Kaduna State
Kaduna State is a state in northwestern Nigeria covering an area of 46,053 square kilometers.[1] With a population projected at approximately 8.3 million in recent national statistics, it features the city of Kaduna as its capital, a hub for education and military training institutions such as Ahmadu Bello University and the Nigerian Defence Academy.[2][3] Formed in 1967 from the former Northern Region and renamed in 1976, the state embodies a transition from colonial administrative centers to a modern federation unit, marked by its role as the erstwhile capital of northern Nigeria under British rule.[3] Ethnically heterogeneous, Kaduna hosts Hausa and Fulani as dominant groups alongside over 50 minority ethnicities, particularly in the southern regions, fostering a cosmopolitan yet fractious demographic landscape prone to resource-based disputes.[4] The state's economy centers on subsistence and commercial agriculture, yielding staples like maize, sorghum, soybeans, and cotton, supplemented by limited industrial activities including textiles and refining in the capital, though output remains constrained by infrastructural deficits.[5] Persistent insecurity, driven by banditry, cattle rustling, and intercommunal clashes over land and grazing rights, has significantly disrupted farming, internal migration, and economic stability, with empirical assessments linking these dynamics to reduced household food production and heightened vulnerability in rural areas.[6][7] Recent governance under Governor Uba Sani has emphasized mechanized farming and security coordination to mitigate these challenges and enhance food security.[8][9]Etymology
Name origins and meanings
The name Kaduna derives from the Hausa language, specifically a plural form of kada, meaning "crocodile," reflecting the historical abundance of crocodiles in the Kaduna River that flows through the region.[10] This etymology underscores the river's prominence in the area's pre-colonial ecology and nomenclature, with the term likely adapted during British colonial administration when the city of Kaduna was established as a key northern hub in 1917.[11] When the state was created on May 27, 1967, as North-Central State under General Yakubu Gowon's division of Nigeria's regions, it retained the capital's name upon redesignation as Kaduna State in 1976 by General Murtala Mohammed's regime.[3] The crocodile association persists in local lore and linguistic references, though no alternative derivations have gained scholarly traction beyond this Hausa root.[10]History
Pre-colonial period
The region encompassing modern Kaduna State hosted one of West Africa's earliest known complex societies, the Nok culture, which thrived from approximately 1500 BCE to 500 CE in areas including southern Kaduna. This Iron Age civilization, named after the village of Nok in Jaba Local Government Area, produced distinctive terracotta sculptures featuring elongated human figures with stylized features, often interpreted as representations of elites, warriors, or ritual objects; these artifacts, numbering over 2,000 recovered, indicate advanced artistic skills and possible spiritual or funerary uses. Evidence from sites like Taruga and Samun Dukiya reveals early iron smelting techniques—dating to around 500 BCE—agricultural practices with crops such as millet and sorghum, and settled villages with pit dwellings, marking a transition from nomadic to sedentary life in the Nigerian savanna. The culture's sudden decline around 500 CE remains unexplained, potentially due to climate shifts or disease, leaving a legacy of technological innovation that influenced later sub-Saharan metallurgy.[12][13][14] By the medieval period, northern Kaduna fell under the influence of the Hausa kingdom of Zazzau (also Zaria), established around the 11th century CE as one of the Hausa Bakwai—the seven original Hausa city-states according to oral traditions. Centered in what is now Zaria, the kingdom exploited the fertile Kaduna River valley for sorghum, cotton, and cattle rearing, while controlling caravan routes that facilitated salt, kola nut, and slave trade across the Sahel. Islam arrived via Wangarawa merchants in the 14th century, gradually transforming governance from animist practices to sultanates with qadis (Islamic judges); by the 15th century, Zazzau had expanded to encompass over 34 Hausa towns. The reign of Queen Amina (r. circa 1566–1576), daughter of King Bakwa Turunku, exemplified military prowess, with campaigns extending Zazzau's walls—described as 20 kilometers in circumference—and tribute networks southward, though accounts blend oral legend with archaeological traces of fortifications.[15][16][17] Southern Kaduna, in contrast, comprised autonomous ethnic polities of non-Hausa groups such as the Gbagyi (Gwari), Kamuku, Adara, and Bajju, who inhabited hilly terrains and relied on yam cultivation, hunting, and ironworking inherited from Nok traditions. These communities maintained decentralized chiefdoms, often fortified against raids, and engaged in limited trade but resisted full assimilation into Hausa-Islamic spheres, viewing northern expansions as predatory. Zazzau forces periodically exacted tribute or slaves from these areas, fostering cycles of resistance documented in oral histories of migrations and alliances. The early 19th-century Fulani Jihad, initiated by Usman dan Fodio in 1804, culminated in Zazzau's fall to Mallam Isa in 1805, restructuring it as an emirate within the Sokoto Caliphate with 45 subordinate districts and intensified Islamization; this shifted power dynamics, incorporating Fulani aristocrats while escalating incursions into southern territories, where groups like the Kataf (Atyap) formed defensive coalitions. The Jema'a emirate, emerging around 1805 under Fulani influence, extended nominal control over some southern chiefdoms, blending jihadist administration with local customs until British intervention.[18][15][19]Colonial era and establishment
The territory encompassing present-day Kaduna State fell under British control as part of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, established after the conquest of the Sokoto Caliphate and associated Hausa-Fulani emirates between 1900 and 1906.[20] British forces, led by figures such as Frederick Lugard, defeated key resistances, including at Burmi in 1903 and Satiru in 1906, integrating the region—historically dominated by emirates like Zaria—into colonial administration through a system of indirect rule that preserved native authorities under European oversight.[21] This approach minimized direct interference while extracting resources and maintaining order via taxation and judicial reforms aligned with Islamic law where feasible.[22] In 1912, under Lugard's direction as High Commissioner, Kaduna was founded as a military garrison and administrative outpost on the banks of the Kaduna River, selected for its central location, access to rail infrastructure, and defensibility amid ongoing pacification efforts.[23][24] The site, previously sparsely populated, was rapidly developed with European-style buildings, including barracks and government offices, to serve as the operational base for northern governance.[25] The transfer of the Northern Protectorate's capital from Zungeru to Kaduna began incrementally in 1912 and was completed by 1917, establishing it as the headquarters of the Northern Provinces and enabling more efficient oversight of the vast territory post-1914 amalgamation with Southern Nigeria.[26] This relocation, driven by Zungeru's vulnerability to floods and remoteness, centralized colonial bureaucracy, railways, and telegraphs, fostering urban growth around administrative, commercial, and missionary activities while reinforcing ethnic and religious hierarchies under indirect rule.[27] By the 1920s, Kaduna had evolved into a key nodal point for northern trade and governance, with its population swelling due to migrant labor from surrounding emirates.[28]Post-independence developments
Following Nigeria's independence on October 1, 1960, Kaduna continued as the administrative capital of the Northern Region, facilitating regional governance and economic coordination amid national political transitions, including the 1966 military coups that destabilized federal structures.[29] In response to ethnic tensions and the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970), General Yakubu Gowon decreed the creation of 12 states on May 27, 1967, reorganizing the Northern Region into the North-Central State with Kaduna as its capital, encompassing territories that later formed parts of modern Kaduna, Katsina, and other states.[30] This restructuring aimed to decentralize power and mitigate secessionist risks, though it initially strained administrative resources in Kaduna due to rapid boundary adjustments and population shifts.[31] On March 17, 1976, under General Murtala Muhammed's military regime, the North-Central State was renamed Kaduna State as part of expanding Nigeria to 19 states, enhancing local autonomy while retaining Kaduna city as the capital.[30] Further subdivision occurred in 1987 when Katsina State was carved out, defining Kaduna's current borders and reducing its land area to approximately 46,053 square kilometers.[32] These changes spurred infrastructural investments, including expansions in transportation networks like the Kaduna-Jos road and railway links, supporting trade and migration that boosted urban population growth from about 240,000 in 1963 to over 1 million by 1991. Economically, the post-independence era saw Kaduna emerge as an industrial center through import-substitution policies, with textile mills, breweries, and manufacturing plants established in the 1960s and 1970s, earning it the moniker "Manchester of Nigeria" due to cotton-based production employing tens of thousands.[33] The oil boom of the 1970s funded state-led projects, including the Kaduna Refinery (commissioned in 1980 with 100,000 barrels per day capacity) and agro-allied industries, contributing to GDP growth rates averaging 5-7% annually in the region during the 1970s.[34] Education advanced with the founding of Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria on October 4, 1962, as Northern Nigeria's flagship institution, enrolling over 30,000 students by the 1980s and driving research in agriculture and engineering.[35] However, structural adjustment programs in the late 1980s exposed vulnerabilities, as global competition and policy shifts led to factory closures, with textile output declining from peak levels by over 70% by 1990.[33] The return to civilian rule in 1979 under the Second Republic introduced elected governance, with Kaduna's first civilian governor, Balarabe Musa, focusing on rural development and workers' welfare until his 1981 impeachment amid assembly disputes.[36] Subsequent military interludes until 1999 prioritized security and basic services, laying groundwork for diversification into services and technology by the 2000s, though persistent infrastructural deficits, such as erratic power supply, hampered sustained growth.[24]Major conflicts and violence
Kaduna State has experienced recurrent ethnoreligious violence, often pitting Muslim Hausa-Fulani communities against Christian ethnic groups such as the Adara, Bajju, and Kataf in the southern part of the state, exacerbated by political triggers and resource competition.[37] These conflicts date back to the post-independence era but intensified after the return to civilian rule in 1999, with major outbreaks linked to disputes over Sharia law implementation, elections, and land use.[38] Impunity for perpetrators, including failures in prosecution, has perpetuated cycles of reprisal attacks.[39] The 2000 Kaduna riots, sparked by protests against the adoption of Sharia law in northern states, resulted in over 1,000 deaths across clashes between Muslim and Christian groups, marking one of the deadliest episodes of religious violence in Nigeria since the civil war.[40] Violence erupted on February 21, 2000, in Kaduna city and spread to surrounding areas, involving arson, machete attacks, and reprisals that displaced thousands.[41] In November 2002, riots in Kaduna following a newspaper article criticizing Islam and linked to the Miss World pageant contest led to at least 200-300 deaths, with mobs targeting churches, homes, and media outlets amid widespread looting.[39][42] Post-election violence in April 2011, triggered by protests over Goodluck Jonathan's presidential victory, killed hundreds in Kaduna, contributing to a national toll exceeding 800 deaths over three days of riots that degenerated into sectarian killings along ethnic and religious lines.[43][44] In Kaduna specifically, over 200 fatalities were reported, with arson destroying neighborhoods and security forces struggling to contain mobs armed with guns and improvised weapons.[44] Farmer-herder conflicts, primarily between predominantly Muslim Fulani pastoralists and Christian farming communities in southern Kaduna, have caused hundreds of deaths annually since the mid-2010s, driven by disputes over grazing land, water scarcity, and cattle damage to crops.[45] In 2016 alone, at least 800 people were killed in southern Kaduna amid waves of attacks and counterattacks, displacing over 20,000 residents.[46] These clashes often carry ethnoreligious dimensions, with assailants targeting villages based on perceived affiliations, leading to massacres such as the December 2016 killings in Godogodo and nearby areas that claimed dozens of lives.[47] By 2018, cumulative deaths from such violence in Kaduna and neighboring states exceeded 2,000 for that year.[45] Banditry, involving armed groups conducting raids, kidnappings, and cattle rustling, has surged in Kaduna since 2019, particularly in rural areas like Birnin Gwari and Chikun, with ties to broader northwest insecurity networks.[38] Between 2020 and 2025, incidents included the March 2022 abduction of 62 passengers from a bus in Katari, and ongoing attacks such as the October 2025 kidnapping of nine villagers in two communities, alongside killings like the murder of four residents, including an NYSC member, in southern Kaduna.[48][49] These operations have resulted in hundreds of abductions yearly, with ransom demands fueling economic disruption and government responses involving military operations that have yielded mixed results.[50] Kaduna recorded the highest number of political violence episodes and fatalities in northern Nigeria (excluding Borno) from 2020 onward, underscoring the interplay of criminality, ethnic tensions, and weak state control.[38]Geography
Physical features and boundaries
Kaduna State occupies a land area of approximately 46,053 square kilometers in north-central Nigeria, situated between latitudes 9°00' N and 11°30' N and longitudes 6°05' E and 8°50' E.[4] The state shares boundaries with Niger State to the west, Zamfara, Katsina, and Kano States to the north, Bauchi and Plateau States to the east, and Nasarawa State to the south.[4]
The terrain features an undulating plateau typical of Nigeria's northern high plains, with broad shallow valleys and scattered inselbergs.[51] Elevations generally range from 600 to 650 meters above sea level across much of the state, with an average of 634 meters.[52] [53] The predominant vegetation is Sudan savanna, consisting of short grasses interspersed with trees adapted to a semi-arid climate.[51]
Major hydrological features include the Kaduna River, a significant tributary of the Niger River that traverses the state from south to north, supporting agriculture and providing water resources.[53] The landscape also encompasses areas of the Kamuku National Park in the northwest, characterized by hilly terrain and diverse flora and fauna within the savanna ecosystem.[51]
Climate and environmental conditions
Kaduna State lies within the tropical savanna climate zone, classified as Aw under the Köppen-Geiger system, characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons.[54][55] The wet season spans approximately from late March to early November, lasting about 7.4 months, during which monthly rainfall often exceeds 0.5 inches over a 31-day period, with peak precipitation in August reaching up to 11.9 mm on days with an 82% chance of rain.[56][57] Annual precipitation averages around 998 mm, supporting agriculture but also contributing to seasonal flooding risks in low-lying areas.[54] The dry season, from November to March, features low humidity, harmattan winds carrying dust from the Sahara, and higher temperatures, with daytime highs frequently exceeding 35°C (95°F) and minimal rainfall.[55] Mean annual temperatures hover at 25.2°C (77.4°F), with diurnal variations influenced by elevation and proximity to the Kaduna River, which moderates local microclimates in southern parts of the state.[54] Vegetation predominantly consists of guinea savanna grasslands interspersed with wooded areas, including acacia and baobab trees, transitioning to drier sudan savanna in northern districts.[58] Environmental pressures include significant deforestation, with the state losing 5.32 kha of natural forest in 2024 alone—equivalent to 1.36 million tons of CO₂ emissions—reducing tree cover from 968 kha (22% of land area) recorded in 2020.[59] This loss stems from agricultural expansion, fuelwood collection, mining activities, and urban development, exacerbating soil erosion, biodiversity decline, and air quality degradation in areas like the Kaduna metropolis.[60][61] Kamuku National Park represents a key conserved area with remaining savanna woodlands and wildlife habitats, though broader ecological threats such as desertification encroachment from the north and river catchment degradation persist.[59] State initiatives, including reforestation and agroforestry programs, aim to mitigate these issues, but enforcement challenges limit effectiveness.[62]Demographics
Ethnic groups and population distribution
Kaduna State is home to over 50 distinct ethnic groups, reflecting its position as a historical crossroads of migration and settlement in northern Nigeria. The Hausa and Fulani constitute the largest ethnic clusters, predominantly occupying the northern and central urban areas, where they form the demographic core of local government areas such as Igabi, Giwa, and Zaria. These groups, often intertwined through cultural and linguistic assimilation, account for the majority in these regions due to historical expansions during the 19th-century Sokoto Caliphate.[4][63] In contrast, the southern portion of the state features a mosaic of smaller ethnic communities, including the Adara (also known as Kadara), Bajju (Kataf), Gbagyi (Gwari), Atyap, Ham, and Agworok, among others, which together represent significant portions of the population in areas like Zangon Kataf, Jema'a, and Kaura. These groups, many of indigenous Middle Belt origin, maintain distinct languages and traditions, with populations concentrated in rural hill districts and riverine zones. The 2006 National Population Census recorded the state's total population at 6,113,503, with southern Kaduna—spanning 12 local government areas and characterized by this ethnic plurality—comprising approximately 51.2% of that figure, highlighting a north-south demographic divide.[4][64] This distribution has fueled inter-ethnic dynamics, as northern Hausa-Fulani settlements expanded southward through trade and administration, while southern minorities preserved autonomy in pre-colonial chiefdoms. Urban centers like Kaduna city exhibit mixed compositions, with Hausa-Fulani majorities in Kaduna North local government area (population 357,694 in 2006) alongside growing presences of Gbagyi and migrant groups. Precise ethnic percentages remain elusive due to the absence of official census breakdowns by ethnicity, a policy reflecting Nigeria's sensitivity to such data amid resource allocation disputes.[65]Religious composition
Kaduna State features a diverse religious landscape dominated by Islam and Christianity, with the two faiths roughly evenly divided across the population. Muslims constitute the majority in the northern senatorial district, primarily among Hausa-Fulani communities, while Christians predominate in the southern senatorial district, encompassing ethnic groups such as the Berom, Bajju, and Kataf. The central senatorial district, including the state capital Kaduna city, exhibits a more balanced mix, though with historical segregation along religious lines in urban areas.[4][66] A small minority practices traditional African religions or indigenous beliefs, often integrated with either Islam or Christianity in rural areas. Nigeria's national censuses have not collected data on religious affiliation since 1963 due to political sensitivities, resulting in no official state-level statistics for Kaduna; available figures rely on surveys, estimates, and anecdotal reports, which vary and are subject to partisan claims. For instance, former Governor Nasir El-Rufai asserted in 2016 that Muslims comprised 70% of the state's population, a figure contested by Christian leaders who argue for parity or a Christian plurality based on demographic trends and displacement patterns.[67] Independent assessments, such as those from neutral observers, describe the composition as approximately 50% Muslim and 50% Christian, reflecting the state's role as a microcosm of Nigeria's broader religious divide.[68][66] Sharia law applies in predominantly Muslim northern local government areas, while secular criminal law governs the rest of the state, underscoring the geographic segmentation of religious influence. This composition has implications for social cohesion, with interfaith initiatives occasionally promoted by religious leaders, though underlying tensions persist due to differing interpretations of demographic realities.[4]Languages spoken
Kaduna State is characterized by substantial linguistic diversity, with approximately 57 languages spoken as first languages across its territory. Hausa predominates as the most widely spoken language and serves as the primary lingua franca, facilitating communication among the state's ethnic groups, particularly in northern and urban areas.[4][69] English functions as the official language, employed in government administration, formal education, and legal proceedings, reflecting Nigeria's national policy.[4] Gbagyi (also spelled Gbari), spoken by the indigenous Gbagyi people primarily in the central and southern regions, ranks as another major language with significant native speakers.[4] In southern Kaduna, where ethnic diversity is highest, indigenous languages from the Niger-Congo family prevail, including Adara (spoken by the Adara people in Kachia and Kauru areas), Atyap (associated with the Atyap in Zangon Kataf), Bajju (or Ju, used by the Bajju in Kachia), Ham (by the Ham or Jaba in Jaba Local Government Area), and Ikulu (by the Ikulu in the same region). These languages often align closely with specific ethnic identities and are concentrated in rural communities, though many face endangerment risks due to intergenerational shifts toward Hausa for broader social and economic interactions.[70] Smaller minority languages, such as those spoken by groups like the Kurama (Kuturmi), Numana, and Nandu, contribute to the state's linguistic mosaic but typically have fewer speakers and limited documentation.[71] Hausa's dominance stems from historical trade networks, Islamic influence, and colonial-era consolidation in northern Nigeria, extending into Kaduna via migration and intermarriage, while English's role reinforces post-independence administrative unity.[72]Government and Politics
State governance structure
Kaduna State's governance is structured according to the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (as amended), which establishes separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches at the state level.[73] The executive is led by the governor, who serves as the chief executive and commander-in-chief of the state's security services, with authority to appoint commissioners and other officials subject to confirmation by the state legislature. The governor is elected by popular vote for a four-year term, renewable once, as demonstrated in the March 18, 2023, gubernatorial election won by Uba Sani of the All Progressives Congress (APC) with 61.7% of the vote, followed by inauguration on May 29, 2023.[74][75] The legislative branch consists of the unicameral Kaduna State House of Assembly, housed at Sir Kashim Ibrahim House in Kaduna city, where members enact laws, approve budgets, and oversee the executive.[76] The assembly comprises representatives elected from state constituencies on a four-year cycle concurrent with gubernatorial elections; as of late 2021, it had 31 seats with a majority held by the APC (20 seats) and opposition by the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP, 10 seats), though composition may shift via by-elections, such as those in August 2025 reinforcing APC dominance in key areas.[76] The speaker, currently Yusuf Dahiru Liman, presides over sessions focused on legislation, including public policy and oversight functions.[77] The judiciary operates independently, headed by the Chief Judge of Kaduna State, who oversees the High Court of Justice located on Bida Road in Kaduna, along with magistrate courts, customary courts, Sharia Court of Appeal, and Customary Court of Appeal to address civil, criminal, Islamic personal law, and traditional disputes reflective of the state's diverse population.[78][79] The Ministry of Justice supports judicial administration, emphasizing access to justice, rule of law, and crime reduction through legal services and reforms like the Administration of Criminal Justice Law.[80] Appointments to judicial positions, including the Chief Judge, are made by the governor on the recommendation of the National Judicial Council, ensuring federal oversight.[78]Local administration and divisions
Kaduna State is administratively divided into 23 local government areas (LGAs), which function as the fundamental units for decentralized governance, service delivery, and local development under the Nigerian federal system.[81][82] Each LGA operates with an elected executive chairman, supported by a vice chairman and a legislative council comprising ward councilors, as established by the Kaduna State Local Government Administration Law.[83] These bodies handle responsibilities such as primary education, healthcare, roads, markets, and environmental sanitation, funded partly through federal allocations, state grants, and internally generated revenue. Local elections, last held in October 2024 across all 23 LGAs and 255 wards, determine leadership terms typically lasting four years.[84] The LGAs are grouped informally into three senatorial zones—Kaduna Central, Kaduna North, and Kaduna South—for electoral and representational purposes, though administrative autonomy remains at the LGA level. Southern Kaduna, often referenced in ethno-religious contexts, encompasses 12 LGAs primarily in the southern zone, including Chikun, Jaba, Jema'a, Kaduna South, Kachia, Kajuru, Kaura, Kauru, Sanga, Zangon Kataf, Birnin Gwari, and Igabi.[85] In February 2025, the 23 LGA chairmen collectively presented proposed budgets to the state assembly, highlighting fiscal coordination amid challenges like insecurity affecting local revenue.[82][86] The full list of LGAs includes:- Birnin Gwari
- Chikun
- Giwa
- Igabi
- Ikara
- Jaba
- Jema'a
- Kachia
- Kaduna North
- Kaduna South
- Kagarko
- Kajuru
- Kaura
- Kauru
- Kubau
- Kudan
- Lere
- Makarfi
- Sabon Gari
- Sanga
- Soba
- Zangon Kataf
- Zaria[87][88]
Electoral processes and parties
Electoral processes in Kaduna State align with Nigeria's federal framework, where the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) oversees gubernatorial and State House of Assembly elections held every four years concurrently with national polls.[89] The gubernatorial contest employs a first-past-the-post system, requiring the winner to secure the highest number of votes statewide and at least 25% in two-thirds of the state's 23 local government areas.[90] State assembly elections cover 23 single-member constituencies, also using plurality voting, with candidates nominated through party primaries.[91] Voter registration and accreditation occur via INEC's biometric system, though challenges like low turnout and disputes over result transmission have marked recent cycles, as seen in the 2023 elections where opposition claims of irregularities prompted legal challenges.[92] Local government elections fall under the Kaduna State Independent Electoral Commission (KADS IECOM), which conducts polls for 23 chairmen and councillors using a similar plurality model but has innovated with electronic voting machines (EVMs) since 2018 to reduce fraud, replacing traditional PVC scanning in some instances.[93] The 2021 LG polls, for example, utilized EVMs amid criticisms of technical glitches and uneven implementation, yet proceeded without widespread cancellation.[94] KADS IECOM handles voter rolls separately from INEC, leading to occasional discrepancies in eligibility. Nigeria's multi-party system applies, but Kaduna's politics feature dominance by the All Progressives Congress (APC) and Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), reflecting ethno-religious divides between the Muslim-majority north and Christian south. The APC has controlled the governorship since 2015, with Nasir el-Rufai winning re-election in 2019 (receiving 1,495,937 votes against PDP's 849,000) and Uba Sani securing victory in 2023 with over 61% of votes.[89][95] Prior to APC's rise, PDP held power from 1999 to 2015 under governors like Ahmed Makarfi and Mukhtar Ramalan Yero.[96] The State House of Assembly, with 30 seats as of recent by-elections, is APC-majority following 2023 results and subsequent defections, including four PDP lawmakers switching in 2025.[97] PDP remains the primary opposition, often alleging rigging in losses, as in 2025 by-elections where it rejected APC sweeps in assembly seats.[98] Minor parties like the African Democratic Congress participate but hold negligible influence, with coalitions occasionally forming against APC ahead of cycles like 2027.[99]| Governor | Party | Term |
|---|---|---|
| Ahmed Makarfi | PDP | 1999–2007 |
| Mohammed Namadi Sambo | PDP | 2007–2010 |
| Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa | PDP | 2010–2011 |
| Mukhtar Ramalan Yero | PDP | 2011–2015 |
| Nasir Ahmad el-Rufai | APC | 2015–2023 |
| Uba Sani | APC | 2023–present |