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Intensivist

An intensivist, also known as a critical care physician, is a board-certified physician who has completed accredited critical care training and maintains advanced certification, specializing in the diagnosis, treatment, and management of critically ill or injured patients, often leading interprofessional teams in intensive care units (ICUs) and other high-acuity settings.^[1]^[2] These specialists coordinate comprehensive care for conditions such as sepsis, respiratory failure, organ dysfunction, and post-surgical complications, emphasizing advanced monitoring, resuscitation, ethical decision-making, and family counseling.^[3]^[4] The role of the intensivist has evolved significantly, extending beyond traditional ICU boundaries to include triage and management in emergency departments, rapid response teams, telehealth consultations, and post-intensive care recovery, particularly in response to global healthcare demands and resource variability.^[1]^[4] Training typically involves completing an accredited residency in a primary specialty (such as internal medicine, surgery, anesthesiology, or emergency medicine) followed by a 2- to 3-year fellowship in critical care medicine, culminating in certification through bodies like the American Board of Internal Medicine or equivalent international standards.^[3]^[4] Intensivists often collaborate with multidisciplinary teams, including nurses, respiratory therapists, and surgeons, to optimize outcomes in high-stakes environments where timely interventions can be life-saving.^[2] This expertise is crucial in addressing complex pathophysiological processes, technological interventions like mechanical ventilation, and ethical challenges such as end-of-life care.^[3]

Definition and Scope

Definition

An intensivist is a physician who has completed an accredited critical care medicine (CCM) training program, maintains advanced certification where available, and demonstrates dedication to CCM through professional practice.^[1]^[4] This specialization focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of life-threatening conditions in critically ill patients, primarily within intensive care units (ICUs), where they serve as the primary provider or consultant to coordinate comprehensive care.^[3] Intensivists oversee resuscitation, stabilization, and ongoing support for patients at risk of or experiencing organ dysfunction, collaborating with interprofessional teams to deliver ethical and evidence-based interventions.^[4] Key characteristics of the intensivist role include specialized expertise in managing multi-organ failure, where they address interconnected systemic complications through targeted therapies to prevent progression to irreversible damage.^[5] They possess advanced skills in mechanical ventilation to support respiratory failure, hemodynamic monitoring to optimize cardiovascular stability and guide fluid resuscitation, and end-of-life care to facilitate palliative discussions and ethical decision-making in futile scenarios.^[4]^[3] These competencies enable intensivists to recognize acute deterioration early and adapt treatments, contributing to reduced ICU mortality rates when they lead care.^[6] While intensivists may share foundational training with other specialists, their role is distinct in its exclusive emphasis on sustained ICU management of complex, multisystem critical illnesses. Anesthesiologists, for instance, primarily handle perioperative care and acute airway interventions but do not routinely oversee prolonged ICU stays. Pulmonologists focus on chronic and acute respiratory diseases outside the full spectrum of critical care, and emergency physicians manage initial stabilization in pre-ICU settings without the ongoing coordination of ICU teams. Core competencies of intensivists encompass advanced life support techniques for immediate resuscitation during cardiac or respiratory arrest, proficiency in invasive procedures such as central line insertion for vascular access and medication delivery, and the application of evidence-based protocols to standardize care and minimize variations in outcomes.^[7]^[8]^[9] These skills ensure efficient triage, procedure execution, and protocol adherence, enhancing patient safety and resource utilization in resource-constrained settings.^[10]

Scope of Practice

Intensivists specialize in managing critically ill patients across various populations, including adults, children, and neonates experiencing life-threatening conditions such as sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), severe trauma, and post-surgical complications leading to multi-organ dysfunction.^[11] These physicians address acute illnesses like shock, oncologic emergencies, and organ failure, often in patients with complex comorbidities requiring immediate stabilization and support.^[3] The primary settings for intensivist practice are intensive care units (ICUs), which include medical ICUs for non-surgical critical illnesses, surgical ICUs for post-operative recovery, cardiac ICUs for cardiovascular emergencies, neurologic ICUs for brain injuries, and trauma ICUs for injury-related care.^[2] Intensivists may also contribute to step-down units for intermediate care of stabilizing patients or participate in rapid response teams to prevent deterioration outside the ICU, as well as triage in emergency departments and telehealth consultations.^[12]^[1] Key interventions within the scope of practice involve titrating vasopressors for hemodynamic support, managing sedation and analgesia to optimize patient comfort and ventilator weaning, initiating and overseeing renal replacement therapy for acute kidney injury, and facilitating family communication during crises, including end-of-life discussions.^[11] Additional procedures include airway management through intubation, central venous catheter insertion, and non-invasive monitoring to guide organ support therapies like mechanical ventilation and nutritional management.^[13] A 2002 systematic review demonstrates that intensivist-led, high-intensity staffing models significantly improve outcomes, with pooled analyses showing a 29% relative reduction in hospital mortality (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.62-0.82) and a 39% reduction in ICU mortality (RR 0.61, 95% CI 0.50-0.75) compared to low-intensity models.^[14] These models also reduce ICU and hospital length of stay by 5% to 42% in multiple studies, alongside lower rates of complications such as nosocomial infections.^[14] In trauma-specific contexts, intensivist oversight has been associated with up to a 45% mortality reduction in elderly patients.^[15]

Historical Development

Origins of Critical Care Medicine

The origins of critical care medicine can be traced to early 20th-century innovations in mechanical ventilation, particularly in response to respiratory failure from diseases like polio. In 1928, Philip Drinker and Louis Agassiz Shaw at Harvard University developed the first practical negative-pressure ventilator, known as the Drinker respirator or "iron lung," which enclosed the patient's body to simulate breathing by alternating air pressure.^[16] This device was initially used to treat coal gas poisoning but quickly became essential for polio victims with paralyzed respiratory muscles, saving the life of an eight-year-old girl at Boston Children's Hospital in its debut application.^[17] The iron lung represented a foundational shift toward mechanical support for vital functions, though its bulkiness limited widespread adoption until epidemics heightened demand.^[18] World War II accelerated advancements in resuscitation and shock management, laying groundwork for organized critical care. Military medicine emphasized rapid fluid and blood transfusions, with the establishment of specialized shock wards to treat battlefield casualties efficiently; these units integrated monitoring, plasma therapy, and surgical interventions, reducing mortality from hemorrhagic shock.^[19] Techniques like whole blood banking, pioneered in the late 1930s and refined during the war, enabled timely volume replacement, while forward surgical teams minimized delays in care.^[20] These wartime innovations, driven by high casualty volumes, influenced postwar civilian practices by highlighting the value of centralized, multidisciplinary treatment for acutely ill patients.^[21] The 1950s polio epidemics catalyzed the transition from ad hoc interventions to structured critical care environments. In Denmark's 1952 outbreak, which affected approximately 5,700 people and paralyzed respiratory function in hundreds, anesthesiologist Bjørn Ibsen organized the world's first intensive care unit at Blegdam Hospital in Copenhagen, employing manual positive-pressure ventilation via tracheostomy and rubber bags administered by teams of medical students working in shifts.^[22] This approach sustained 70 patients around the clock, drastically lowering mortality from over 80% to under 20% and establishing principles of continuous monitoring and airway management.^[23] Similarly, in the United States during the 1952 epidemic peak, which saw thousands of cases, clinicians adopted manual ventilation techniques on general wards to support polio patients lacking access to iron lungs, prompting innovations in positive-pressure methods.^[24] By the late 1950s and 1960s, these experiences drove a broader recognition of the need for dedicated spaces beyond general wards, evolving into formal ICUs for high-risk monitoring. Ibsen's Copenhagen model inspired early units worldwide, such as the 1958 multidisciplinary ICU at Baltimore City Hospital in the US, established by anesthesiologist Peter Safar, which centralized postoperative and critically ill patients with specialized equipment.^[25] This shift emphasized constant vigilance for vital signs, weaning from ventilators, and interdisciplinary teams, transforming fragmented care into a cohesive system that improved outcomes for conditions like postoperative recovery and acute respiratory distress.^[26]

Emergence of Intensivist Role

The emergence of the intensivist as a distinct medical specialist began to take shape in the 1970s, driven by the need for specialized expertise in managing increasingly complex critical care environments. In 1970, the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) was founded in the United States by 29 physicians dedicated to advancing the care of critically ill patients, marking a pivotal step in professionalizing the field.^[27] This organization played a central role in standardizing practices and education, including the establishment of the first formal critical care fellowships during the decade, which provided structured postgraduate training for physicians from backgrounds such as anesthesiology, internal medicine, and surgery.^[28] These developments responded to the growing recognition that critical care required multidisciplinary coordination beyond general medical training. Internationally, the role of intensivists gained momentum through collaborative organizations that fostered global standards. The European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) was established in 1982 in Geneva, Switzerland, as a non-profit association aimed at promoting intensive care through education, research, and ethical guidelines across Europe.^[29] On a broader scale, the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine (WFSICCM) was formed in 1977, uniting national societies to enhance worldwide critical care practices, including equitable access and knowledge exchange.^[30] These entities facilitated the dissemination of best practices and supported the integration of intensivists into healthcare systems beyond North America. Formal recognition of critical care as a subspecialty solidified the intensivist's professional status. In 1986, the American Board of Anesthesiology began offering subspecialty certification in critical care medicine, allowing anesthesiologists to demonstrate expertise in ICU management, with similar certifications soon following from other boards like internal medicine and surgery.^[31] In Europe, ESICM's initiatives paralleled this by advocating for specialized training programs and competency-based certification. This recognition was propelled by escalating ICU demands, including an aging population with higher comorbidity burdens and the proliferation of advanced surgical procedures that necessitated prolonged postoperative monitoring.^[32] By the 1990s, evidence from studies demonstrating improved patient outcomes in intensivist-directed ICUs—such as reduced mortality and shorter lengths of stay—led to the widespread adoption of dedicated intensivist positions in hospitals worldwide.^[33]

Education and Training

The following describes the typical pathway in the United States; training varies by country (see Country-Specific Training).

Prerequisites and Basic Medical Education

In the United States, to become an intensivist, individuals must first complete undergraduate education, typically earning a bachelor's degree from an accredited institution while fulfilling pre-medical prerequisites.^[34] These requirements generally include one year each of biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, and English, often with laboratory components, to build foundational knowledge in the sciences essential for medical training.^[34] Although no specific major is required, common choices include biology, chemistry, or related fields, with a focus on achieving a strong grade point average (GPA) to prepare for medical school admission.^[35] Following undergraduate studies, candidates enter a four-year Doctor of Medicine (MD) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) program at an accredited medical school.^[36] The curriculum is divided into preclinical and clinical phases: the first two years emphasize basic sciences such as anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, and pathology through lectures, labs, and problem-based learning.^[36] The latter two years involve clinical rotations in core specialties like internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, and psychiatry, providing hands-on patient care experience under supervision to develop clinical skills.^[36] Upon completing medical school, graduates must pass the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Steps 1 and 2 (or the equivalent Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination for DO candidates) to demonstrate competency in basic sciences and clinical knowledge, respectively.^[37] Step 1 is typically taken after the preclinical years, while Step 2 Clinical Knowledge follows clinical rotations.^[38] These exams are prerequisites for obtaining initial medical licensure in most states, which allows entry into graduate medical education, though full independent licensure often requires additional postgraduate training.^[39] In the United States, admission to residency programs, a critical step toward intensivist training, is highly competitive and determined through the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP). Selection factors include high academic performance (e.g., medical school GPA above 3.7 and USMLE Step 2 scores in the 80th percentile or higher), strong letters of recommendation, and research experience in areas like internal medicine or related clinical fields.^[40] Program directors in internal medicine residencies, a common pathway for intensivists, prioritize these elements, with 85% considering the Medical Student Performance Evaluation (MSPE) and 84% valuing specialty-specific letters of recommendation when granting interviews.^[40] This foundation enables graduates to pursue specialized residency training in fields such as internal medicine or anesthesiology.

Specialized Residency and Fellowship

In the United States, to become an intensivist, physicians must complete a primary residency in a relevant specialty, such as internal medicine (typically 3 years), anesthesiology (4 years), or general surgery (5 years), followed by a specialized critical care fellowship.^[41] This pathway ensures foundational knowledge in the base specialty before advancing to intensive care expertise. The fellowship duration varies by discipline: 1 year for anesthesiology-based or surgical critical care programs, 2 years for internal medicine critical care medicine (with at least 12 months of clinical training, including 6 months in medical intensive care units), and up to 3 years for combined pulmonary and critical care tracks.^[42]^[43] Overall, postgraduate training post-medical school spans 5-7 years, culminating in board eligibility for critical care certification through bodies like the American Board of Internal Medicine or American Board of Anesthesiology.^[41] The fellowship curriculum emphasizes hands-on rotations across ICU subtypes, including medical, surgical, cardiac, and neurocritical care units, to build comprehensive patient management skills.^[43] Trainees acquire procedural competencies through supervised practice in techniques such as central venous catheterization, endotracheal intubation, bronchoscopy, and basic echocardiography, often enhanced by high-fidelity simulation training to improve proficiency and reduce clinical errors.^[44] Additional components include research requirements, such as completing a scholarly project or quality improvement initiative, and didactic sessions on evidence-based protocols.^[43] Fellows also participate in 24/7 call duties, typically every third night or weekend, to develop real-time decision-making under high-stakes conditions.^[45] Through this training, intensivists gain core competencies in managing complex conditions, including the recognition and treatment of various shock states (e.g., septic or cardiogenic) using hemodynamic monitoring and vasopressor therapies.^[10] They master ventilator management, from initiation of mechanical ventilation to weaning protocols that minimize complications like ventilator-associated pneumonia.^[10] Furthermore, fellows develop skills in quality improvement projects, such as implementing care bundles for sepsis or infection control to enhance patient outcomes in the ICU setting.^[46] These elements prepare trainees for independent practice in multidisciplinary critical care teams.^[41]

Country-Specific Training

United States

In the United States, aspiring intensivists must first complete an Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME)-accredited residency in one of several primary specialties, typically lasting 3 to 5 years. Eligible residencies include internal medicine (3 years), emergency medicine (3-4 years), anesthesiology (4 years), or general surgery (5 years), providing foundational training in acute care management before advancing to critical care specialization.^[47]^[48] Following residency, candidates pursue an ACGME-accredited fellowship in critical care medicine, which generally spans 1 or 2 years depending on the primary specialty—for instance, 2 years for internal medicine or emergency medicine pathways and 1 year for anesthesiology or surgical critical care pathways. These programs emphasize advanced training in intensive care units (ICUs), with a minimum of 12 months dedicated to direct ICU patient care, including rotations in medical, surgical, cardiac, and neurological critical care settings. Specialized tracks, such as neurocritical care, may extend training and focus on subspecialty expertise in managing neurological emergencies within the ICU.^[47]^[49]^[50] Certification as an intensivist is administered through multidisciplinary specialty boards aligned with the primary residency: the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) for internal medicine and emergency medicine pathways, the American Board of Anesthesiology (ABA) for anesthesiology, and the American Board of Surgery (ABS) for surgical critical care. Successful completion requires passing a rigorous examination assessing knowledge in critical care principles, with eligibility contingent on finishing an approved fellowship. Certification must be maintained through a Maintenance of Certification (MOC) process every 10 years, involving periodic assessments, continuing education, and practice improvement activities to ensure ongoing competency.^[42]^[31]^[51] A distinctive feature of the U.S. framework is the multidisciplinary nature of certification across ABIM, ABA, and ABS, reflecting the diverse backgrounds of intensivists while standardizing critical care expertise. Board certification is often a prerequisite for obtaining hospital privileges in ICUs, as many institutions require it to verify specialized qualifications and enhance patient safety. Additionally, the Leapfrog Group, a nonprofit focused on healthcare quality, mandates intensivist-led staffing—defined as 24/7 on-site or telemedicine coverage by board-certified intensivists—for hospitals to achieve top safety ratings, influencing national ICU operational standards.^[52]^[53]

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia and New Zealand, training to become an intensivist is overseen by the College of Intensive Care Medicine (CICM), the sole accrediting body for specialist intensive care medicine across both countries. Entry into the advanced training program requires completion of basic specialist training in a relevant field, such as internal medicine through the Royal Australasian College of Physicians (RACP), anesthesia via the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists (ANZCA), or emergency medicine under the Australasian College for Emergency Medicine (ACEM), following foundational postgraduate medical education including a 12-month internship and at least six months of supervised intensive care experience.^[54]^[55] The CICM advanced training program spans a minimum of six years full-time (or equivalent part-time), structured to build expertise in both general and pediatric intensive care. For the general stream, trainees must complete 42 months in accredited intensive care units (ICUs), comprising six months of foundation training, 24 months of core ICU rotations, and 12 months of transitioning to independent practice, alongside 12 months each in anesthesia and medicine, and six months of elective experience. The pediatric stream mirrors this but mandates at least 18 months of core training in pediatric ICUs, with corresponding adjustments in medicine rotations. This unified model emphasizes a multidisciplinary foundation, distinguishing it from more fragmented pathways elsewhere.^[54]^[56] Assessment throughout the program is multifaceted, ensuring progressive competency. Trainees undertake the First Part examination (written and oral components covering basic sciences applied to critical care) after foundation training, followed by the Second Part examination (focusing on clinical theory and practice) prior to the transition year. Workplace-based evaluations include In-Training Evaluation Reports (ITERs) for each rotation, Workplace Competency Assessments for eight key procedural skills, and a minimum of eight Observed Clinical Encounters during core training. A logbook tracks procedural experience, and a formal research project is required before fellowship eligibility. Successful completion awards the Fellowship of the College of Intensive Care Medicine (FCICM), granting specialist registration.^[54]^[57] Unique to the Australasian model are provisions for joint or dual training pathways, such as the integrated ANZCA/CICM program, which allows concurrent progress toward fellowships in anesthesia and intensive care, reducing overall training time. Reflecting the region's vast geography, the curriculum mandates a minimum three-month rural, regional, or remote training term to prepare intensivists for delivering critical care in underserved areas, including aeromedical retrievals and resource-limited settings common in Australia and New Zealand.^[54]^[58]

Sweden and Europe

In Sweden, the training pathway for intensivists is integrated into the specialty of anesthesiology and intensive care, overseen by the Swedish Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care (SFAI) through its educational committee, KVAST. This combined specialty requires a minimum of five years of supervised residency training following basic medical education and internship, comprising 36 months in anesthesiology and 24 months in intensive care across accredited university hospitals.^[59]^[60] Trainees must achieve competencies in perioperative care, critical care management, and pain medicine, with regular assessments including logbooks, supervisor evaluations, and national examinations administered by the National Board of Health and Welfare.^[59] Across Europe, intensive care medicine (ICM) training varies significantly due to national differences, though guided by the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) recommendations, which emphasize a multidisciplinary framework covering 102 core competencies in areas like organ support, infection control, and ethical decision-making.^[61]^[62] In the United Kingdom, the Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine (FICM) administers a structured program totaling approximately seven to eight years post-foundation training, including two years of core training in anesthesia, internal medicine, or acute care common stem, followed by five years of higher specialty training focused on advanced ICM skills such as specialist placements in pediatric or cardiothoracic care.^[63] Germany's approach features a dual track within anesthesiology, where ICM is pursued as a subspecialty requiring 6 to 24 months of dedicated intensive care during the 36- to 72-month anesthesiology residency, emphasizing procedural expertise in a hospital-based system.^[62]^[64] Certification in Europe typically involves national board examinations supplemented by the European Diploma in Intensive Care (EDIC), administered by ESICM to standardize knowledge and skills.^[65] The EDIC consists of a Part I written multiple-choice examination assessing theoretical knowledge after at least 18 months of ICM exposure, and a Part II oral and OSCE-based assessment following 24 months of training, with a strong emphasis on multidisciplinary modules such as team-based simulation and cross-specialty collaboration.^[65] This diploma is recognized in multiple countries and complements national qualifications, promoting mobility under EU regulations.^[62] Unique to the European model, particularly in Sweden, is the state-funded nature of specialist training, where residents receive salaries as public employees during their five-year program, ensuring accessibility within the universal healthcare system.^[66] Training curricula also prioritize evidence-based protocols, such as those from the Surviving Sepsis Campaign, co-endorsed by ESICM, which integrate hourly bundle care for sepsis recognition and management into routine ICM education to reduce mortality. Furthermore, EU Directive 2005/36/EC facilitates harmonization by mandating mutual recognition of specialties, with initiatives like the CoBaTrICE program aligning training standards across member states to support cross-border practice.^[62]^[64]

Roles and Responsibilities

Clinical Duties in the ICU

Intensivists lead multidisciplinary rounds in the intensive care unit (ICU), where they coordinate with nurses, respiratory therapists, pharmacists, and other specialists to assess patient status and develop care plans. These rounds typically occur at the bedside multiple times daily, involving a systematic review of each patient's history, vital signs, laboratory results, and imaging studies such as chest X-rays or CT scans to identify changes in condition. During assessments, intensivists interpret complex data, such as arterial blood gases or inflammatory markers, to guide adjustments in therapies, including titrating vasopressors, modifying antibiotic regimens based on culture results, or optimizing fluid balance to prevent overload or hypovolemia. This process ensures timely interventions that stabilize critically ill patients and prevent complications like sepsis progression or acute kidney injury.^[67]^[68]^[69] A core aspect of intensivists' clinical duties involves performing or supervising invasive procedures essential for diagnosis and support in the ICU. Common procedures include endotracheal intubation for airway management in respiratory failure, insertion of arterial lines for continuous blood pressure monitoring, and central venous catheterization for medication administration or fluid resuscitation. Intensivists also conduct lumbar punctures to evaluate for central nervous system infections and manage acute emergencies, such as responding to ventilator alarms indicating desaturation or hemodynamic instability by initiating cardiopulmonary resuscitation or rapid sequence induction. These hands-on interventions require proficiency in procedural skills, often performed under ultrasound guidance to enhance safety and efficacy, and are critical for immediate patient stabilization.^[70]^[71]^[72] Intensivists employ advanced monitoring tools to make real-time clinical decisions, integrating hemodynamic and physiological data to tailor therapies for organ support. Devices like the Swan-Ganz pulmonary artery catheter provide detailed measurements of cardiac output, pulmonary artery pressures, and mixed venous oxygen saturation, aiding in the management of shock states such as cardiogenic or distributive shock. Point-of-care ultrasound is routinely used for rapid assessments of cardiac function, volume status, and lung pathology, allowing intensivists to detect issues like pleural effusions or ventricular hypokinesis without delaying transport to radiology. These tools enable proactive adjustments, such as weaning mechanical ventilation or escalating inotropic support, to optimize oxygen delivery and prevent multi-organ dysfunction.^[73]^[74]^[75] Documentation forms a vital part of intensivists' daily responsibilities, ensuring accurate communication and continuity of care through electronic health records (EHRs). Intensivists enter detailed progress notes, order sets for standardized protocols like sepsis bundles, and medication reconciliations, which facilitate interdisciplinary handovers during shift changes or patient transfers. This meticulous recording supports quality improvement initiatives, billing accuracy, and legal compliance, while minimizing errors in high-stakes environments; for instance, precise documentation of diagnosis-related groups influences resource allocation and outcomes tracking. EHR systems in the ICU often include decision-support tools that alert intensivists to potential adverse events, further enhancing patient safety.^[76]^[77]^[78]

Leadership in Critical Care Teams

Intensivists function as the central leaders of multidisciplinary critical care teams in the intensive care unit (ICU), bearing ultimate responsibility for medical decision-making and coordinating efforts among nurses, pharmacists, respiratory therapists, and other professionals to ensure cohesive patient management.^[79] This leadership involves directing daily rounds that facilitate interprofessional collaboration, fostering shared goals and psychological safety to enhance team performance and reduce errors.^[79] For instance, intensivists oversee the implementation of evidence-based checklists such as the ABCDE bundle, which promotes awakening, breathing coordination, delirium screening, early mobility, and family engagement to improve outcomes in mechanically ventilated patients.^[80] By balancing authority with inclusiveness, intensivists promote effective communication and resource stewardship, leading to lower mortality rates compared to non-intensivist-led teams.^[79] In quality improvement efforts, intensivists lead morbidity and mortality (M&M) conferences to systematically review complications, identify system flaws, and implement changes that enhance care delivery.^[81] These conferences support a nonjudgmental analysis of errors, driving initiatives like infection control programs that reduce hospital-acquired infections through protocol adherence and multidisciplinary audits.^[82] Additionally, intensivists spearhead readmission reduction programs by monitoring post-ICU outcomes and integrating evidence-based practices, such as standardized discharge planning, to minimize unnecessary returns and optimize resource use.^[83] Administrative responsibilities of intensivists extend to developing staffing schedules that account for patient acuity, turnover, and non-direct care demands, ensuring adequate coverage while mitigating burnout.^[84] They also manage resource allocation, including the integration of telemedicine and advanced practice providers to handle surges and maintain efficiency in resource-limited settings.^[84] A key aspect involves protocol development, such as for delirium screening using tools like the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM-ICU), where intensivists lead education and implementation to standardize daily assessments and care bundles across teams.^[85] Intensivists actively contribute to research by participating in multicenter clinical trials, such as those conducted by the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network (ARDSNet), which have established lung-protective ventilation strategies reducing mortality in ARDS patients.^[86] Through involvement in such networks, they collect data, oversee protocol adherence, and translate findings into practice.^[86] Furthermore, intensivists inform evidence-based guidelines by collaborating with organizations like the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), incorporating trial results into recommendations for sepsis management and ventilator weaning to standardize high-quality care.^[83]

Challenges in the Field

Workforce and Burnout Issues

The intensivist workforce faces significant global shortages, with projections indicating a substantial gap in supply relative to demand for critical care services. In the United States, a position paper from the Society of Hospital Medicine and the Society of Critical Care Medicine references earlier analyses estimating a 35% shortfall in intensivist hours by 2030, driven by an aging population and increasing ICU utilization.^[87] Recent projections indicate an expected deficit of between 10,300 and 35,600 critical care physicians over the coming decade.^[88] In the United States, surveys of ICU providers have highlighted a shortage of intensivists estimated at around 12%, exacerbating challenges in low- and middle-income countries where access to specialized care is limited.^[89]^[90] As of 2024, the Society of Critical Care Medicine reported ongoing challenges with declining enrollment in respiratory therapy programs by 27% since 2019, compounding physician shortages, while global disparities persist with millions in low-resource settings lacking access to critical care.^[91] Demographic trends further compound these shortages, including an aging workforce and gender imbalances that hinder recruitment and retention. The average age of critical care intensivists in the US is approximately 48 years, with many approaching retirement and limited influx of younger specialists to replace them.^[92] Women represent about 26-27% of practicing intensivists in the US, despite near parity in medical school enrollment, leading to underrepresentation in leadership and contributing to retention issues as female physicians report higher rates of dissatisfaction in high-stress specialties.^[93]^[94] Burnout is prevalent among intensivists due to the high-stress environment, moral distress from frequent patient deaths, and demanding schedules often exceeding 60 hours per week. These factors, including emotional exhaustion from end-of-life decisions and administrative burdens, result in burnout rates of 40-54% among US intensivists, higher than in many other medical fields.^[91]^[95]^[96] To address these issues, interventions focus on wellness programs, telemedicine integration, and recruitment incentives. Organizational wellness initiatives, such as team-building and peer support, have shown promise in reducing burnout by fostering healthier work environments.^[95] Telemedicine, including remote ICU monitoring, helps alleviate on-site workload by allowing intensivists to oversee multiple units without constant physical presence.^[88] Recruitment efforts include loan forgiveness programs, which incentivize entry into the field by offsetting educational debt, particularly in underserved areas.^[97]

Ethical and Decision-Making Dilemmas

Intensivists often face profound ethical dilemmas in the intensive care unit (ICU), where decisions can determine life or death amid uncertainty, resource constraints, and conflicting stakeholder values. These challenges are exacerbated by the need to balance aggressive interventions with compassionate end-of-life care, particularly when patient outcomes are unpredictable. Central to this practice is the application of bioethical principles such as autonomy, which respects the patient's right to self-determination, and beneficence, which obligates clinicians to promote well-being while avoiding harm.^[98]^[99]^[100] A primary dilemma involves judgments of medical futility, where treatments offer little prospect of achieving meaningful recovery aligned with the patient's goals. Futility is not an absolute threshold but a contextual assessment, often defined as interventions unlikely to provide benefits outweighing burdens, such as prolonged suffering without functional improvement. Intensivists must collaborate with patients, surrogates, or families to evaluate these scenarios, as unilateral declarations can erode trust and lead to moral distress among providers. For instance, in cases of irreversible multi-organ failure, continuing mechanical ventilation may be deemed futile if it merely prolongs dying rather than restoring baseline function.^[101]^[102]^[103] Resource allocation during crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, presents another acute ethical challenge, requiring triage protocols to ration scarce ICU beds, ventilators, and personnel equitably. Guidelines emphasize maximizing overall benefit while upholding principles of justice, often using scoring systems like the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) to prioritize patients with higher survival likelihood. During surges, intensivists may need to deprioritize lower-acuity cases to save lives system-wide, a process that demands transparency to mitigate perceptions of discrimination based on age, disability, or comorbidities. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advocates for policies that ensure fair application of these rationing decisions through independent triage committees.^[104]^[105]^[106] Goals-of-care discussions form a cornerstone of ethical decision-making, enabling intensivists to align interventions with patients' values, preferences, and prognostic understanding. These conversations typically involve exploring the patient's illness trajectory, treatment options, and expected outcomes to foster shared decision-making. Early initiation of such dialogues, ideally within days of ICU admission for high-risk patients, reduces conflicts and improves family satisfaction by clarifying realistic expectations. Structured tools, such as family meeting planners and communication guides, facilitate these interactions by outlining agendas, roles, and follow-up steps to ensure comprehensive coverage of topics like illness severity, alternatives to aggressive care, and end-of-life wishes.^[107]^[108]^[109] Legal considerations further complicate these dilemmas, particularly regarding advance directives, do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders, and the withdrawal of life support. Advance directives, such as living wills, empower patients to specify preferences for life-sustaining treatments in advance, guiding intensivists when incapacity arises. DNR orders limit resuscitative efforts like CPR but permit other therapies, serving as a mechanism to honor autonomy without implying overall treatment cessation. Withdrawing support, such as extubating or discontinuing vasopressors, carries potential liability risks if not documented thoroughly or if it contravenes directives; however, U.S. law generally protects clinicians under informed consent doctrines when decisions reflect patient wishes or surrogate input. Courts uphold withdrawal as ethically equivalent to withholding, provided multidisciplinary consensus and palliative symptom management accompany the process.^[110]^[111]^[112] The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), through collaborative task forces, offers evidence-based guidelines to navigate dilemmas involving brain death and organ donation. Updated consensus statements outline rigorous criteria for declaring death by neurologic criteria (DNC), including apnea testing and exclusion of confounders like hypothermia or drug effects, to ensure accuracy and legal validity. These protocols support ethical organ procurement by separating death declaration from donation discussions, preserving trust while facilitating transplantation for viable donors. SCCM emphasizes that brain death equates to legal death, allowing withdrawal of support post-declaration unless donation proceeds under controlled conditions.^[113]^[114]^[115]

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Feb 4, 2025 · A central venous catheter (CVC) is an indwelling device inserted into a large, central vein (most commonly the internal jugular, subclavian, or femoral)Missing: intensivist core
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5065915/
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Consensus development of core competencies in intensive and ...
Oct 16, 2016 · The aim of this study is to develop consensus on core competencies required for postgraduate training in intensive care medicine.
[12]
[PDF] Critical Care Medicine Competencies
The practice of Critical Care Medicine, together with the complex needs of critically ill patients, delineate the location of intensivists, requiring that they ...
[13]
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The Role of Stepdown Beds in Hospital Care - PMC - NIH
Stepdown beds provide an intermediate level of care for patients with requirements somewhere between that of the general ward and the intensive care unit.
[15]
The Society of Critical Care Medicine at 50 Years: Interprofessional ...
In the ICU, an intensivist or other appropriate physicians are consulted for complex problems such as difficulty with ventilator management or weaning. Several ...
[16]
Physician Staffing Patterns and Clinical Outcomes in Critically Ill ...
High-intensity vs low-intensity ICU physician staffing is associated with reduced hospital and ICU mortality and hospital and ICU LOS.
[17]
The Impact of an Intensivist-Model ICU on Trauma-Related Mortality
An intensivist-model ICU is associated with a large reduction in in-hospital mortality after trauma, especially in elderly patients, with a 45% reduction in ...
[18]
The Iron Lung | Science Museum
Oct 14, 2018 · The first iron lung was used at Boston Children's Hospital to save the life of an eight-year-old girl with polio in 1928.What was the iron lung for? · Who invented it? · How did the iron lung work?
[19]
Philip Drinker versus John Haven Emerson: Battle of the iron lung ...
The "iron lung," originally known as the Drinker respirator, was developed in 1928 by Dr Philip Drinker and Dr Louis Agassiz Shaw to improve the respiration ...
[20]
How the iron lung paved the way for the modern-day intensive care ...
Mar 15, 2024 · Developed in 1927 by a faculty member from the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, industrial hygienist Philip Drinker, the iron lung was ...
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Critical care - where have we been and where are we going?
Mar 12, 2013 · During the Second World War, specialized shock units were used to provide efficient resuscitation for the large numbers of severely injured ...
[22]
A Century of Evolution in Trauma Resuscitation - PMC - NIH
After the development of blood banking in 1937 at Cook County Hospital, and other surgical resuscitation advances in World War II, we moved into the Korean ...
[23]
A National Medical Response to Crisis — The Legacy of World War II
Apr 28, 2020 · World War II's massive casualties were mitigated by lives saved as a result of medical care. Many of the advances made would persist long ...
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The birth of intensive care medicine: Björn Ibsen's records - PubMed
The birth of intensive care medicine was a process that took place in Copenhagen, Denmark, during and after the poliomyelitis epidemic in 1952/1953.
[25]
The outbreak that invented intensive care - Nature
which caused organs to ...
[26]
Treatment of polio led to the evolution of the modern ICU
Dec 16, 2011 · The evolution of the modern ICU grew out of the reaction of a few doctors to a major polio outbreak in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1952, Pitkin said.
[27]
Intensive care medicine is 60 years old: the history and future of the ...
Intensive care is celebrating its 60th anniversary this year. The concept arose from the devastating Copenhagen polio epidemic of 1952.
[28]
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
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About SCCM - Society of Critical Care Medicine
The History of SCCM. In 2020, SCCM celebrated its 50th anniversary! Explore the history of the Society and its influence on critical care. Head over to sccm ...
[30]
History of Critical Care - SAEM
Critical Care Medicine (EM-CCM) was first conceived in the 1970s and 1980s by Peter Safar and Ake Grenvik at the University of Pittsburgh.
[31]
About us - ESICM
Oct 1, 2024 · Founded in March 1982 in Geneva, Switzerland, ESICM is a non-profit making international association.
[32]
About - World Federation of Intensive and Critical Care
The World Federation of Intensive and Critical Care (WFICC) was established in 1977 and is a membership organization comprised of national societies and ...
[33]
Subspecialty Certification in Critical Care Medicine by ... - PubMed
Subspecialty Certification in Critical Care Medicine by American Specialty Boards. Crit Care Med. 1985 Dec;13(12):1001-3. doi: ...
[34]
Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases: An Emerging ...
Today, the demand for intensivists continues to rise, bolstered by patient factors that include an aging and more medically complex population, as well as ...
[35]
The Society of Critical Care Medicine at 50 Years: ICU Organization ...
The first ICUs had appeared only a decade earlier in the forms of dedicated shock wards and expanded postanesthesia care units (1, 2). In addition, although, ...
[36]
Intensive Care Fellowship Training in the United States of America
Sep 5, 2024 · This article provides a general overview of the pathway to become an intensivist in the United States of America (USA).
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ABIM Certification Exams - Internal Medicine & Subspecialty Policies
Certification by ABIM in the subspecialty; One year of accredited clinical fellowship training in critical care medicine (CCM) within the Department of Medicine.
[38]
Internal Medicine Critical Care Medicine Fellowship - EMRA
ABIM CCM policies require all critical care fellowships to provide 12 months of clinical experience. Six months of these are required to be devoted to the care ...
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Simulation for Skills-based Education in Pulmonary and Critical ...
Oct 10, 2014 · This paper outlines available technology and current evidence related to simulation-based skills training within pulmonary and critical care medicine.
[40]
About the Program | Department of Anesthesia - The University of Iowa
Call responsibilities are shared equally amongst all critical care fellows. On weekdays (Monday through Friday), fellows take 24 hour, in-house call, with ...
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Fellowship Curriculum - Surgical Critical Care Information Center
Dec 17, 2014 · Demonstrate competency in the implementation of institutional quality improvement protocols to the care of critically ill patients; Demonstrate ...
[42]
[PDF] ACGME Program Requirements for Graduate Medical Education in ...
ACGME requirements include Core Requirements (structure, resource, process), Detail Requirements (for compliance), and Outcome Requirements (measurable ...
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Graduate Medical Education (GME): Critical Care Medicine
The Critical Care Medicine Department offers two to four year ACGME-accredited fellowships in critical care medicine.Missing: intensivists | Show results with:intensivists
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[PDF] ACGME Program Requirements for Graduate Medical Education in ...
An anesthesiology critical care medicine fellowship provides advanced knowledge, skills, and clinical experiences in critical care medicine to foster the ...
[45]
ACCM Training Program Curricula, Duration and Program Standards
The program guidelines require that nine months of a 12-month ACCM fellowship be in an ICU providing direct care to critically ill patients. The remainder of ...Missing: intensivist | Show results with:intensivist
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Critical Care Medicine Exam - The American Board of Anesthesiology
Since 1986, the ABA has offered certification in critical care medicine (CCM), a subspecialty dedicated to the many and varied aspects of managing critically ...
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Surgical Critical Care Certification - American Board of Surgery
Surgeons may enter the ABS certification process for surgical critical care following successful completion of an ACGME-accredited surgical critical care ...Certifying ExaminationTraining RequirementsExaminationsABEM Pathway to SCC ...EPAs for Surgical Critical Care
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Value of Board Certification - American Board of Medical Specialties
Board certification enhances trust and transparency in the patient–provider relationship and is an important factor when choosing a specialist. The ...Missing: intensivists | Show results with:intensivists
[49]
Board Certification as Prerequisite for Hospital Staff Privileges
Hospitals have a right to restrict staff privileges to board-certified physicians to enhance the quality of medical care and reputation of the hospital.
[50]
None
### Summary of CICM Training Program (Australia and New Zealand)
[51]
Becoming a Trainee
### Entry Requirements for CICM Training
[52]
https://www.abms.org/board-certification/value-of-board-certification/
[53]
Intensive care medicine - Medical Council of New Zealand
Doctors who complete the CICM training are awarded the Fellowship of the CICM (FCICM). College of Intensive Care Medicine of Australia and New Zealand (CICM).
[54]
ANZCA CICM Dual Training Pathway
The pathway offers a mechanism for combining training towards FANZCA and FCICM in less time than it currently takes to complete both training programs.
[55]
ST-utbildning | Svensk Förening för Anestesi och Intensivvård
### Summary of ST-utbildning in Anesthesiology and Intensive Care (Sweden)
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[PDF] Training book for specialist service in anaesthesia and intensive care
This booklet, published in 2008, was published to specify the Swedish requirements for specialist competence in Anaesthesia and Intensive Care.Missing: anesthesiology specialty
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Guidelines & Consensus Statements - ESICM
Recommendations on basic requirements for intensive care units: structural and organisational aspects. · International expert statement on training standards for ...
[58]
The future of training in intensive care medicine: A European ...
the written exam and Part II — the oral/clinical case exam. Among countries with mandatory examinations to ...
[59]
None
Summary of each segment:
[60]
Models for Intensive Care Training. A European Perspective
Nov 22, 2013 · The EU Directive on recognition of professional qualifications requires automatic recognition of basic medical qualifications and of a ...
[61]
[PDF] European Diploma in Intensive Care Medicine - ESICM
The aim of the ESICM examination for the European Diploma in Intensive Care Medicine is to promote standards in education and training in intensive care ...
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Specialist Medical Training - Residency Program - Skåne Care
Each specialty qualification requires the completion of an individually defined plan over a minimum of 5,5 years, which includes hands-on clinical training ( ...Missing: SFAR | Show results with:SFAR
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Interprofessional Rounds in the ICU - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Interprofessional rounds in the intensive care unit (ICU) setting allow for scheduled discussions among various healthcare providers to review and discuss ...
[64]
Patient Daily Rounds - Navigating the ICU - Sunnybrook Hospital
Patient Daily Rounds. Healthcare providers stand in a circle at the bedside, discuss the patient's condition, and make care decisions. The staff intensivist ...
[65]
An Approach to Intensive Care Unit Rounds Utilizing 5, 10, and 15 ...
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[66]
Critical Care - Tests and procedures - Mayo Clinic
Sep 25, 2025 · Airway management · Bone marrow transplant · Cardiovascular monitoring · Central venous catheterization · Chest drainage tube insertion · Colonoscopy ...
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Clinical Training | Weill Department of Medicine
Common procedures performed in the MICU by fellows include endotracheal intubation, bronchoscopy (therapeutic and diagnostic), central venous access ...
[68]
Procedures Performed by Advanced Practice Providers Compared ...
Apr 29, 2020 · This study indicates that APPs are able to perform routine procedures such as arterial catheters, central venous catheters, and tracheal intubations in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Nov 13, 2020 · Use of a pulmonary artery catheter (PAC, or Swan-Ganz catheter) may be beneficial for ICU patients with complex hemodynamic instability, ...Missing: intensivist tools
[70]
Pulmonary Artery Catheter Monitoring in Patients with Cardiogenic ...
Apr 26, 2022 · The use of the Swan-Ganz catheter could play a pivotal role in various phases of cardiogenic shock management, encompassing diagnosis and haemodynamic ...Missing: intensivist | Show results with:intensivist
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Diagnostic Modalities in Critical Care: Point-of-Care Approach
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[72]
Clinical Documentation for Intensivists: The Impact of Diagnosis ...
Documentation of precise diagnoses in the medical record has a positive impact on quality metrics, accuracy of administrative databases, hospital reimbursement,
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The Next-Generation Electronic Health Record in the ICU - NIH
The Next-Generation Electronic Health Record in the ICU: A Focus on User-Technology Interface to Optimize Patient Safety and Quality.
[74]
Using Electronic Health Records to Identify the Daily... : Critical Care ...
We sought to develop an algorithm using electronic health record (EHR) data to identify the responsible provider for each day of a patient's hospitalization.
[75]
Teamwork in the Intensive Care Unit - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The intensivist, a physician with specialized training in critical care medicine, is the leader of the team and has ultimate responsibility for medical decision ...
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ICU Liberation Bundle (A-F) | SCCM - Society of Critical Care Medicine
The ICU Liberation's implementation tools offer a stepwise approach to pain assessment. Assessment is suggested in this order: Attempt to obtain a patient's ...
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Quality and performance improvement in critical care - PMC
Decreasing variation, increasing adherence to evidence based guidelines, monitoring processes, and measuring outcomes are critical for improving quality of care ...
[79]
Quality Improvement | SCCM - Society of Critical Care Medicine
Quality improvement comprises implementation of clinical programs developed through evidence-based clinical practice guidelines and toolkits.Missing: intensivist | Show results with:intensivist
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[PDF] Intensivist/Patient Ratios in Closed ICUs: A Statement From the ...
In the ICU, procedures, review of patient data, communicating with consulting doctors, teaching staff, and administrative duties can also occupy much of the ...<|separator|>
[81]
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Nurses have reported higher levels of confidence in detecting delirium, increased knowledge of delirium, and enhancement of patient care skills after receiving ...
[82]
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The NHLBI ARDS Network was a research network formed to study and test treatments for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) through multi-center clinical ...Tools · Studies · Contact ARDSNet · PublicationsMissing: intensivist involvement
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Training a hospitalist workforce to address the intensivist shortage in ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... yielding a shortfall of specialist hours equal to 22% of demand by 2020 and 35% by 2030, primarily because of the aging of the US population.
[84]
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Global critical care: a call to action
Jan 20, 2023 · A global call to action is needed to increase equitable access to care and the quality of care provided to critically ill patients.The Global Burden Of... · Recommendations · Train The Workforce<|control11|><|separator|>
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Physicians' average age by specialty - Becker's ASC
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Addressing gender imbalance in intensive care
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[88]
Proactive approaches needed to advance women's careers in ...
Jan 12, 2022 · Gender bias is still a factor in pulmonary and critical care medicine. Just 26.8% of critical care physicians in the United States are women.
[89]
SCCM Critical Care Workforce Update 2023
Feb 5, 2024 · This shortage is especially prevalent in critical care, with an estimated 27% of critical care nurses leaving the profession worldwide,19 ...
[90]
Burnout and Joy in the Profession of Critical Care Medicine - PMC
A growing body of literature suggests that this excessive stress and resultant moral distress can lead to burnout syndrome.
[91]
Statement on Increasing Relevancy and Sustainability of ...
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Critical Care Physician Shortage - RemoteICU
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Principles of Clinical Ethics and Their Application to Practice - PMC
The 4 main ethical principles, that is beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice, are defined and explained. Informed consent, truth-telling, and ...
[95]
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[98]
Medical, ethical, and legal aspects of end-of-life dilemmas in the ...
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[99]
Medical futility and its challenges: a review study - PMC
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[100]
Allocating scarce intensive care resources during the COVID-19 ...
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[101]
Triage Procedures for Critical Care Resource Allocation During ...
Aug 29, 2023 · This cross-sectional study analyzes the role of comorbidities and long-term prognosis in state triage procedures.
[102]
Approaches to critical care resource allocation and triage during the ...
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) recommends that critical care allocation during a pandemic emergency should uphold basic biomedical principles through ...
[103]
Discussing goals of care - UpToDate
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[104]
Conversations on Goals of Care With Hospitalized, Seriously Ill ...
May 21, 2023 · Goals-of-care conversations between clinicians and patients with serious illness have been shown to improve measures of patient and family well-being.
[105]
Family Meetings Made Simpler: A Toolkit for the ICU - PubMed Central
In this article, we describe three specific tools that we have developed as prototypes to promote more successful implementation of family meetings in the ICU.
[106]
Advance Directives - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
May 5, 2025 · Advance directives are legal documents that outline an individual's preferences regarding major medical decisions.<|separator|>
[107]
Do-Not-Resuscitate (DNR) Orders - Fundamentals - Merck Manuals
A DNR order does not mean "do not treat." Rather, it means only that CPR will not be attempted. Other treatments (for example, antibiotic therapy, transfusions, ...Missing: ICU | Show results with:ICU
[108]
Legal Aspects of Withholding and Withdrawing Life Support from ...
In the United States, the withholding and withdrawal of life support is legally justified primarily by the principles of informed consent and informed refusal, ...Missing: intensivists | Show results with:intensivists
[109]
The 2023 AAN/AAP/CNS/SCCM Pediatric and Adult Brain Death ...
An updated, evidence-informed consensus-based guideline for pediatric and adult brain death/death by neurologic criteria (BD/DNC) determination.
[110]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459133/
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Management of the Potential Organ Donor in the ICU | SCCM
The goal of this consensus statement is to provide critical care practitioners with essential information and practical recommendations related to management ...Missing: task force