Janggi
Janggi, sometimes known as Korean chess, is a two-player abstract strategy board game native to Korea, played on a grid of 9 vertical by 10 horizontal lines, with pieces placed and moved along their intersections.[1] The game employs 16 pieces per player, representing a hierarchy of military figures including a general (king), guards, elephants, horses, chariots, cannons, and soldiers (pawns), each with distinct movement rules that emphasize tactical positioning and capture.[2] The primary objective is to checkmate the opponent's general by placing it under attack with no legal escape, while special rules prohibit the two generals from facing each other directly on the same file without intervening pieces, potentially leading to a draw.[1] Derived from the ancient Indian game of chaturanga and closely related to Chinese xiangqi, Janggi evolved in Korea with unique adaptations such as the cannon's leaping capture mechanic and the palace's diagonal movements within a 3x3 fortress area for the general and guards.[3] Unlike xiangqi, the Janggi board lacks a central river, allowing soldiers to move one step orthogonally forward or sideways from the start without restrictions, and elephants to operate across the entire board. The earliest documented reference to Janggi in Korean literature appears in the 17th century, attributed to scholar Jang Yu (1587–1638), though historical evidence suggests it was introduced earlier, possibly during the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392) via cultural exchanges with China.[4] The game supports draws by repetition or perpetual attack in some rulesets to prevent endless play.[5] Today, Janggi remains a beloved cultural pastime in Korea, with professional leagues, national championships organized by the Korean Janggi Association, and digital adaptations promoting its play worldwide.[5] Its emphasis on foresight, piece coordination, and psychological warfare mirrors international chess but with elements of balance distinctive to its East Asian origins, making it a significant part of Korea's intangible cultural traditions.[6]History and Origins
Chinese Roots and Introduction to Korea
Janggi, the traditional Korean board game, originates from the ancient Chinese game of xiangqi, which itself developed as a sophisticated strategy game during China's Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). The earliest literary references to xiangqi-like games appear in Tang-era poems, such as those by Bo Juyi in 829 CE, describing board games involving military pieces and strategic maneuvers on a grid. Scholars note structural similarities between xiangqi and the Indian game chaturanga—such as the representation of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots—which suggest a possible evolution through cultural transmission along the Silk Road, though direct evidence remains debated and some Chinese historians argue for indigenous origins rooted in earlier Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) battlefield simulations. By the Northern Song period (960–1127 CE), xiangqi had stabilized into a form closer to its modern version, with 32 pieces on a 9x10 board divided by a river, as documented in texts like Yin Shu's Xiangqi (ca. 1001–1047 CE) and evidenced by excavated copper pieces from Sichuan dated 1102–1110 CE.[7][8] Xiangqi's transmission to Korea occurred amid extensive cultural exchanges between the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392 CE) and China, facilitated by trade, diplomacy, and scholarly interactions during a period of close Sino-Korean ties. The oldest archaeological evidence of janggi pieces—pebbles inscribed with Chinese characters representing game pieces—comes from the Mado Shipwreck No. 3 off Korea's west coast, dated to 1265–1268 CE at the end of the Goryeo era, indicating the game's presence among elites involved in maritime activities. These artifacts, now conserved by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, confirm janggi's adoption as a pastime for nobility and officials, reflecting its role in simulating military strategy amid Goryeo's interactions with the Yuan Dynasty. Royal records from the Goryeo period allude to such board games in courtly contexts, though specific mentions of janggi are sparse until later dynasties.[9][4] By the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897 CE), janggi had become a documented scholarly pursuit among the yangban nobility. Early Korean texts, including writings by scholar Jang Yu (1587–1638 CE), describe gameplay, underscoring its established status by the late 16th century.[4] These records highlight janggi's integration into elite education and social gatherings, portraying it as a tool for cultivating wisdom rather than mere entertainment. Upon adoption, Koreans adapted xiangqi to fit local conventions, renaming it "janggi" (literally "generals' board," derived from the Chinese term jiangqi or xiangqi) to emphasize its martial theme while aligning with Korean phonetics and cultural nomenclature. Minor rule tweaks emerged to suit preferences, such as eliminating the central river divider for a uniform board, modifying the elephant's movement to one orthogonal step followed by two diagonal steps (preventing it from crossing the former river area), and allowing the cannon to capture only by jumping over an intervening piece. These changes, evident in Joseon-era illustrations and texts, preserved xiangqi's core mechanics while enhancing fluidity for Korean players, without altering the fundamental objective of checkmating the opponent's general.[4]Evolution and Standardization in Korea
During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), Janggi evolved as a strategic board game enjoyed by scholars, officials, and the general populace, reflecting its integration into Korean intellectual and leisure culture. Historical records from the early Joseon period document its popularity, including proposals by officials like Jeong Geuk-in to impose punishments such as 70 lashes for excessive play of Janggi alongside Baduk, underscoring the game's prevalence and the era's Confucian emphasis on moderation in pastimes.[10] Surviving artifacts, including wooden boards and pieces from the period, further attest to its widespread use and material development.[11] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Janggi persisted amid political upheaval, though its practice faced constraints during the Japanese occupation (1910–1945), a time when traditional Korean cultural expressions were systematically suppressed to enforce assimilation. Following Korea's liberation in 1945, the game experienced a revival as part of broader efforts to reclaim national heritage, with informal play continuing in communities despite wartime disruptions. The postwar era marked significant standardization efforts, beginning with the founding of the Korea Janggi Association in 1956, dedicated to promoting the game and unifying its rules across Korea.[4] This organization developed official rulebooks in the late 1950s and 1960s, codifying elements like board setup, piece movements, and tournament protocols to eliminate regional variations. By the 1960s, the association organized the inaugural national tournaments, fostering competitive play and elevating Janggi's status. Key figures from this period contributed to the unification process, solidifying Janggi's modern form.Game Components
The Board
The Janggi board consists of 9 vertical lines intersected by 10 horizontal lines, creating 90 points where pieces are placed and moved.[12] This grid layout, oriented with the longer dimension vertically, accommodates the two opposing players' territories without a physical central river marking, unlike in xiangqi.[5] Instead, the board features a symbolic division between the 5th and 6th horizontal lines, which functions as a conceptual boundary influencing piece behaviors, such as enabling elephants to traverse the full board without restriction and allowing soldiers to move sideways from their starting positions.[12][5] Each player's palace, also known as the fortress or citadel, occupies a 3x3 grid of points at the center of the back three ranks, bounded by two diagonal lines that cross at the central intersection to form an X.[13] This marking visually and functionally restricts the general and its advisors to movement within these nine points, emphasizing defensive positioning in the game.[4] Traditional Janggi boards are crafted from wood, often zelkova or similar hardwoods, with the grid lines painted, incised, or inlaid for durability and clarity; historical artifacts from the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897) confirm this construction, as seen in surviving examples with joined wooden blocks and nailed plates.[11] These boards sometimes include foldable designs or raised legs for tabletop use and appear in period illustrations depicting gameplay scenes.[4] In modern variations, boards are frequently printed on paper, cloth, or molded plastic for portability and affordability, while digital versions replicate the layout on screens for online and app-based play.[14]The Pieces
Janggi employs a total of 32 pieces, with each player starting with 16: one General, two Guards, two Horses, two Elephants, two Chariots, two Cannons, and five Soldiers.[1] These pieces represent elements of a historical military hierarchy, drawing from ancient East Asian warfare structures.[4] The pieces are labeled using Hanja (Chinese characters) inscribed on wooden disks, typically octagonal in shape and varying in size by rank, with larger pieces denoting higher status. Red pieces (for the Han side) use regular script Hanja, while blue or green pieces (for the Cho side) employ a cursive or semi-cursive style for distinction. The symbolic names, derived from Korean pronunciations of the Hanja, include: General (장, 將; jang), representing the supreme commander; Guards (사, 士; sa), palace protectors; Horses (마, 馬; ma), cavalry units; Elephants (상, 象; sang), elite officers or war elephants; Chariots (차, 車; cha), armored vehicles; Cannons (포, 炮; po), siege artillery; and Soldiers (병/졸, 兵/卒; byeong/jol, with byeong for red and jol for blue), basic infantry. These names and symbols tie directly to military ranks in ancient Korean and Chinese armies, emphasizing a structured chain of command from leader to foot soldier.[4][1][5] Relative values of pieces are assessed in common evaluations to guide exchanges and strategy, with the General holding infinite value as its capture ends the game. Consensus point assignments, often scaled with the Soldier at 2 points, are as follows:| Piece | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| General | Infinite | Central to victory; irreplaceable. |
| Guards | 3 | Limited mobility reduces value outside palace. |
| Horses | 5 | Versatile but position-dependent. |
| Elephants | 3 | Constrained by board features, varying effectiveness. |
| Chariots | 13 | High due to unrestricted long-range movement. |
| Cannons | 7 | Powerful captures but require screens, situational. |
| Soldiers | 2 | Increases post-river crossing; promotes potential adds value. |