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Rapid sequence induction

Rapid sequence induction (RSI), also known as rapid sequence intubation, is a standardized medical procedure designed to secure a patient's airway swiftly and safely in emergency settings where there is a heightened risk of pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents.^[1] It involves preoxygenation followed by the simultaneous administration of a rapid-acting induction agent to induce unconsciousness and a neuromuscular blocking agent to facilitate paralysis, enabling immediate endotracheal intubation without intervening bag-mask ventilation to minimize the unprotected airway period.^[2] This technique is the preferred method for airway management in scenarios such as trauma, obstetric emergencies, and critical care, where patients may not be fasted and aspiration remains a leading cause of anesthesia-related morbidity and mortality.^[3] The procedure's origins trace back to the mid-20th century, prompted by observations of aspiration syndromes in obstetrics, with key developments including the 1946 description of Mendelson's syndrome and the 1961 introduction of cricoid pressure by Sellick to occlude the esophagus.^[1] By 1970, Stept and Safar formalized RSI as a 15-step process, establishing it as a cornerstone of emergency airway management that has evolved into the standard of care in emergency departments for over four decades.^[2] Modern RSI emphasizes meticulous preparation, including airway assessment using tools like the MACOCHA score to identify difficult airways, assembly of equipment such as videolaryngoscopes, and clear team roles to mitigate risks like hypoxia or hypotension.^[1] Indications for RSI include inability to maintain airway patency, failure to protect the airway due to altered consciousness, inadequate ventilation or oxygenation, and anticipated clinical deterioration in conditions like anaphylaxis, septic shock, or severe trauma.^[2] Key components involve preoxygenation with 100% oxygen for three minutes or eight vital capacity breaths, application of cricoid pressure (approximately 30 Newtons) during intubation to further reduce aspiration risk—though its efficacy remains debated—and confirmation of tube placement via waveform capnography.^[3] Post-intubation care includes sedation and analgesia to maintain comfort.^[2] Despite its effectiveness, RSI carries risks, including a failed intubation rate of about 1 in 300 cases, particularly in vulnerable populations, underscoring the need for backup airway strategies and adherence to guidelines like those from the Practical Universal Modified Airway (PUMA) framework established in 2019.^[1]

Definition and Principles

Definition

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) is an emergency medical procedure designed to secure a patient's airway through endotracheal intubation as quickly as possible, primarily to minimize the risk of pulmonary aspiration in individuals with a full stomach or compromised protective reflexes.^[4] It involves the near-simultaneous intravenous administration of a rapidly acting induction agent to achieve unconsciousness and a neuromuscular blocking agent to induce paralysis, facilitating prompt placement of a cuffed endotracheal tube.^[2] This technique is widely employed in emergency departments, critical care settings, and prehospital environments where rapid airway control is essential for patients in acute respiratory distress or at high aspiration risk.^[4] A key distinction of RSI from standard rapid induction techniques lies in the deliberate avoidance of manual bag-mask ventilation between the administration of induction and paralytic agents and the subsequent intubation attempt.^[5] This omission prevents gastric insufflation, which could increase intra-abdominal pressure and exacerbate aspiration risk, unlike elective anesthesia inductions where ventilation may be titrated or provided to maintain oxygenation.^[2] The core components of RSI include preoxygenation to maximize oxygen reserves, the swift delivery of pharmacologic agents, and immediate laryngoscopy for intubation, all executed in a coordinated manner to optimize success rates while prioritizing patient safety.^[5] Over the decades, RSI has evolved into a standardized approach in emergency medicine, supported by extensive clinical evidence for its efficacy in high-stakes airway management.^[6]

Core Principles

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) primarily aims to secure a definitive airway in patients at high risk of pulmonary aspiration, such as those with a full stomach or trauma, by rapidly inducing unconsciousness and paralysis to facilitate endotracheal intubation.^[4] This approach protects the airway during the critical period when protective reflexes are lost, minimizing the chance of regurgitation or vomiting in non-fasted individuals.^[6] By achieving quick control, RSI reduces the overall risk of aspiration-related complications in emergency settings.^[3] The physiological basis of RSI centers on minimizing the duration of the unprotected interval between the loss of airway reflexes and tube placement, thereby preventing gastric contents from entering the lungs.^[5] This brief timeframe is essential for patients with altered mental status or acute respiratory failure, where delayed intubation could exacerbate hypoxia or aspiration.^[2] The technique leverages the apneic period post-induction to maintain negative intragastric pressure, avoiding maneuvers that might promote reflux.^[7] Central to RSI is the principle of "crash" intubation without bag-mask ventilation, which eliminates positive pressure that could increase gastric insufflation and aspiration risk in high-risk patients.^[8] This avoidance of ventilation during the procedure underscores RSI's focus on rapid, uninterrupted progression to intubation, particularly beneficial for trauma victims or those unable to fast.^[6] Overall, these elements ensure effective airway protection while prioritizing speed and safety.^[3]

Indications and Contraindications

Indications

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) is indicated in clinical scenarios requiring urgent airway securing to protect against aspiration and ensure rapid control, particularly in emergency settings such as trauma, cardiac arrest, and status epilepticus. In trauma patients, RSI facilitates immediate airway management amid risks of cervical spine injury and hemodynamic instability, optimizing intubation success while minimizing manipulation. For cardiac or respiratory arrest, RSI is employed when endotracheal intubation is necessary to support ventilation, especially in cases of failed basic airway maneuvers or impending airway loss due to decreased consciousness. Similarly, in status epilepticus, RSI enables swift airway protection and ventilation to prevent hypoxia and facilitate anticonvulsant administration, with agents like ketamine preferred for their antiseizure properties.^[2]^[4]^[5] Patients at risk of aspiration due to a full stomach represent another primary indication for RSI, including those with recent food intake, gastrointestinal obstruction, or conditions causing delayed gastric emptying such as opioid use or pregnancy. In such cases, RSI minimizes the time between loss of consciousness and airway securing, reducing regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration risks; for instance, bowel obstruction heightens intra-abdominal pressure, exacerbating reflux potential. Pregnancy further increases aspiration likelihood due to progesterone-mediated lower esophageal sphincter relaxation and delayed emptying, making RSI the standard for emergency cesarean sections or non-obstetric procedures. Opioids contribute by slowing gastric motility, compounding risks in critically ill patients.30565-6/fulltext)^[9]^[10] RSI is also preferred for non-cooperative patients exhibiting agitation, combativeness, or inability to tolerate awake intubation techniques, as these behaviors hinder standard preoxygenation and increase procedural risks. In agitated or delirious individuals, medication-assisted RSI allows for controlled sedation and paralysis, improving safety in emergency department or intensive care unit settings. The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) 2023 guidelines recommend RSI for critically ill adults in the ICU or emergency department, emphasizing its role in optimizing intubation conditions and reducing complications in these high-risk populations.^[11]^[12]^[8]

Contraindications

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) has few absolute contraindications, primarily centered on scenarios where securing the airway poses an insurmountable risk without alternative interventions. Complete upper airway obstruction, such as that caused by severe angioedema or foreign body impaction, represents an absolute contraindication, as it necessitates an immediate surgical airway rather than RSI to avoid catastrophic hypoxia. Similarly, a predicted difficult airway in which backup ventilation via bag-valve-mask is deemed impossible—due to anatomical distortions from trauma, tumors, or burns—precludes RSI, as the technique assumes the ability to rapidly intubate following paralysis.^[2]^[5] Relative contraindications to RSI include conditions where the procedure could exacerbate underlying physiological derangements, though these may be mitigated with modifications. Severe hemodynamic instability, exemplified by hypovolemic shock, is a relative contraindication because induction agents may precipitate cardiovascular collapse through vasodilation or myocardial depression, particularly if volume resuscitation is incomplete. In such cases, RSI proceeds only after optimizing hemodynamics and selecting hemodynamically neutral agents like etomidate or ketamine. Additionally, an anticipated difficult airway without guaranteed rescue oxygenation qualifies as relative, prompting consideration of awake techniques to preserve spontaneous breathing.^[5]^[2] In high-risk cases, alternatives to RSI prioritize airway security while minimizing complications. Awake intubation, facilitated by topical anesthesia and sedation, is recommended when difficult airway features are identified, allowing preservation of patient ventilation until the airway is secured. Video laryngoscopy enhances visualization and success rates in predicted difficult scenarios, serving as an adjunct or primary method over direct laryngoscopy. For absolute obstructions or failed nonsurgical attempts, an emergency surgical airway, such as cricothyrotomy, becomes the definitive alternative.^[13] Recent guidelines underscore the importance of pre-assessment to identify contraindications early. The Difficult Airway Society 2025 guidelines emphasize comprehensive airway evaluation—including history, bedside tests like the upper lip bite test, and imaging such as ultrasound—prior to RSI, to stratify risk and select appropriate strategies, thereby reducing unanticipated failures.^[13]

Pharmacology

Premedication Agents

Premedication agents in rapid sequence induction (RSI) are pharmacologic interventions administered to attenuate specific adverse physiological responses, such as hemodynamic fluctuations or bradycardia, that may arise during laryngoscopy and intubation. These agents are selected based on patient-specific risks, such as head injury or pediatric age, and are given intravenously 3-5 minutes prior to the induction phase to optimize their onset while minimizing delays in the time-critical RSI process.^[14]^[15] Lidocaine, administered at a dose of 1.5 mg/kg intravenously over 2-3 minutes, serves to blunt the sympathetic stimulation and potential rise in intracranial pressure (ICP) triggered by laryngoscopy, making it particularly relevant for patients with traumatic brain injury.^[16]^[17] This timing allows for peak effect during intubation, with a duration of action of approximately 10-20 minutes.^[14] Although historically recommended, systematic reviews indicate limited evidence supporting its efficacy in preventing ICP elevations during RSI in head-injured adults, suggesting its use should be judicious.^[18]^[19] Fentanyl, dosed at 1-3 mcg/kg intravenously and administered slowly to avoid rapid onset of side effects, mitigates the catecholamine surge and sympathetic responses—such as hypertension and tachycardia—associated with tracheal intubation.^[20]^[21] This opioid premedication is especially beneficial in patients with hemodynamic instability, cardiovascular disease, or elevated ICP, where blunting these responses can prevent secondary injury.^[17] However, higher doses carry a risk of hypotension, particularly in hypovolemic or critically ill individuals, necessitating careful titration.^[21] Its short duration aligns with the RSI timeline, providing analgesia without prolonged respiratory depression when used judiciously.^[22] In pediatric RSI, atropine at 0.02 mg/kg intravenously (with a minimum dose of 0.1 mg) is traditionally employed to counteract vagal stimulation and bradycardia induced by succinylcholine, especially in infants under 1 year or during repeat dosing.^[23]^[15] This anticholinergic agent is administered 3-5 minutes before induction to preemptively increase heart rate stability.^[14] Evidence from randomized studies, however, shows that routine atropine premedication does not significantly decrease bradycardia incidence in children undergoing RSI with succinylcholine.^[24] The 2020 Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) guidelines endorse its consideration only in high-risk scenarios, such as neonates or prolonged procedures, rather than universal use.^[25]

Induction Agents

Induction agents in rapid sequence induction (RSI) are sedative-hypnotic medications administered to rapidly achieve unconsciousness and amnesia, facilitating safe endotracheal intubation while minimizing the risk of aspiration. These agents are selected based on patient hemodynamics, underlying conditions, and procedural needs, with a focus on rapid onset (typically within 30-60 seconds) and short duration to allow quick recovery if intubation fails. Common choices include etomidate, propofol, and ketamine, each with distinct pharmacokinetic profiles that influence their use in emergency settings. Etomidate, dosed at 0.3 mg/kg intravenously, is the preferred induction agent for hemodynamically unstable patients due to its minimal effects on cardiovascular stability, preserving blood pressure and heart rate through lack of significant vasodilation or myocardial depression. It provides rapid onset and short duration (3-5 minutes), making it ideal for RSI in trauma or shock scenarios. However, concerns exist regarding transient adrenal suppression from inhibition of 11β-hydroxylase, which may be problematic in septic or critically ill patients, though clinical guidelines suggest no increased mortality compared to alternatives. In obese patients, dosing is typically based on total body weight (TBW) to ensure adequate induction, as per recent emergency medicine reviews. Propofol, administered at 1-2 mg/kg intravenously, offers rapid onset and profound amnesia with antiemetic properties, but it is generally avoided in patients with shock or hypotension due to its dose-dependent vasodilation and myocardial depression, which can exacerbate cardiovascular instability. It is suitable for hemodynamically stable patients and those with elevated intracranial pressure, as it reduces cerebral blood flow and metabolic demand. For obese individuals, propofol dosing is recommended based on ideal body weight (IBW) to prevent overdose and prolonged recovery, according to updated pharmacotherapy guidelines. No dose adjustments are required for renal failure, given its primary hepatic metabolism and extrahepatic clearance. Ketamine, given at 1-2 mg/kg intravenously, is particularly advantageous in trauma patients or those with agitation, as it maintains airway reflexes, provides analgesia, and supports hemodynamics through sympathomimetic effects that increase heart rate and blood pressure. Unlike other agents, it preserves respiratory drive initially and is bronchodilatory, benefiting patients with reactive airway disease. In obese patients, ketamine is dosed using IBW to account for its distribution into lean tissue, avoiding excessive effects from fat mass. Renal impairment does not necessitate dosing changes, as ketamine undergoes hepatic metabolism with inactive metabolites excreted renally. Recent 2025 emergency medicine pharmacology reviews emphasize these weight-based adjustments for special populations to optimize safety and efficacy in RSI.

Neuromuscular Blocking Agents

Neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBAs) are essential components of rapid sequence induction (RSI), providing rapid paralysis to facilitate endotracheal intubation by abolishing skeletal muscle tone and preventing reflexes that could complicate airway management.^[4] These agents are administered immediately following induction agents, with selection guided by the need for rapid onset, predictable duration, and patient-specific risk factors.^[26] In RSI, depolarizing and non-depolarizing NMBAs are primarily used, each with distinct pharmacokinetic profiles that influence their clinical application.^[27] Succinylcholine, a depolarizing NMBA, remains a cornerstone for RSI due to its exceptionally rapid onset and short duration of action. The standard dose is 1 to 1.5 mg/kg administered intravenously, achieving maximal paralysis within 45 to 60 seconds.^[4] Its pharmacokinetics involve rapid hydrolysis by plasma cholinesterase, resulting in a brief duration of 5 to 10 minutes, which allows for spontaneous recovery without reversal agents.^[27] However, succinylcholine carries significant risks, including hyperkalemia due to potassium release from muscle cells, particularly in patients with burns, trauma, or neuromuscular diseases such as denervation injuries.^[4] It is contraindicated in these conditions, as hyperkalemia can lead to cardiac arrhythmias.^[28] Rocuronium, a non-depolarizing NMBA, serves as a primary alternative to succinylcholine in RSI, especially when contraindications to the depolarizing agent exist. For rapid sequence purposes, a dose of 1.2 mg/kg intravenously provides an onset of 45 to 60 seconds, comparable to succinylcholine but with greater variability.^[26] Its pharmacokinetics differ markedly, involving hepatic metabolism and renal excretion, which prolongs the duration to 30 to 60 minutes, necessitating reversal agents like sugammadex for expedited recovery.^[27] Sugammadex encapsulates rocuronium, enabling rapid reversal within minutes, which is advantageous in scenarios of difficult intubation.^[26] The choice between succinylcholine and rocuronium depends on patient factors, with guidelines recommending avoidance of succinylcholine in cases of denervation injuries, burns beyond 24 hours, or other hyperkalemia risks to prevent life-threatening complications.^[4] Rocuronium is preferred in these situations for its safer side-effect profile, though its longer duration requires careful consideration in resource-limited settings.^[28] Both agents ensure optimal intubating conditions when dosed appropriately, but individualized selection optimizes safety and efficacy in emergency airway management.^[26]

Adjunct Medications

Adjunct medications in rapid sequence induction (RSI) encompass agents administered during or immediately after the procedure to address specific risks or enhance safety, such as reversal of paralysis, hemodynamic stabilization, or aspiration prophylaxis. These drugs are selected based on patient factors and procedural context to mitigate complications without interfering with core induction components. Sugammadex serves as a key reversal agent for rocuronium-induced neuromuscular blockade, particularly in failed intubation scenarios during RSI, enabling rapid restoration of spontaneous ventilation. The dosing range is 2 mg/kg for moderate blockade to 16 mg/kg for immediate reversal approximately 3 minutes post-rocuronium administration, with the higher dose recommended when urgent recovery is clinically necessary. This agent encapsulates rocuronium molecules, facilitating quick elimination and reducing the need for alternative reversal methods like neostigmine. Sugammadex integrates with neuromuscular blocking agents by providing a targeted antidote, allowing clinicians to use high-dose rocuronium confidently in RSI protocols. Vasopressors, such as phenylephrine, are utilized to counteract post-induction hypotension in hemodynamically unstable patients undergoing RSI, where induction agents may exacerbate cardiovascular instability. Administered as push-dose boluses (typically 50–100 mcg) or infusions, phenylephrine increases cardiac output primarily by elevating preload through venoconstriction, with an onset of about 1 minute. Its alpha-1 adrenergic effects make it suitable for scenarios involving anesthesia-induced vasodilation, though monitoring for reflex bradycardia is essential. In obstetric RSI, non-particulate antacids like 0.3 M sodium citrate (30 mL orally) are routinely given to neutralize gastric acidity and minimize the risk of acid aspiration syndrome during emergency cesarean deliveries. This prophylaxis is recommended immediately before induction due to its rapid onset and lack of particulate matter, which could complicate airway management if regurgitation occurs. The 2025 consensus statement on adult RSI and post-intubation care emphasizes structured sedation protocols incorporating dexmedetomidine as an adjunct to maintain hemodynamic stability and provide light sedation without significant respiratory depression immediately following intubation. Dexmedetomidine, dosed at 0.2–1.4 mcg/kg/hour infusion, is preferred over alternatives like propofol in select cases for its sympatholytic properties, which help control heart rate and blood pressure fluctuations post-RSI.

Procedure

Preparation and Positioning

Preparation for rapid sequence induction (RSI) begins with a systematic equipment checklist to ensure all necessary tools are readily available and functional, minimizing delays during the procedure. Essential items include a functioning laryngoscope with Macintosh or Miller blades, endotracheal tubes sized 7.0 to 8.0 mm for adults (7.0-7.5 mm for females and 7.5-8.0 mm for males), a bougie or stylet for difficult airways, a video laryngoscope as a backup option, Yankauer and tonsil-tip suction devices, a bag-valve-mask apparatus, and an end-tidal CO2 detector for tube placement confirmation.^[4] Additionally, the cricothyrotomy kit must be prepared and accessible as part of the failed airway contingency plan.^[29] All equipment should be tested prior to initiation, including laryngoscope light functionality and endotracheal tube cuff inflation.^[4] Patient positioning is critical to align the oral, pharyngeal, and laryngeal axes for optimal glottic visualization and to enhance safety. The standard "sniffing position" involves flexion of the neck at the C6-C7 level and extension at the atlanto-occipital joint (C1-C2), which facilitates direct laryngoscopy by straightening the airway.^[4] For obese patients or those with limited neck mobility, ramping—elevating the torso and head to achieve an "ear-to-sternal notch" alignment—is recommended to improve intubation success rates and functional residual capacity.^[30] A 25° to 30° head-up or ramped position is often employed in critically ill patients to reduce aspiration risk and support preoxygenation, though evidence on oxygenation benefits varies.^[29]^[30] Intravenous (IV) access should be secured with at least one large-bore catheter (e.g., 18-gauge or larger) to allow rapid fluid and medication administration if needed.^[4] Continuous monitoring is established using electrocardiography (ECG), pulse oximetry (SpO2), non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP), and capnography to track vital signs throughout the procedure.^[29] Backup plans, including algorithms for failed intubation and surgical airway access like cricothyrotomy, must be reviewed and equipment positioned nearby to address anticipated or unanticipated difficulties.^[29]^[4] Clear delineation of team roles enhances efficiency and safety during RSI. The team leader coordinates the process, assesses the airway, and performs intubation; a designated assistant prepares equipment and applies any necessary external maneuvers; and a third member manages monitoring and supports resuscitation efforts if required.^[4]^[29] Pre-procedure briefings using checklists, such as the RSI setup sheet, ensure task allocation and communication, reducing errors in high-stakes environments.^[29]

Preoxygenation and Pretreatment

Preoxygenation is a critical initial step in rapid sequence induction (RSI), involving the administration of 100% oxygen through a tight-fitting face mask for 3-5 minutes to denitrogenate the lungs and create an oxygen reservoir in the functional residual capacity, thereby extending the safe apnea period before desaturation occurs.^[1] This process aims to achieve an oxygen saturation (SpO2) of 90-100%, with end-tidal oxygen concentrations ideally exceeding 90%, which delays the onset of hypoxemia during the apneic phase following induction.^[31] Inadequate preoxygenation can lead to rapid desaturation, particularly in patients with reduced oxygen reserves. Apneic oxygenation complements preoxygenation by providing supplemental oxygen via a nasal cannula at 15 L/min during the period of paralysis and apnea, which helps maintain oxygenation through passive diffusion and can significantly extend the safe apnea time in patients with normal physiology.^[32] This technique reduces the incidence of desaturation below 90% during RSI in emergency settings, though its benefits are less pronounced in critically ill patients with conditions like obesity or lung injury.^[1] Pretreatment drugs, such as lidocaine (1.5 mg/kg intravenously) or fentanyl (2-3 mcg/kg intravenously), are administered 2-3 minutes prior to induction to attenuate sympathetic responses, including hypertension and tachycardia, thereby blunting the physiologic stress of laryngoscopy and reducing intracranial pressure elevations in susceptible patients.^[33] These agents are timed to achieve peak effect before the primary induction sequence, minimizing hemodynamic perturbations without significantly delaying the procedure. In critically ill adults, the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) 2023 guidelines emphasize vigilant monitoring for desaturation risks during RSI, recommending strategies like high-flow nasal oxygen or noninvasive positive pressure ventilation for patients with severe hypoxemia (PaO2/FiO2 <150 mmHg) to help prevent desaturation.^[34] Continuous pulse oximetry and clinical assessment are essential to identify and mitigate rapid oxygen reserve depletion in this population.

Induction and Paralysis

The induction and paralysis phase of rapid sequence induction (RSI) involves the swift intravenous delivery of an induction agent to render the patient unconscious, immediately followed by a neuromuscular blocking agent to achieve skeletal muscle paralysis, with no intervening bag-mask ventilation to minimize aspiration risk. This sequence ensures optimal intubating conditions by rapidly suppressing airway reflexes and facilitating laryngoscopy. Common induction agents include etomidate at 0.3 mg/kg, while paralytics such as succinylcholine at 1-1.5 mg/kg are administered without pause after confirming loss of consciousness.^[35]^[5] Following administration of the induction agent, the provider awaits clinical signs of unconsciousness, such as the absence of eyelash reflex or response to verbal stimuli, typically within 30-60 seconds depending on the agent used. The paralytic is then given, and paralysis onset is confirmed by observation of fasciculations (with depolarizing agents like succinylcholine) or jaw relaxation, after which laryngoscopy proceeds once flaccid paralysis is evident, generally 45-60 seconds post-paralytic. This timing optimizes conditions while avoiding premature attempts that could provoke complications.^[35]^[1] Continuous hemodynamic monitoring is critical during this phase, utilizing noninvasive blood pressure, electrocardiography, and pulse oximetry to identify instability such as hypotension or desaturation, which can arise from induction agents' vasodilatory effects or the patient's underlying condition. Prompt intervention, including vasopressors or fluids, may be required to stabilize the patient before intubation.^[35]^[36] In special populations like the elderly, dosing adjustments are essential due to heightened pharmacodynamic sensitivity and reduced physiologic reserve; for instance, induction agents like etomidate or propofol are often reduced by 25-50% to mitigate risks of prolonged hypotension or respiratory depression. Similarly, non-depolarizing paralytics such as rocuronium may require lower doses (e.g., 0.6-1.0 mg/kg) to account for extended duration of action in older adults.^[37]^[38]^[39]

Intubation Technique

The intubation technique in rapid sequence induction (RSI) primarily involves laryngoscopy to visualize the glottis and facilitate endotracheal tube placement, performed immediately after the onset of paralysis to secure the airway.^[4] Direct laryngoscopy is the traditional method, utilizing a curved Macintosh blade (sizes 3 or 4 for adults, inserted along the right side of the mouth) placed in the vallecula to lift the epiglottis indirectly, or a straight Miller blade lifted directly on the epiglottis, with the operator applying upward pressure at a 45-degree angle to expose the vocal cords.^[40] Video laryngoscopy serves as an adjunct or alternative, particularly in anticipated difficult airways, by providing an enhanced glottic view through a camera-equipped blade, improving success rates when direct visualization fails.^[4] The Cormack-Lehane grading system assesses the laryngeal view during laryngoscopy, with grade 1 indicating full visualization of the cords and higher grades signaling increasing difficulty.^[40] During laryngoscopy, the Sellick maneuver—also known as cricoid pressure—is often applied by a separate trained assistant to compress the esophagus against the cervical vertebrae, reducing the risk of aspiration; initial force is 10 N before unconsciousness, increasing to 30-40 N post-induction.^[41] Introduced by Sellick in 1961, this technique aims to occlude the esophagus but remains controversial due to inconsistent evidence of efficacy in preventing aspiration and potential complications such as laryngeal distortion that may hinder intubation or ventilation.^[41] It is maintained from loss of consciousness until cuff inflation and tube position confirmation.^[41] Once the vocal cords are visualized, the endotracheal tube (typically 7.0-8.0 mm internal diameter for adults) is advanced through the cords using the right hand, with a stylet for guidance if needed; the tube is inserted to a depth of approximately 21 cm at the lips for women and 23 cm for men, followed by cuff inflation with 5-10 mL of air.^[40] Placement is confirmed using multiple methods: end-tidal CO2 (ETCO2) waveform capnography as the gold standard to detect exhaled CO2, visual assessment of symmetric chest rise, and auscultation for bilateral breath sounds, with chest radiography for final verification if required.^[40]^[4] In cases of failed intubation, protocols recommend limiting attempts to a maximum of three (plus one by a more experienced operator if available) to minimize risks of hypoxia and trauma, after which rescue oxygenation via a supraglottic airway device (e.g., laryngeal mask) is prioritized, escalating to a surgical front-of-neck access if ventilation fails.^[42] Tools like a bougie may assist during initial attempts by railroading the tube over it for indirect cord identification.^[40]

Post-Intubation Management

Following successful endotracheal intubation during rapid sequence induction (RSI), immediate post-intubation management focuses on stabilizing the patient through sedation, analgesia, mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic support, and vigilant monitoring to prevent complications such as awareness, hypoxia, or instability.^[43] Sedation and analgesia are initiated promptly to blunt awareness under paralysis and maintain comfort, typically with a propofol infusion at 5-50 mcg/kg/min or fentanyl boluses of 25-100 mcg every 15 minutes as needed, titrated to achieve a Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS) score of -4.^[43] In patients with suspected traumatic brain injury, dexmedetomidine is increasingly recommended for its neuroprotective effects, including reduced neuronal mortality and hemodynamic stability, as supported by a 2025 systematic review emphasizing its role in preserving brain function post-injury.^[44] Mechanical ventilation is commenced with lung-protective settings to minimize barotrauma, using an initial tidal volume of 6-8 mL/kg predicted body weight and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 5-10 cmH2O, adjusted based on end-tidal CO2 and oxygenation goals.^[45]^[46] Hemodynamic support addresses common post-intubation hypotension by administering intravenous fluids or vasopressors such as phenylephrine (50-200 mcg every 1-2 minutes as needed) if mean arterial pressure falls below 80 mmHg, particularly in critically ill patients where preemptive optimization is key.^[43]^[47] Ongoing monitoring ensures tube security and physiological stability, including taping or tying the endotracheal tube in place, obtaining serial arterial blood gases (ABGs) to confirm adequate gas exchange, and performing a chest X-ray to verify placement with the tube tip 2-4 cm above the carina.^[48]^[49]^[40]

Complications and Risks

Immediate Complications

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) carries several immediate risks that can arise during or shortly after the procedure, primarily due to the urgency of airway management in patients with compromised physiology. These complications, while mitigated by standardized techniques, underscore the need for vigilant monitoring and preparedness for rescue interventions. Pulmonary aspiration remains a primary concern despite RSI's design to minimize it through rapid airway securing and cricoid pressure. In emergency department settings, the incidence of aspiration during RSI varies widely, reported from 0% to as high as 22% across studies, though contemporary data suggest rates closer to 1-5% in non-elective cases with full precautions. This risk is heightened in patients with delayed gastric emptying or trauma, potentially leading to chemical pneumonitis or acute respiratory distress if gastric contents enter the lungs. Hypotension frequently occurs post-induction, particularly in critically ill adults, due to the vasodilatory and myocardial depressant effects of anesthetic agents compounded by positive pressure ventilation. Incidences range from 20% to 52% in intensive care unit patients undergoing RSI, with up to 25% experiencing transient hemodynamic instability in emergency settings; this can exacerbate organ hypoperfusion and is associated with increased mortality. Pretreatment with fluids or vasopressors may be considered to attenuate this, as briefly referenced in procedural preparation. Failed intubation, defined as inability to place the endotracheal tube after initial attempts, occurs in approximately 1-3% of emergency RSI cases and can precipitate severe hypoxia, esophageal intubation, or airway trauma. Rates are higher in predicted difficult airways, reaching 1 in 50-100 procedures in critical care scenarios, necessitating immediate transition to alternative devices like supraglottic airways or surgical access to prevent desaturation below 90%. Right mainstem bronchus intubation, where the endotracheal tube advances too far into the right bronchus, is a common malposition in emergency intubations, with incidences of 4-7% reported in departmental series. This leads to unilateral ventilation, potential barotrauma, and rapid hypoxemia from unventilated left lung collapse, often requiring prompt withdrawal and confirmation via capnography or auscultation.

Delayed Complications

Delayed complications of rapid sequence induction (RSI) typically emerge hours to days following the procedure and are often linked to the subsequent need for mechanical ventilation and pharmacologic interventions. These include infections, persistent neuromuscular effects, ventilation-related injuries, and psychological sequelae, which can prolong hospital stays and affect recovery. While immediate risks during RSI are well-documented, delayed issues arise primarily from intubation-related interventions and patient vulnerability in critical care settings.^[50] Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) represents a significant delayed risk after RSI, stemming from potential aspiration of gastric contents during intubation or colonization of the endotracheal tube in mechanically ventilated patients. In emergency department settings, aspiration pneumonia develops in approximately 13.4% of patients post-RSI, with witnessed aspiration occurring in 9.7% of cases and contributing to delayed pulmonary infections. Risk factors include male gender (adjusted odds ratio 7.29) and diabetes mellitus (adjusted odds ratio 3.76), as these patients often present with full stomachs, increasing regurgitation likelihood. Diagnosis may be delayed beyond 48 hours, sometimes misclassified as community-acquired pneumonia, with tracheal aspirate pepsin levels aiding detection in only 44.4% of confirmed cases. Overall, VAP incidence in mechanically ventilated patients ranges from 9% to 27%, with the highest risk in the first 10 days post-intubation.^[51]^[51]^[52] Prolonged neuromuscular weakness can occur after RSI when non-depolarizing agents like rocuronium or vecuronium are used without adequate reversal or monitoring, leading to extended skeletal muscle paresis in critically ill patients. This contributes to intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICU-AW), a syndrome involving generalized muscle dysfunction first noted in the 1970s among ventilated patients receiving neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBAs) alongside corticosteroids. Although short-term NMBA use (e.g., 48 hours) shows no increased ICU-AW risk in trials, evidence linking NMBAs directly to ICU-AW remains weak, with only 31% of observational studies supporting a causal role.^[53]^[53] Barotrauma, involving alveolar rupture and extra-alveolar air leakage, is a delayed complication of mechanical ventilation initiated post-RSI, particularly in patients with underlying lung pathology. It manifests as pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, or subcutaneous emphysema, with an overall incidence of about 3% in mechanically ventilated adults, though rates reach 5-10% in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) cases. High tidal volumes and plateau pressures exceeding 30 cm H₂O during ventilation exacerbate risk by causing overdistention, especially in heterogeneous lungs post-intubation. In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, incidence is around 2.9%, while chronic interstitial lung disease elevates it to 10%. Protective ventilation strategies have reduced historical rates from 40-60% in ARDS.^[54]^[54]^[54] Awareness with paralysis (AWP), where patients recall sensory perceptions during neuromuscular blockade, is a distressing delayed psychological complication following RSI, often uncovered days later during recovery. In emergency department cohorts, AWP occurs in 3.4% of mechanically ventilated patients post-RSI, rising to 3.9% among survivors, and is strongly associated with rocuronium use (92.3% of cases; adjusted odds ratio 7.22). Affected individuals report intense fear, pain, and feelings of impending death, leading to higher perceived threat scores (15.6 vs. 7.7) and elevated post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) risk. Long-term sequelae include anxiety, depression, and PTSD symptoms, underscoring AWP as a preventable "never event" with profound mental health impacts.^[55]^[55]^[55]

Special Populations

Pediatric Patients

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) in pediatric patients requires modifications to account for children's distinct anatomical, physiological, and pharmacokinetic differences compared to adults, such as higher oxygen consumption rates, smaller airway structures, and greater susceptibility to hemodynamic instability. These adaptations aim to minimize risks like rapid desaturation and bradycardia while ensuring effective airway securing in emergencies like trauma or respiratory failure. Guidelines emphasize weight-based dosing, precise positioning, and vigilant monitoring to optimize outcomes.^[56] Dosing adjustments for induction agents and paralytics in pediatric RSI are scaled by body weight to achieve rapid onset without excessive cardiovascular depression. Etomidate, a commonly used induction agent, is dosed at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg intravenously, providing hemodynamic stability particularly beneficial in hypotensive children. Succinylcholine, the preferred paralytic for its fast onset (45-60 seconds), is administered at 2 mg/kg intravenously in most pediatric cases, though doses of 1-1.5 mg/kg may suffice in older children; however, it should be avoided in patients at risk for hyperkalemia, such as those with burns beyond 24 hours, neuromuscular disorders, or renal failure, due to potential potassium release leading to cardiac arrhythmias. Rocuronium serves as an alternative paralytic at 1-1.2 mg/kg when succinylcholine is contraindicated, offering a longer duration but reversible with sugammadex if needed.^[57]^[58]^[59] Pediatric airway anatomy poses unique challenges during RSI, including a relatively larger occiput in infants and young children that causes flexion of the neck and misalignment of the oral, pharyngeal, and tracheal axes. To correct this, a towel roll or padding is placed under the shoulders to achieve the "sniffing position," aligning the airway for better laryngoscopic visualization. Endotracheal tube selection includes both cuffed and uncuffed options; uncuffed tubes are sized as (age in years/4 + 4) for children 2-8 years (typically 4.0-6.0 mm internal diameter), while cuffed tubes use (age/4 + 3.5); prepare a half-size smaller tube as backup to avoid traumatic insertion. Cuffed tubes are often preferred in modern practice for improved seal and fewer reintubations. Video laryngoscopy is often recommended to improve first-pass success rates given these anatomical variances.^[56]^[59]^[60]^[61] Preoxygenation in pediatric RSI is limited to 1-2 minutes of tidal volume breathing with 100% oxygen via a non-rebreather mask or bag-valve-mask, as children have higher baseline oxygen consumption (6-8 mL/kg/min in infants versus 3-4 mL/kg/min in adults), leading to faster denitrogenation but also quicker desaturation during apnea. This shorter duration suffices to achieve end-tidal oxygen fractions near 90%, but apneic oxygenation via nasal cannula (5-15 L/min) is advised concurrently to extend safe apnea time, especially in infants where desaturation can occur within 30-45 seconds.^[62]^[63] Special risks in pediatric RSI include drug-induced bradycardia, particularly from succinylcholine or hypoxia during laryngoscopy, which is more prevalent in infants under 1 year due to immature autonomic responses and vagal stimulation. Atropine may be considered as pretreatment (0.02 mg/kg IV) in infants during emergency intubation to prevent bradycardia, particularly with succinylcholine, per American Heart Association guidelines, though routine use lacks strong evidence. Monitoring with capnography and pulse oximetry is essential to detect and address these risks promptly.^[64]^[65]^[56]

Obstetric Patients

Rapid sequence induction (RSI) in obstetric patients must account for pregnancy-related physiological changes, including aortocaval compression by the gravid uterus and heightened risk of pulmonary aspiration due to delayed gastric emptying and reduced lower esophageal sphincter tone.^[66]^[67] To mitigate aortocaval compression, which can impair venous return and cardiac output, patients are positioned in a left lateral tilt of 15 to 30 degrees during induction and intubation; this maneuver optimizes functional residual capacity, reduces gastroesophageal reflux, and maintains hemodynamic stability.^[68]^[66] The emphasis on rapid sequence techniques is particularly critical in obstetric RSI to minimize the interval between induction and airway securing, given the elevated aspiration risk from progesterone-mediated gastrointestinal motility delays.^[67] Aspiration prophylaxis, such as H2-receptor antagonists and sodium citrate, is administered pre-induction, and cricoid pressure is applied to further reduce regurgitation potential.^[66] For induction agents, thiopental remains a traditional choice when available due to its rapid onset and placental transfer profile, though ketamine (1.5 mg/kg) is preferred in hemodynamically unstable patients for its sympathomimetic effects that support blood pressure without significant fetal depression.^[69] Rocuronium (1.0–1.2 mg/kg) serves as an alternative to succinylcholine for paralysis, enabling faster reversal if needed.^[66] Failed intubation occurs at a higher incidence in obstetric RSI, approximately 1 in 300 cases, often linked to airway edema, reduced oxygen reserves, and procedural challenges under urgency.^[70] Preparation for this includes immediate availability of backup devices like videolaryngoscopes and early readiness for surgical airway intervention, such as cricothyroidotomy, to avert maternal hypoxia and fetal compromise.^[66] In postpartum patients undergoing RSI, such as for emergency hysterectomy due to hemorrhage, rapid reversal of neuromuscular blockade is prioritized to facilitate uterine contraction and mitigate risks of atony, the leading cause of postpartum bleeding; sugammadex enables prompt antagonism of rocuronium, allowing quicker recovery compared to neostigmine for succinylcholine.^[66] Extubation is performed in a head-up or left lateral position to further minimize aspiration during emergence.^[66]

Critically Ill Adults

In critically ill adults, particularly those with multi-organ dysfunction in the intensive care unit (ICU), rapid sequence induction (RSI) requires tailored modifications to mitigate risks of hemodynamic instability and procedural failure. These patients often present with sepsis, shock, or respiratory failure, where standard RSI protocols may exacerbate hypotension or desaturation. A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis reported first-attempt intubation failure rates of 20-30% in critically ill patients, significantly higher than in elective settings, underscoring the need for optimized pre-intubation preparation and agent selection.^[71] Hemodynamic optimization is paramount prior to RSI in these patients to counteract the vasodilatory effects of induction agents and positive pressure ventilation. Strategies include fluid preloading with 500-1000 mL of crystalloid to expand intravascular volume, alongside prophylactic vasopressor administration such as phenylephrine boluses in hypotensive individuals. Etomidate remains the preferred induction agent over propofol due to its minimal impact on cardiovascular stability, with studies showing etomidate reduces post-intubation hypotension risk by preserving sympathetic tone in hemodynamically unstable patients. The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) 2023 RSI guidelines conditionally recommend etomidate or ketamine for induction in such cases, noting no significant mortality difference but emphasizing etomidate's reliability in shock.^[72]^[73]^[12] Dosing adjustments are essential owing to altered pharmacokinetics from sepsis-induced inflammation or hepatic impairment, which prolong drug half-lives and increase toxicity risk. Induction agents like propofol or midazolam should be reduced to 50-75% of standard doses (e.g., propofol 1-1.5 mg/kg instead of 2 mg/kg) in patients with sepsis or liver failure to avoid excessive sedation and respiratory depression. The SCCM guidelines advocate individualized dosing based on organ function, with ketamine favored at lower doses (1-2 mg/kg) for its bronchodilatory effects and reduced hypotension incidence in septic shock.^[74]^[57]^[12] Post-intubation management in critically ill adults prioritizes analgesia-first approaches to prevent agitation and ventilator dyssynchrony, with ketamine emphasized for its sympathomimetic properties in agitated patients. The SCCM 2023 RSI guidelines, aligned with the 2018 Pain, Agitation/Sedation, Delirium, Immobility, and Sleep Disruption (PADIS) recommendations, suggest ketamine-dexmedetomidine combinations for post-intubation sedation, using low-dose ketamine (0.5 mg/kg bolus followed by 0.2-0.5 mg/kg/h infusion) as an opioid adjunct and dexmedetomidine (0.2-0.7 μg/kg/h) for light sedation without respiratory depression. This combo reduces delirium risk and supports hemodynamic stability in multi-organ failure.^[12]^[75]

Historical Development

Origins

The origins of rapid sequence induction (RSI) in anesthesia stem from early 20th-century concerns over pulmonary aspiration, a potentially fatal complication during airway management. In 1946, obstetrician Curtis L. Mendelson first described what became known as Mendelson's syndrome, a form of chemical pneumonitis resulting from the aspiration of acidic gastric contents into the lungs, based on his analysis of 66 cases among pregnant women under general anesthesia.^[76] This work underscored the heightened aspiration risk in obstetrics due to delayed gastric emptying, reduced lower esophageal sphincter tone, and the supine position, prompting innovations to secure the airway swiftly and securely.^[77] A key advancement influencing RSI came in 1961, when anesthesiologist Brian A. Sellick published his seminal paper on cricoid pressure—a manual compression of the cricoid cartilage to occlude the esophagus and prevent passive regurgitation of gastric contents during induction.^[78] Sellick's technique, demonstrated in cadaver studies and a small clinical series, was designed specifically to address regurgitation risks in patients with full stomachs, laying the groundwork for integrating protective maneuvers into intubation protocols.^[79] RSI as a cohesive method was formalized in 1970 by anesthesiologists William J. Stept and Peter Safar, who described it as a "rapid induction-intubation" sequence to minimize aspiration during anesthesia for patients at risk, such as those undergoing emergency surgery.^[80] Initially applied in elective and semi-elective cases with potential for gastric content reflux, the technique gained traction in obstetrics to avert Mendelson's syndrome, where rapid airway control was critical for peripartum patients.^[6] Prior to the 1980s, RSI predominantly involved intravenous thiopental for rapid hypnosis and suxamethonium (succinylcholine) for quick-onset paralysis, combined with Sellick's cricoid pressure to facilitate immediate endotracheal intubation without bag-mask ventilation.^[30]

Evolution and Modern Updates

During the 1990s, rapid sequence induction (RSI) transitioned from its primary use in operating rooms to widespread adoption in emergency departments (EDs) and prehospital environments, particularly for managing trauma patients requiring urgent airway control.^[81] This shift was driven by the need for rapid, reliable intubation in unstable settings, with early ED studies demonstrating high success rates and low complication profiles in diverse patient populations.^[82] Concurrently, rocuronium emerged as a key alternative to succinylcholine, introduced in 1994, offering comparable onset times for paralysis while avoiding the hyperkalemia and malignant hyperthermia risks associated with succinylcholine, thus broadening RSI applicability in emergency trauma care.^[83]^[84] In the 2000s, advancements in visualization technology further refined RSI techniques in emergency settings. Video laryngoscopy, exemplified by the GlideScope introduced around 2003, became integrated into RSI protocols, providing superior glottic views and significantly reducing first-attempt intubation failures compared to direct laryngoscopy, especially in trauma and difficult airways.^[85] This adoption improved overall success rates in EDs, with studies reporting up to 20-30% higher first-pass intubation in high-risk cases.^[86] Additionally, ketamine experienced a resurgence during this period for hemodynamically unstable patients, favored for its sympathomimetic effects that maintain blood pressure and cardiac output during induction, supplanting etomidate in scenarios where adrenal suppression was a concern.^[87] The 2020s have seen RSI evolve with a stronger emphasis on supportive measures informed by critical care evidence. The Society of Critical Care Medicine's 2023 clinical practice guidelines for RSI in critically ill adults suggest preoxygenation with high-flow nasal oxygen when laryngoscopy is expected to be challenging, alongside evidence from observational studies indicating faster provision of post-intubation analgosedation when succinylcholine is used compared to rocuronium, to address risks of inadequate sedation.^[88] These updates prioritize hemodynamic stability and oxygenation strategies, reflecting conditional recommendations based on low-quality evidence from observational studies showing reduced hypoxemia incidence.^[88] Evidence-based refinements have also led to decreased reliance on cricoid pressure during RSI, as multiple trials demonstrated its inefficacy in preventing aspiration without improving outcomes. Key studies, including the 2019 IRIS randomized controlled trial, found no reduction in regurgitation or aspiration rates with cricoid pressure application, while highlighting risks such as airway obstruction in up to 56% of cases at standard forces.^[89] Earlier investigations confirmed worsened laryngoscopic views and vocal cord closure in 43-50% of applications, prompting major guidelines from the Scandinavian Society (2010), German Society (2015), and European Resuscitation Council (2015) to abandon routine use.^[90] This evidence-driven change has streamlined RSI protocols, focusing resources on more effective aspiration prevention strategies like preoxygenation.^[90] As of 2025, the Difficult Airway Society guidelines continue to recommend cricoid pressure in high-risk aspiration patients, with force adjustments (10 N pre-induction, 30 N post), while noting evidence gaps and training needs.^[91]

Controversies and Guidelines

Key Controversies

One of the primary controversies surrounding rapid sequence induction (RSI) centers on the application of cricoid pressure, also known as the Sellick maneuver, which aims to occlude the esophagus against the cricoid cartilage to prevent passive regurgitation and aspiration of gastric contents. While traditionally a cornerstone of RSI, evidence regarding its efficacy remains mixed, with multiple studies and systematic reviews indicating that it does not reliably reduce the incidence of aspiration during emergency intubation.^[6] Furthermore, cricoid pressure has been associated with potential harms, including distortion of airway anatomy that can worsen the laryngoscopic view, impede first-pass intubation success, and even cause complications such as vocal cord closure or esophageal perforation in rare cases.^[92]^[93] In response to this conflicting data, the 2025 Difficult Airway Society (DAS) guidelines advocate for selective rather than routine use of cricoid pressure, recommending it only in scenarios where aspiration risk is deemed high and its application can be performed correctly by trained personnel, emphasizing individualized assessment to balance benefits against risks.^[91] The selection of neuromuscular blocking agents in RSI—specifically succinylcholine versus rocuronium—continues to spark debate due to trade-offs in onset, efficacy, safety, and reversibility. Succinylcholine offers rapid onset and superior intubating conditions in most patients, achieving excellent laryngeal exposure more frequently than rocuronium at standard doses, but it poses significant risks of hyperkalemia, particularly in patients with burns, neuromuscular disorders, or prolonged immobilization, potentially leading to life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias.^[94] In contrast, rocuronium provides a non-depolarizing alternative with comparable onset when dosed at 1.2 mg/kg, avoiding hyperkalemia entirely, though its longer duration of action (typically 30-60 minutes without reversal) has historically raised concerns about prolonged apnea in hemodynamically unstable or critically ill patients.^[94] The advent of sugammadex, a selective reversal agent, has largely addressed these duration concerns by enabling rapid reversal of rocuronium-induced blockade within 2-3 minutes, often faster than succinylcholine's spontaneous recovery time of 5-10 minutes, thereby shifting preferences toward rocuronium in many emergency settings where reversal capability is available.^[95]^[96] In patients with predicted difficult airways, the choice between RSI and awake intubation techniques remains a contentious issue, particularly the decision to administer paralytics early in RSI, which eliminates spontaneous ventilation and may complicate rescue maneuvers if intubation fails. Awake techniques, such as topical anesthesia with sedation and fiberoptic guidance, preserve respiratory drive and allow for ongoing assessment of airway patency, potentially reducing risks in anatomically challenging cases like trauma or severe facial edema, but they can prolong the procedure and require patient cooperation, which may not be feasible in agitated or hypoxic individuals.^[97] Proponents of modified RSI argue for its speed in emergencies to secure the airway definitively, while critics highlight the debate over delaying paralysis to permit a trial of awake approaches or delayed sequence intubation, weighing the urgency of intervention against the heightened failure risks (up to 10-20% in predicted difficult airways) associated with full paralysis.^[2] This tension underscores broader discussions on airway algorithms that prioritize pre-intubation prediction tools and backup plans to mitigate "can't intubate, can't oxygenate" scenarios. Although RSI was developed primarily to minimize aspiration risk during emergency intubation by combining preoxygenation, rapid medication administration, and immediate laryngoscopy without bag-mask ventilation, its actual impact on aspiration incidence in emergency department (ED) settings is debated, with evidence suggesting it may not confer the protective effect once assumed. Multiple studies and reviews have found no significant reduction in aspiration rates with RSI compared to non-RSI techniques, attributing this to factors like incomplete gastric emptying, high intra-abdominal pressure in critically ill patients, or procedural delays in chaotic ED environments.^[98] In ED cohorts, aspiration occurs in approximately 13% of RSI attempts, often linked to unrecognized full stomachs or failed first-pass intubations, challenging the notion of RSI as a near-foolproof aspiration prevention strategy and prompting calls for adjuncts like gastric decompression or enhanced preoxygenation protocols.^[99]^[6]

Current Evidence and Guidelines

The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) 2023 clinical practice guidelines strongly recommend the use of rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in critically ill adult patients at risk of aspiration, emphasizing the combination of a sedative-hypnotic agent and a neuromuscular blocking agent to optimize intubation conditions and minimize regurgitation risks. These guidelines highlight ketamine and etomidate as preferred induction agents due to their hemodynamic stability, with conditional suggestions indicating no significant differences between etomidate and alternatives like ketamine in terms of mortality, hypotension incidence, or vasopressor requirements based on moderate-quality evidence. A 2025 systematic review of RSI protocols in emergency medicine settings found that protocolized approaches, including checklists, standardized operating procedures, and operator training, significantly enhance first-pass success rates in the emergency department, with mean improvements ranging from 10.6% to 23.0% across included studies—translating to an overall ED-specific gain of approximately 12% when compared to non-protocolized intubations.^[100] The Difficult Airway Society (DAS) 2025 guidelines for unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation advocate limiting intubation attempts to a maximum of three plus one final attempt by a more experienced colleague (3+1), after which failed intubation should be declared to prioritize oxygenation strategies.^[91] These guidelines place strong emphasis on video laryngoscopy as a first-line or rescue aid during RSI to improve glottic visualization and success rates, particularly in emergency contexts.^[91] Regarding post-intubation management, the SCCM 2025 guidelines on pain, agitation, sedation, delirium, and sleep disruption in critically ill adults recommend multimodal sedation protocols—combining analgesics, light sedatives, and non-pharmacologic interventions—over deep sedation to reduce delirium incidence in mechanically ventilated patients following RSI, supported by evidence from prospective cohorts showing decreased delirium days with electroencephalography-guided approaches.^[101]

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We suggest using dexmedetomidine over propofol for sedation in mechanically ventilated adult patients admitted to the ICU where light sedation and/or a ...