook for the Indian pangolin, maintained by CZA, tracks pedigree and demographic data to guide breeding decisions, underscoring enclosure enrichment's role in reproductive success.^[21] Despite progress, challenges persist, including replicating the specialized ant- and termite-based diet and mitigating captivity-induced stress, limiting scalability beyond specialized Indian facilities.^[102]

Effectiveness and challenges

Despite international listings under CITES Appendix I and national protections in India classifying the Indian pangolin as Schedule I under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, conservation efforts have demonstrated limited effectiveness in reversing population declines, with illegal trade seizures indicating continued high levels of poaching.^[26] For instance, field surveys in regions like western Pakistan, part of the species' range, reveal low population densities, such as 0.013 individuals per km² in Nowshera district, underscoring insufficient impact from anti-trafficking measures amid projected declines exceeding 50% over three generations.^[29] Community-based initiatives, including awareness campaigns, have fostered positive attitudes among 43.8% of respondents in surveyed Indian forests toward pangolin conservation, yet negative perceptions linked to crop damage persist in 24.2% of cases, limiting broader support.^[82] Habitat protection efforts, such as securing over 3,300 acres from destructive practices through funds like the Pangolin Crisis Fund, offer localized successes but fail to address range-wide fragmentation, with modeling projecting net habitat losses of 1.91% to 13.11% under future climate scenarios.^[103]^[32] Research prototypes for safe housing and radio-tracking by organizations like the Wildlife Conservation Trust represent incremental advances, though scalability is hindered by the species' data-deficient status and elusive behavior.^[89] Key challenges include pervasive illegal trade, as the Indian pangolin remains the most trafficked mammal globally, driven by demand for scales in traditional medicine and meat consumption, with weak enforcement exacerbated by corruption and cross-border smuggling networks.^[104]^[30] Habitat degradation from agriculture, forest fires (cited by 35.1% of respondents as a major threat), and retaliatory killings further compound declines, while monitoring difficulties—such as signal loss during monsoons—impede accurate population assessments.^[82]^[89] Data gaps and reporting inconsistencies, as highlighted by IUCN assessments, continue to undermine adaptive management, with all pangolin species facing high extinction risk due to overexploitation.^[105] Addressing these requires enhanced international cooperation, improved forensic tools for trade detection, and investment in non-invasive survey methods to bolster empirical tracking of conservation outcomes.^[30]

References

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Insufficient relevant content. The provided URL (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12761/123583998) does not contain the full text or specific details on population size, trends, decline rates, threats, or monitoring methods for the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata). The page appears to be a placeholder or lacks accessible data based on the given input.
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AnAge entry for Manis crassicaudata
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Genetic assessment of captive breeding program of Indian Pangolin
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On the gestation period of Indian pangolins (Manis crassicaudata) in ...
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[101]
Parasites and bacteria associated with Indian pangolins Manis ...
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Husbandry, behaviour and conservation breeding of Indian pangolin
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[103]
The Pangolin Crisis Fund Celebrates Five Years of Impact
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[104]
Scaling Up Pangolin Conservation In India
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[105]
Lack of data and reporting gaps hamper global efforts to protect ...
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