Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Emirate

An emirate is a political or ruled by a dynastic known as an , typically within or Islamic contexts where the ruler holds hereditary authority over governance and often military affairs. The term derives from the imārah, denoting the office, dignity, or domain of an amīr ("" or ""), a rooted in pre-Islamic tribal that evolved under Islamic caliphates to signify provincial or autonomous rulers. Historically, emirates emerged as semi-independent entities within larger empires, such as the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, where emirs administered regions like in or in , blending tribal customs with Sharia-based rule to maintain order and collect tribute. In the , emirates like those of Nejd and Trarza exemplified Bedouin-led polities that resisted or colonial oversight through alliances and raids, fostering resilience via kinship networks rather than centralized bureaucracies. Modern emirates, concentrated in the Gulf, transitioned from pearling economies to oil-driven wealth, enabling rapid state-building; the federation, formed in 1971 from seven hereditary emirates (, , , , Umm al-Quwain, Ras al-Khaimah, and ), exemplifies this shift, with emirs retaining veto powers over federal decisions while delegating economic diversification to sovereign funds. and persist as standalone emirates, where absolute rule by emirs has sustained stability amid regional volatility, prioritizing family councils and Islamic advisory bodies over electoral systems. Defining characteristics include the emir's unchecked executive authority, often tempered by (consultative) traditions rather than democratic institutions, which has enabled decisive responses to threats like Wahhabi expansions or protectorates but also entrenched dynastic privileges. This structure underscores causal dynamics of resource rents funding patronage, yielding high GDP per capita in Gulf —exceeding $70,000 in —while insulating rulers from popular pressures that destabilized neighboring republics.

Etymology and Terminology

Linguistic Origins

The term emirate derives from the Arabic noun imārah (إمارة), denoting the rank, office, dignity, or territorial jurisdiction of an amīr (أمير), a title meaning "," "," or "." The amīr itself stems from the Arabic triconsonantal ʾ-m-r (أ م ر), which conveys concepts of commanding, ordering, intending, or decreeing, as in the ʾamara (أَمَرَ) "to command." This appears in early , paralleling Hebrew ʾāmar (אָמַר) "to say" or "to command," reflecting a shared Proto-Semitic origin linking speech acts with authoritative directives. In usage, imārah initially emphasized the functional authority or command structure rather than a fixed territorial entity, evolving during the Islamic era to describe provinces or principalities governed by an amīr appointed by a caliph or . The plural form imārāt (إمارات) underscores multiple such domains, as seen in historical references to frontier regions (thughūr) under military commanders. European languages adopted emir in the late 16th century via amîr or emir from medieval interactions, with emirate entering English by the 1830s to denote the or office itself. Linguistically, the suffix -ate in English emirate mirrors the Arabic abstract nominal formation from the active participle ʾāmil or agentive amīr, adapting the term to denote both the abstract quality of and its concrete manifestation in . This adaptation preserved the root's connotation of hierarchical command, distinct from hereditary kingship (mamlakah) or caliphal (khilāfah), emphasizing delegated or tribal in Arabic political lexicon.

Evolution of the Term

The term imārah (إمارة), from which "emirate" derives, originally denoted the office, dignity, or jurisdictional authority of an amīr (أمير), signifying a , , or delegated , with roots traceable to early Islamic administrative practices under the and Umayyad s (7th-8th centuries CE), where amīrs served as military governors or provincial overseers appointed by central authority. By the Abbasid era (8th-13th centuries), as caliphal power fragmented, imārah increasingly described semi-autonomous territorial units under hereditary amīrs, functioning as principalities subordinate to but operationally independent from the , exemplified in entities like the Buyid emirate (934-1062 CE) in central Islamic lands. The English term "emirate" emerged in the early 19th century, with the Oxford English Dictionary recording its first attested use in 1830 by traveler and orientalist Thomas Thomson, reflecting European scholarly and colonial encounters with Ottoman and Persian polities where imārahs denoted provincial commands or dynastic realms. This adoption paralleled broader Orientalist cataloging of Islamic governance, distinguishing emirates as dynastic Islamic monarchies akin to principalities, smaller than sultanates or caliphates, and often marked by tribal or familial rule over defined territories. Usage proliferated in the mid-19th century amid British protectorate treaties with Gulf amīr-led sheikhdoms (e.g., Trucial States, 1820-1971), formalizing "emirate" for entities like those in present-day United Arab Emirates. In the 20th century, the term evolved to encompass both historical polities (e.g., under Manghit dynasty, 1785-1920) and modern federations, such as the established on December 2, 1971, comprising seven hereditary emirates, where it denotes sovereign subunits retaining significant under a federal structure. This shift reflects and , with "emirate" retaining connotations of Islamic legitimacy tied to amīr authority, distinct from secular or non-dynastic terms, though Western sources sometimes equate it loosely with "principality" without noting the embedded religious-political fusion. Contemporary applications extend to non-sovereign contexts, such as Nigerian emirates under (e.g., , formalized 1805-1903), highlighting adaptive persistence amid varying imperial overlays.

Historical Foundations

Pre-Islamic Roots

In pre-Islamic Arabia, society during the Jahiliyyah period (c. 5th–7th centuries CE) was predominantly organized into nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes, where leadership derived from noble lineages, martial prowess, and the ability to mediate disputes rather than fixed territorial sovereignty. Tribal chiefs, often termed shaykh (elder) or recognized through consensus in assemblies (majlis), commanded loyalty by leading raids (ghazw), organizing caravan trade, and upholding customary law ('urf) at neutral sites like the Kaaba in Mecca or annual fairs such as 'Ukaz. These structures emphasized fluid alliances and genealogical prestige over centralized rule, with power typically passing through election, seniority, or demonstrated strength within clans like Quraysh or Kinana. The Arabic term amir (commander), rooted in the verb amara (to command), was already in use for such authoritative figures prior to Islam's emergence. For instance, Muhammad ibn Abdullah, before receiving revelations around 610 CE, was addressed as "Amir of Mecca" and "Amir of the Hijaz" by contemporaries, reflecting his role in tribal arbitration and leadership among the Quraysh. This usage highlights amir as denoting practical command over people or regions, distinct from royal titles like malik (king) employed in southern Arabian kingdoms such as Himyar (c. 110 BCE–525 CE), where rulers held more formalized authority backed by irrigation-based agriculture and trade monopolies. Northern and central Arabian groups lacked the bureaucratic provinces of later emirates but provided causal precursors through their emphasis on personal allegiance ('asabiyyah, group solidarity) and expeditionary command, which enabled rapid mobilization for defense or expansion. Leaders arbitrated feuds via blood money (diya) or truces, fostering proto-governance models that prioritized survival in arid environments over expansive administration. Southern polities, including Sabaean and Himyarite states with titles like mukarrib (unifier), influenced trade networks but were eroded by Ethiopian and interventions by the 6th century , leaving tribal commandership as the dominant northern paradigm that early Islamic polities adapted.

Emergence in Early Islam

The title amīr, meaning "commander" or "one who issues orders" in , was employed by Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632 CE) to designate leaders of military expeditions (sariyyah) and delegations, establishing a for delegated within the nascent Islamic . These appointments, such as those for raids against Byzantine or frontiers, vested amīrs with tactical command and administrative duties over small groups, reflecting the practical need for hierarchical organization amid expanding influence from . This usage built on pre-Islamic tribal connotations of leadership but aligned with Islamic principles of consultation (shūrā) and obedience to divinely sanctioned , as evidenced in references to amīrs as guides or possessors of command (e.g., Quran 2:247, where an amīr is appointed over the ). Following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, the Caliphs (632–661 CE) institutionalized the amīr role amid rapid conquests that stretched from Arabia to Persia and , necessitating governors to administer distant provinces and collect tribute ( and kharāj). Caliph (r. 632–634 CE) dispatched amīrs to quell apostasy () wars and secure frontiers, while Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644 CE) formalized the title Amīr al-Muʾminīn ("Commander of the Faithful") for himself, symbolizing supreme caliphal oversight over all amīrs and integrating military, fiscal, and judicial functions in provincial rule. Governors like Amr ibn al-As, who conquered in 639–642 CE, operated as amīrs with autonomy in local affairs—such as tax reforms and garrisoning tribes—but remained accountable to the caliph via oaths of allegiance (bayʿa) and periodic audits, preventing full independence. Terms like amīl (agent) or wālī (viceroy) coexisted with amīr, but the latter emphasized command in frontier zones, fostering proto-emirate structures where amīrs enforced , mediated tribal disputes, and expanded Islamic governance. This framework laid the groundwork for as semi-autonomous entities under caliphal , evident in the Umayyad transition (661 CE onward), where hereditary amīr appointments in regions like and evolved into dynastic holdings, though early precedents prioritized merit and revocability to maintain unity. Empirical records from chronicles indicate over 20 major provincial commands by 650 CE, each led by an amīr managing armies of 4,000–12,000 fighters and revenues funding further , underscoring causal links between territorial expansion and administrative innovation. Scholarly analyses note that while sources like al-Tabari's histories (d. 923 CE) provide detailed accounts, they reflect Abbasid-era biases favoring piety over Umayyad pragmatism, warranting cross-verification with non-Arabic inscriptions and papyri confirming amīr fiscal roles.

Expansion During Caliphates

During the (632–661 CE), the institution of the emirate emerged as a key mechanism for administering newly conquered territories, with emirs appointed as military commanders and provincial governors to oversee regions such as , , and following rapid expansions against the Sassanid and Byzantine empires. These emirs, often selected from the tribe or early companions of , managed tax collection, military recruitment, and local security, enabling the caliphate's consolidation over an area spanning from the to Persia by 651 CE. The system's expansion was tied directly to conquests, as emirs like in (conquered 636–651 CE) and in (conquered 639–642 CE) established administrative precedents that scaled with territorial gains. Under the (661–750 ), emirates proliferated and expanded geographically as the empire reached its zenith, incorporating provinces across , Iberia, and Central Asia through sustained military campaigns. Emirs governed wilayat (provinces) such as (modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria, secured by 670 under ) and al-Andalus (, invaded 711 under ), where they wielded authority over fiscal policies, Arab settler garrisons, and expeditions, facilitating further advances to the by 713 . This decentralization allowed for efficient rule over diverse populations but sowed seeds of , as emirs like in amassed personal armies exceeding 40,000 troops by 715 . The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE) saw emirates evolve into more autonomous entities amid internal fragmentation, with provincial emirs gaining de facto independence in regions like and Persia as central authority waned after the ninth century. During Caliph al-Ma'mun's reign (813–833 CE), emirs such as in (appointed 821 CE) were granted hereditary rights and fiscal autonomy, enabling dynasties like the Tahirids to rule effectively while nominally pledging allegiance to . This shift, driven by the need to counter rebellions and Byzantine threats, expanded the emirate model's reach into and , where emirs collected taxes independently and fielded armies up to 100,000 strong, though it accelerated the caliphate's devolution into rival principalities by the 870s CE.

Structural Variations

Independent Sovereign Forms

Independent sovereign emirates constituted self-ruling Islamic polities under an emir's absolute authority, maintaining or control over territory, diplomacy, and internal governance without subordination to external caliphates, empires, or protectorates. These entities emerged primarily in periods of fragmentation following larger Islamic states' decline, often in regions like the , , , and the Arabian interior, where local dynasties asserted autonomy through military consolidation and tribal alliances. Sovereignty varied by context, with some enduring for centuries via defensive fortifications and trade revenues, while others succumbed to conquest amid rivalries or colonial incursions. In al-Andalus, the Emirate of Córdoba (756–929) exemplified early sovereign independence after Abd al-Rahman I, a Umayyad survivor, established rule in Iberia following the Abbasid overthrow of his dynasty in Damascus; politically autonomous despite nominal Abbasid religious suzerainty, it controlled the Guadalquivir Valley and expanded through conquests, minting its own dirhams and conducting foreign relations independently. Following the caliphate's fitna (civil war) and dissolution in 1031, over 20 taifa emirates arose as fragmented sovereign kingdoms, such as the Taifa of Seville under the Abbadids (1023–1091), which governed Andalusia's fertile plains, levied taxes on agriculture and silk trade, and fielded armies against Christian kingdoms until Almoravid intervention in 1090. These taifas operated as fully independent entities, forging alliances and waging wars autonomously, though internal divisions—exacerbated by Berber and Arab factionalism—led to their piecemeal absorption. In , the (1785–1868 phase of full sovereignty) under the Manghit dynasty unified Uzbek tribes across , exercising unchallenged rule over , , and surrounding oases through a centralized administration and slave-soldier forces, funding sovereignty via caravan tolls on the until Russian military defeats in 1868 imposed status. Similarly, in , the (1647–1887) asserted Harari sovereignty after rejecting Aussa's , establishing a walled that dominated Somali trade routes to the , minting currency, enforcing via qadis, and repelling Ethiopian incursions through fortified defenses and alliances until Menelik II's conquest on January 8, 1887. On the , interior emirates like Jabal Shammar (1835–1921) under the Al Rashid dynasty maintained sovereignty in northern , controlling as a caravan hub with 10,000–15,000 troops to counter Saudi expansion, issuing edicts and negotiating with Ottomans independently until Ibn Saud's siege on November 2, 1921. The , or (1744–1818), similarly embodied sovereign Wahhabi rule over and Hijaz, allying with confederations to enforce puritanical reforms and conquer in 1803, collapsing only after Muhammad Ali's Ottoman-backed invasion in 1818. These polities derived legitimacy from tribal pacts and ideology, sustaining via oasis agriculture and pilgrimage taxes absent overarching imperial oversight. In the modern era, states like transitioned from de facto sovereign emirates under British protection to full on September 3, 1971, retaining monarchical rule under the Al Thani.

Dependent Provincial Forms

Dependent provincial refer to administrative subdivisions within a larger , governed by an whose authority derives from appointment by a central rather than independent or hereditary rule. This form emphasizes hierarchical integration, with the emir functioning as a regional delegate responsible for local enforcement of central policies, , and coordination. Historically, such structures appeared in Islamic empires where caliphs or sultans appointed amirs to oversee wilayats (provinces), ensuring through direct oversight and remittance to the core. In the , provinces like (711–756 CE) exemplified this model, administered by governors appointed from , who held the title of emir but operated under caliphal suzerainty without autonomous foreign policy or military . This dependency ended with I's establishment of an independent emirate in 756 CE following the Abbasid overthrow of the Umayyads. Similar appointed emirates existed in Abbasid and provincial administrations, where amirs managed taxation, justice, and tribal affairs subordinate to imperial decrees. A contemporary example is found in , where the kingdom's 13 provinces (mintaqat) are structured as (imarat), each headed by an (amir al-minṭaqah) appointed by the king from the Al Saud family. Formalized by Royal Decree A/21 issued on 30 1414 AH (20 July 1993 CE), this system divides the country into these , further subdivided into 150 governorates (muhafazat) and over 1,300 sub-governorates. Emirs, typically senior princes, represent royal authority, chairing regional councils, supervising security forces, and aligning local initiatives with national priorities such as Vision 2030 economic reforms. Key emirates include the Province, encompassing 22 governorates and serving as the administrative hub; the Emirate of Makkah Province, managing holy sites and 11 governorates; and the Emirate of Eastern Province, overseeing oil-rich areas across 12 governorates. Unlike sovereign emirates, these lack independent legislative powers or international representation, with budgets allocated centrally and decisions subject to royal ratification, reinforcing monarchical control amid diverse regional demographics.

Governance Mechanisms

Authority of the Emir

In historical Islamic polities, emirs serving as provincial governors under caliphal authority wielded delegated powers over affairs, collection, , and local , functioning as the caliph's deputies while remaining subordinate to central oversight. During the Abbasid era (750–1258 CE), these emirs increasingly gained , managing provincial resources and independently, which often led to the formation of semi-autonomous dynasties as central caliphal control weakened after the . This stemmed from the practical necessities of governing vast territories, where the emir acted as the primary enforcer of order and Islamic law, though ultimate legitimacy derived from allegiance to the caliph as amir al-mu'minin (commander of the faithful). In independent or sovereign emirates, the emir's authority expanded to absolute rule, combining roles as head of state, chief executive, military leader, and judicial overseer, with decisions enforced through tribal loyalties, religious sanction, or coercive power. Such rulers maintained control by centralizing executive, legislative, and judicial functions, as seen in pre-colonial Nigerian emirates where emirs issued binding rules and supervised all governance branches under indirect British colonial influence post-1900, preserving their prestige through religious framing of obedience as a moral imperative. Limits arose primarily from adherence to Sharia, which prohibited arbitrary rule, and from intra-elite consensus, as unchecked autocracy risked rebellion or dynastic fragmentation. In modern Gulf emirates, constitutions formalize the 's paramount authority while incorporating consultative elements. The 2003 Qatar Constitution vests executive power entirely in the , who appoints ministers, directs policy, and exercises legislative vetoes, with the advisory Shura Council holding non-binding influence. Similarly, Kuwait's 1962 Constitution grants the executive authority to appoint the , dissolve the , and command the armed forces, balancing hereditary rule with parliamentary checks that can be overridden. In the ' 1971 Constitution, each emirate's ruler retains sovereignty over non-federal matters, including resources like oil revenues and local policing, while participating in the that elects the president from among them. This structure preserves emir-centric governance, where federalism delegates but does not dilute core territorial authority, reflecting causal continuities from historical precedents adapted to and resource economies.

Advisory and Administrative Bodies

In traditional emirate governance, advisory bodies emphasize the Islamic principle of (consultation), derived from Quranic injunctions such as Al-Shura (42:38), which encourages mutual deliberation among leaders and community representatives. These bodies, often termed or consultative assemblies, consist of tribal elders, religious scholars (ulema), and other influential figures convened by the emir to offer non-binding counsel on matters of policy, justice, and administration. This mechanism, with roots in early Islamic practices where the Prophet Muhammad consulted companions on key decisions, persisted in historical emirates across regions like the and , fostering legitimacy through inclusive dialogue while preserving the emir's ultimate authority. Administrative structures complement advisory roles by handling executive functions, typically organized under the emir's (personal office or chancellery), which processes petitions, oversees , and coordinates departments for finance, military affairs, and . In pre-modern , such as those under Abbasid or influence, the diwan evolved into formalized bodies with appointed viziers or secretaries managing taxation (dawawin al-maliyya) and judicial oversight, ensuring efficient rule without diluting monarchical control. These entities prioritized -compliant administration, with qadis (judges) integrated for dispute resolution, reflecting a balance between centralized emirate power and delegated expertise. In contemporary Gulf emirates, advisory bodies have been institutionalized; for instance, the ' (FNC), established in 1971, comprises 40 members—20 appointed by emirate rulers and 20 indirectly elected via electoral colleges—to review draft laws, question ministers, and approve budgets, though recommendations remain advisory and subject to federal executive approval. Similarly, Qatar's Shura Council, formalized in 2004 with 45 members (30 elected, 15 appointed), scrutinizes legislation and fiscal policies but cannot enact laws independently. Administrative bodies in these states include emirate-level executive councils, such as Abu Dhabi's, which implement policies across sectors like energy and urban development under the ruler's directive. Variations exist, with smaller or historical emirates relying more on informal tribal majlises, underscoring the adaptive nature of these institutions to local customs and scale.

Integration of Sharia and Customary Law

In Islamic emirates, serves as the foundational legal code, derived from the and , governing core aspects such as personal status, criminal punishments, and moral conduct, while —known as or tribal norms—supplements it in areas where Sharia is silent or adaptable, particularly in contractual, commercial, and intertribal disputes. This integration reflects a pragmatic balance, as is recognized in classical Islamic () as a secondary source provided it aligns with Sharia's principles and does not contradict explicit texts, allowing local practices to inform rulings on recurring societal matters like trade usages or obligations. Emirs historically exercised discretionary (siyasa shar'iyya) to harmonize the two, often through informal consultations with tribal elders, prioritizing reconciliation (sulh) over rigid adjudication to maintain social cohesion in tribal contexts. Tribal in emirates, rooted in traditions, emphasizes collective responsibility, blood money (diya) for offenses, and to avert feuds, coexisting with courts that handle formal litigation. For instance, in pre-modern Arabian such as those in Nejd or the Gulf, rulers applied 'urf for nomadic disputes involving honor or property, viewing it as an extension of Sharia's ('adl), while deferring religious offenses to qadis bound by Hanbali or Maliki schools. This dual system persisted because pure Sharia application often proved impractical in decentralized tribal polities, where customs predating —such as oath-taking or by sheikhs—were Islamized and retained for their efficacy in enforcing communal norms. In modern Gulf emirates, such as those comprising the (UAE), this integration manifests in hybrid frameworks: governs via dedicated courts under Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, mandating Quranic inheritance shares and prohibiting (), while '-influenced practices inform civil transactions and , as seen in Dubai's tribal committees that draw on customary reconciliation for commercial or familial conflicts. UAE rulers retain override powers, as in Abu Dhabi's application of ' for matters, blending it with codified civil laws inspired by Egyptian models but anchored in to accommodate expatriate economies without fully supplanting Islamic primacy. Similarly, in and —historically emirates—' operates alongside in advisory councils, facilitating adaptability; for example, customary contract interpretations prevail in pearl-diving or oil-era trade unless explicitly overridden by statute. This approach underscores causal realism in : rigid alone risks alienating tribal constituencies, whereas integrated ' sustains legitimacy by aligning with empirical social realities.

Modern Instances

United Arab Emirates Federation

The (UAE) is a federation comprising seven sovereign emirates—Abu Dhabi, Ajman, , , Ras al-Khaimah, , and Umm al-Quwain—established on December 2, 1971, following the termination of British protectorates over the . Initially formed by six emirates, with Ras al-Khaimah acceding on February 10, 1972, the union was motivated by the need for , economic coordination, and resource management amid declining British influence and rising regional threats. The UAE operates as a presidential absolute monarchy, where each emirate is governed by its hereditary ruler, and authority is vested in the Supreme Council of Rulers, composed of the seven emirs. This council holds supreme legislative, executive, and judicial powers, including the election of the president—conventionally the ruler of —and vice president, typically the , for five-year terms. The 1971 delineates competencies such as foreign affairs, defense, and , while emirates retain over local resources, , and civil laws not conflicting with statutes. The (FNC), an advisory body of 40 members apportioned by emirate population, consists of half appointed by the rulers and half indirectly elected via a selective representing roughly 12% of Emirati citizens. The FNC reviews federal and budgets but lacks power, with final approval resting with the Supreme Council or president. maintain distinct administrative structures, including sharia-based courts and police forces, reflecting their semi-autonomous status within the federation, which has enabled diverse development paths—such as Dubai's trade hub focus versus Abu Dhabi's oil dominance—while federal oversight ensures unified external policy. This federated model preserves emirate sovereignty in practice, with federal institutions strengthening over time through revenue sharing from hydrocarbons, primarily controlled by , which contributes over 90% of the UAE's oil output. The system's stability derives from consensus among rulers rather than democratic mechanisms, prioritizing ruler accountability to tribal and familial constituencies over broad electoral representation.

Subnational and Residual Examples

In , emirates serve as subnational traditional institutions primarily in the northern states, functioning alongside the federal republican system. These entities originated from the 19th-century expansion of the , where Fulani jihadists established hierarchical Muslim polities governed by emirs under a caliphal . British colonial administrators preserved this structure through from the early 1900s, allowing emirs to administer local justice, collect taxes, and maintain order in exchange for loyalty to . Following Nigeria's independence in 1960, the emirates were retained as customary authorities, with emirs appointed or confirmed by state governors and operating within constitutional limits that subordinate them to elected officials. Today, over 40 emirates exist, including major ones such as , , (Kaduna), Gwandu, and , each headed by an who holds ceremonial, advisory, and limited judicial roles in areas like family disputes and land allocation under customary and law where applicable. Emirs influence community mobilization, cultural preservation, and interfaith relations but lack sovereign powers; their authority derives from state recognition rather than independent rule. State governments periodically restructure these emirates for political balance, as seen in State's 2019 creation of four additional emirates (Rano, Gaya, Karaye, and Bichi) from the historic , which reduced the latter's territorial scope from 44 to 36 areas. In October 2025, Governor signed legislation establishing 13 new —Burra, Dambam, Darazo, Duguri, Gamawa, Giade, Jama'are, Katagum, Misau, Ningi, Shira, Toro, and Zaki—along with one chiefdom, to decentralize traditional leadership and address local demands, with headquarters in their respective towns. Similar actions occur elsewhere, such as Adamawa State's 2025 creation of five chiefdoms and two , reflecting governors' use of emirate reconfiguration to consolidate support amid ethnic and religious dynamics. These subnational structures embody residual caliphal adapted to modern , where emirs mediate between state policies and traditional norms but face criticism for politicization and dilution of historic prestige. Outside , subnational emirates are rare in modern contexts. Residual examples include titular emir positions in post-colonial settings, such as the Emir of Harar in , who retains cultural influence without territorial control following the 1887 Ethiopian conquest and subsequent integrations. In , vestiges of historical emirates like Trarza persist in tribal leadership but lack formal subnational status under the unitary republic. These cases illustrate emirates as enduring symbols of pre-modern authority, subordinated to national without independent governance.

Defunct and Absorbed Emirates

African Regions

The , established in 710 CE in the region of present-day by al-Himyari ibn Mansour Salih, represented an early independent Muslim polity in that resisted Umayyad and later Fatimid influence until its capital was razed in 1080 CE by the Almoravids, leading to its absorption into broader confederations. In western , the , founded in 1832 by Abdelkader ibn Muhieddine amid French invasion, consolidated tribal allegiances under Sufi-inspired governance and mounted sustained , controlling territories from to until Abdelkader's capitulation to French forces in 1847 following the siege of his strongholds. The , proclaimed on March 1, 1949, by al-Senussi with British military backing in eastern 's Barqa province, functioned as a semi-autonomous under Senussi religious until December 1951, when it federated with and to form the Kingdom of , with ascending as king. In the of , the emerged in the 17th century among Hassaniya Arab-Berber tribes along the in southwestern , engaging in , slave raids, and conflicts with neighboring Wolof states until French military campaigns subdued it by 1903, integrating it into the colonial protectorate alongside the parallel emirates of Brakna, Tagant, and Adrar, which similarly fell between 1903 and 1905. Further east, the , centered in the walled city of in modern eastern , originated in 1647 under the Harla and Somali-influenced Dawud dynasty after rejecting overlordship, fostering Somali-Afari alliances and commerce until its defeat by Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II's forces in January 1887, resulting in direct imperial administration and the exile of its last emir.

North African Emirates

The Idrisid Emirate, established in 789 CE by Idris I in northern , represented the first independent Muslim dynasty in the , controlling territories around Fez and Walili until its fragmentation in 974 CE following internal divisions and external pressures from Umayyads and tribes. Idris I, a descendant of ibn Abi Talib through Hasan, fled Abbasid persecution and consolidated power among local groups, fostering early Islamic governance in the region before the rise of larger empires like the Almoravids. In central Maghreb, the ruled the from 1236 to 1554 CE, functioning as an emirate under Zayyanid emirs who maintained control over northwest amid rivalries with Marinids and Hafsids, until Ottoman conquest integrated it into the . The emirs, starting with , leveraged trade routes across the and Mediterranean to sustain economic vitality, with serving as a cultural and commercial hub featuring architectural landmarks like the El Mechouar Palace. The governed —encompassing modern , eastern , and parts of —from 1229 to 1574 CE, initially as emirs under Almohad suzerainty before Abu Zakariya Yahya declared independence and adopted caliphal titles, overseeing a prosperous of Mediterranean and Andalusian immigration. Their rule emphasized maritime commerce, including exports of grain and textiles, but faced repeated invasions from Aragonese and internal strife, culminating in Ottoman seizure of under Abu al-Abbas Ahmad in 1574. The Hafsids' integration of with customs supported administrative stability, though dynastic successions often involved coups. The emerged in 1949 CE under Sayyid Idris al-Senussi, leader of the Senussi order, who proclaimed independence from Italian colonial remnants amid post-World War II negotiations with Britain, controlling eastern until its absorption into the federal on December 24, 1951. This short-lived entity, rooted in the 19th-century Senussi revivalist movement, emphasized tribal alliances and religious authority, transitioning from emirate status to a under King Idris I, before the 1969 coup dissolved monarchical structures. Its establishment followed the 1949 Anglo-Libyan treaty, reflecting British support for Senussi autonomy against French and Italian influences in the region.

Sub-Saharan African Emirates

Sub-Saharan African emirates arose primarily through Fulani-led jihads and Arab-Berber tribal consolidations in the 17th to 19th centuries, establishing Islamic polities amid pastoral and trading networks. These entities governed diverse populations via sharia-based administration but faced dissolution through European colonization and imperial conquests by the early 20th century, with territories integrated into modern nation-states like , , and . The , established in 1809 by Modibbo Adama under the Sokoto Caliphate's suzerainty, expanded across northern and parts of , relocating its capital to Yola along the around 1841. It administered sub-emirates through appointed lamibe (district heads) and relied on for control over non-Fulani groups, but collapsed amid Anglo-German incursions, with effective disestablishment by 1909. The , formed circa 1677 by Hassaniya Arab tribes in southwestern 's valley, functioned as a semi-nomadic engaging in and raids. It resisted French expansion through alliances and warfare, but succumbed to military campaigns by , evolving into a mere traditional entity within independent . Numerous emirates within the , such as (conquered 1807), (1807), and (1804), originated from states overtaken in Usman dan Fodio's , forming a network of 30 autonomous units by the late . British forces dismantled their sovereignty via the 1903 Battle of Burmi and subsequent occupation, incorporating them into the while retaining emirs in ceremonial roles.

Asian Regions

In the Arabian Peninsula, several emirates were absorbed into the emerging Kingdom of during the early 20th century unification campaigns led by Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. The , centered in Ha'il and ruled by the Al Rashid dynasty since the late 19th century, controlled northern and posed a primary rival to Saudi expansion; it fell after decisive Saudi victories, including the in 1921, leading to its full incorporation into the by 1922. Similarly, the , established in 1907 in southwestern Arabia, maintained independence amid regional conflicts but was annexed following the 1934 Saudi-Yemeni War and the Treaty of Taif, which ceded to Saudi control on May 25, 1934, resolving border disputes and integrating its territories into the kingdom. These absorptions consolidated central authority, eliminating fragmented polities that had persisted since the era's decline. Central Asian emirates, products of post-Mongol successor states, faced imperial expansion followed by Soviet dissolution. The , founded in 1785 by the Manghit dynasty after overthrowing the Ashtarkhanids, governed as an Islamic monarchy with a status imposed by Russia in 1868; it endured until 1920, when Bolshevik forces supported local revolutionaries in deposing the last , Alim Khan, transforming it into the short-lived before absorption into the Uzbek and Tajik Soviet Socialist Republics by 1924. The , also known as an emirate under its khans (a title interchangeable with in the region), originated around 1511 and became a after conquest in 1873; post-1917 revolutions led to its overthrow in 1920, replacement by the , and eventual partition into Uzbek, , and Karakalpak territories within the USSR. These entities blended Persianate administration with Turkic nomadic elements, but centralized Soviet policies dismantled their autonomy to enforce collectivization and secular governance. In , the established an emirate in from 1783, succeeding the Kalhora rulers and ruling from forts in and until British intervention; characterized by Baloch tribal confederation and resistance to Sikh incursions from , it succumbed to forces under Charles Napier, who defeated Mir Nasir Khan at the on February 17, 1843, followed by the , resulting in full annexation and incorporation into British India by 1847. This conquest, justified by British claims of amirate instability and strategic needs along the Indus, marked the extension of colonial rule into the lower Indus valley, dissolving indigenous Muslim principalities. Near Eastern regions, encompassing the and , featured fewer formally designated emirates due to prolonged centralization, with autonomous entities often termed sheikhdoms or sanjaks rather than emirates; however, transient polities like the semi-autonomous sheikhdom in southwestern (Khuzestan) under Khaz'al al-Ka'bi resisted Persian reassertion until forcibly absorbed into the Pahlavi state in 1925 following military campaigns, reflecting broader Reza Shah's efforts to suppress ethnic autonomies. Such absorptions prioritized over tribal or confessional self-rule, aligning with post-World War I state formations that marginalized pre-modern polities.

Arabian and Gulf Emirates

The , also known as the , was established in 1727 AD (1139 AH) by Imam Muhammad bin Saud in the town of , central Arabia, marking the beginning of Al Saud rule allied with the Wahhabi religious movement formalized in 1744. This state expanded rapidly, conquering in 1795 and reaching and by 1803-1806, controlling much of the including eastern regions and parts of the Hijaz. It faced opposition from the , culminating in an invasion by Egyptian forces under Ibrahim Pasha; was besieged from 1815 and fully captured in 1818, leading to the state's dismantlement and execution of its leaders. The Second Saudi State, officially the , emerged in 1824 (1240 AH) under Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud, recapturing from Ottoman-Egyptian control and reestablishing Al Saud authority in after the fall of . This emirate focused on consolidating , extending influence to and Qasim, but suffered internal strife and external pressures, including conflicts with the ; it declined after the death of bin Turki in 1865 amid succession disputes among his sons Abdullah, Saud, and Abdul Rahman. The state ended in 1891 when fell to the forces of the , forcing Abdul Rahman Al Saud into exile. The , ruled by the Al Rashid dynasty from Ha'il, arose around 1835 as a rival power in northern , initially as a of the Second Saudi State before asserting independence under Abdullah bin Rashid. It expanded to control Jabal Shammar, parts of , and influenced eastern Arabia through alliances with the Ottomans, peaking under rulers like Talal and in the late . The emirate's fortunes waned amid rivalry with the resurgent Al Saud; Abdulaziz Al Saud captured Ha'il in 1921, annexing the territory and ending Rashidi rule, incorporating it into the emerging Kingdom of Nejd and . The , located in southwestern Arabia along the coast, operated under local dynasties including the and later Idrisids from approximately 1909, controlling territories from to amid Zaydi and influences. It maintained semi-independence but was contested by the Kingdom of and emerging Saudi forces; after initial alliances, it was progressively absorbed following military campaigns by Al Saud, with formal annexation via the 1934 Treaty of ceding remaining areas to . In southern Arabia, smaller emirates like Beihan and Dhala existed as British-protected states within the Aden Protectorate, with Beihan centered at Suq Abdulla and Dhala under the Al Amiri dynasty; both joined the Federation of South Arabia in 1963 but were abolished in 1967 upon the establishment of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, ending their autonomy.

Central Asian Emirates

The Emirate of Bukhara, the principal emirate in Central Asia, was an Uzbek absolute monarchy that existed from 1785 to 1920, encompassing territories in modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and surrounding areas. It emerged from the Khanate of Bukhara under the non-Chinggisid Manghit dynasty, which seized power in the mid-18th century; Muhammad Rahim Bi formally adopted the title of emir in 1785, marking the shift from khanate to emirate governance structured around Islamic principles. The emirate was ruled by eight Manghit amirs until its dissolution, maintaining control over key oases and trade routes despite internal strife and external pressures. Ruled from the city of , the emirate's territory included after initial losses but contracted following Russian military advances; in 1868, after the conquest of , it accepted protectorate status under the , retaining nominal independence while ceding foreign affairs and significant lands. The Manghit rulers enforced Sharia-based administration, with the holding absolute authority over a diverse population of , , and nomads, though the polity faced challenges from tribal confederations and economic reliance on agriculture and caravan trade. Contemporaneous with Bukhara were the (1511–1920) in the northwest, centered on Khwarezm and ruled by the Kungrat dynasty of , and the (1709–1876) in the , established by Shaybanid descendants under Uzbek Ming rulers who also used titles. These khanates, while not formally , shared similar Turkic-Islamic monarchical structures and were collectively known as Central Asia's independent principalities until expansion subdued them: Kokand fell in 1876, Khiva became a protectorate in 1873 before Bolshevik overthrow in 1920, paralleling Bukhara's fate. The emirate's absorption into the and later the ended its sovereignty; in 1920, Bolshevik forces toppled the last emir, Alim Khan, integrating the region into the ASSR and eventual Soviet republics, with Bukhara's elite often resisting modernization efforts amid religious conservatism.

South Asian Emirates

The emirates of were confined largely to the basin in modern-day , arising from early Arab incursions and evolving into semi-autonomous Muslim polities amid regional fragmentation. These entities, governed by emirs of Arab or local tribal origin, maintained Islamic administrative structures while navigating from distant caliphates or empires, until their incorporation into expansive conquerors' domains. The established a semi-independent emirate over much of starting in 854 CE under al-Habbari, an Arab governor who consolidated control amid decline. This polity, spanning the lower Indus Valley, issued coinage and managed trade routes, nominally pledging allegiance to while exercising de facto autonomy in taxation and military affairs. The dynasty persisted through successive rulers until circa 1024 CE, when Ghaznavid incursions under eroded its authority, paving the way for the Soomra dynasty's rise. In the Punjab region, the emerged as an independent entity following the 712 CE Umayyad conquest led by , with local Arab families like the Banu Munabbih asserting control by the mid-9th century. Centered on the fortified city of , it controlled trade in textiles, grains, and precious metals across and parts of , resisting full Abbasid integration. By 959 CE, Ismaili agents aligned with the in overthrew pro-Abbasid factions, introducing Shi'a doctrines and fortifying the emirate against Sunni Ghaznavid threats until its subjugation around 1005 CE by of Ghazni's raids, which sacked and dispersed its rulers. The Talpur Baloch tribe founded the later Emirate of Sindh in 1783 CE, supplanting the and dividing rule among branches at , , and elsewhere along the Indus. These emirs maintained a tribal confederacy, levying tolls on river commerce and resisting Sikh incursions from the north, with serving as the primary capital housing administrative forts. British forces under annexed the emirate after decisive victories at the Battles of Miani (February 17, 1843) and Dubbo (March 24, 1843), incorporating into British India and exiling key Talpur leaders.

Near Eastern Emirates

The Kurdish emirates of the represented semi-autonomous principalities in the rugged terrains of modern southeastern , northern , and parts of northeastern , emerging as key components of Ottoman from the onward. These entities, governed by hereditary emirs from prominent tribal families, exercised control over local affairs including taxation, justice, and defense, while pledging military allegiance and tribute to the . Their autonomy stemmed from the empire's reliance on tribal levies to secure frontier zones against incursions and internal unrest, fostering a system of delegated authority that persisted until centralizing reforms disrupted it. Prominent among them was the Emirate of Soran, centered in (modern ), which gained prominence under Emir Muhammad Pasha (Kor) in the early through expansionist campaigns that briefly challenged dominance. Kor's forces captured in 1813 and extended influence toward , amassing an army of up to 20,000 warriors equipped with modern firearms acquired via trade routes. However, expeditions in 1836 crushed the emirate following Kor's defiance of central edicts, leading to his execution and the partition of Soran into directly administered districts. The Emirate of , based around (modern ) and extending into the plain, similarly thrived under the Azizan dynasty from the , peaking in the 1840s under , who unified fragmented branches and modernized administration with a standing army of 10,000-15,000. Bedir Khan's resistance to fiscal impositions and clashes with communities escalated into open revolt, culminating in Ottoman forces defeating his coalition at Derishk in 1847; the emirate was subsequently abolished, with Bedir Khan exiled to . Other emirates, such as in the region of , followed a parallel trajectory, with autonomy eroded by the through military campaigns enforcing direct taxation and . The Tanzimat's emphasis on uniform provincial governance, backed by regular army deployments, systematically dismantled these structures by mid-century, replacing emir rule with appointed kaymakams and integrating tribal lands into vilayets. Post-World War I treaties, including the 1923 , formalized their absorption into the nation-states of , , and , where centralized bureaucracies precluded revival amid emerging nationalist frameworks.

European Regions

The establishment of emirates in occurred primarily through Umayyad and Aghlabid expansions into the Mediterranean periphery and between the 8th and 10th centuries, with these entities functioning as autonomous Islamic polities under hereditary emirs until reconquest by Christian forces or internal fragmentation. These emirates facilitated trade, agricultural innovation, and cultural exchange but often relied on military tribute and raids for sustainability, eventually succumbing to pressures or dynastic collapses. Unlike persistent Arabian models, European emirates were absorbed into larger empires, leaving architectural and hydraulic legacies amid debates over their coercive taxation and religious policies toward non-Muslims. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Córdoba emerged in 756 under Abd al-Rahman I, a Umayyad survivor who consolidated control over Al-Andalus after fleeing Abbasid persecution, ruling an area spanning modern Spain and Portugal until its upgrade to caliphate status in 929 by Abd al-Rahman III, who commanded armies of up to 100,000 and fostered economic prosperity through silk production and Mediterranean commerce. Following the caliphate's disintegration in 1031 amid civil strife, over 20 taifa emirates proliferated, such as the Hudid Emirate of Zaragoza (1031–1118), which under Yusuf al-Mu'taman (r. 1081–1085) controlled the Ebro Valley, built the Aljafería Palace as a fortified residence blending Islamic and local styles, and allied variably with Christian kingdoms against rivals, peaking in territorial extent before Almoravid conquest. The Nasrid Emirate of Granada, founded in 1238 after the Almohad collapse, survived as Iberia's last Muslim redoubt, encompassing 20,000 square kilometers by 1490 under Muhammad XII, reliant on tribute from Castile and internal agriculture, until its annexation on January 2, 1492, by Ferdinand and Isabella following a 10-year siege. Across the Mediterranean, the solidified Arab rule over the island after Aghlabid forces initiated conquest in 827 from , capturing by 831 and achieving full control by 902 despite Byzantine resistance, with the Kalbid dynasty (948–1053) under emirs like [Abu al-Qasim](/page/Abu al-Qasim) (r. 937–982) introducing citrus cultivation, qanats for irrigation, and a multicultural blending Arab, Berber, and Greek elements, boosting to 1 million and in and ceramics until Norman incursions dismantled it by 1091. Similarly, the , founded circa 824–827 by Andalusian exiles fleeing Frankish pressure, operated from Chandax () as a raiding Byzantine shipping, encompassing the island's 8,300 square kilometers under autonomous emirs until reconquered it in 960–961 after a decade-long campaign involving 40,000 troops. In the Caucasus, emirates were less centralized and more ephemeral, often overlapping with khanates amid Russian expansion; the , declared September 11, 1917, by cleric Uzun-Hajji in amid collapse, briefly unified , , and under Sharia-based governance rejecting Bolshevik overtures, controlling territories up to 50,000 square kilometers before offensives dissolved it by March 1921. A later iteration, the self-proclaimed formed October 31, 2007, by Doku Umarov from Chechen separatist remnants, sought pan-Caucasian jihadist rule but fragmented by 2015 as factions defected to , reflecting ideological shifts from nationalism to global Salafism rather than traditional dynastic models.

Caucasian Emirates

The was a short-lived Islamic polity established in September 1919 amid the turmoil of the , encompassing parts of , , and . Proclaimed by the Uzun-Hajji Sallnski as a Sharia-governed , it emerged following the dissolution of the secular Mountainous Republic of the Northern , with Vedeno serving as its temporary capital and Sallnski titled "Imam and ." The emirate aimed to consolidate Muslim highlander resistance against both Bolshevik and White Russian forces, drawing on religious authority to unify diverse ethnic groups under Islamic law. However, it collapsed by March 1920 after military defeats by advancing units, leading to its absorption into the emerging Soviet administrative structures in the region. In the post-Soviet era, the represented a militant Islamist insurgency active from October 2007 to approximately 2015, declared by Chechen separatist leader to supersede the and establish a across the republics, including , , , , and parts of . Structured into vilayats (provinces) such as Vilayat Dagestan and United Vilayat of Kabarda-Balkaria-Karachay, it pursued Salafi-jihadist goals through , suicide bombings, and attacks on Russian security forces and civilians, claiming responsibility for incidents like the that killed 40 people. Umarov justified the emirate's formation by invoking historical anti-Russian resistance, though it diverged from earlier Sufi traditions dominant in the region by adopting global jihadist ideology. The emirate fragmented after Umarov's death in 2013, with key factions pledging allegiance to the in 2014-2015, resulting in its effective dissolution as a cohesive entity by mid-decade; remaining elements operated as affiliates or dispersed, amid intensified Russian operations that reduced active fighters from thousands to hundreds. U.S. and UN designations as a underscored its role in regional instability, with operations targeting infrastructure like airports and . Despite its ideological claims to revive pre-Soviet , the emirate's reliance on foreign jihadist networks and urban marked it as a modern insurgent structure rather than a functional state.

Iberian Emirates

The Umayyad , established in 756 CE by —a survivor of the Abbasid massacre of the Umayyad family—marked the consolidation of Muslim rule in the following the initial conquest by in 711 CE. This emirate, centered in , encompassed most of (the Muslim-controlled territories of modern and ) and maintained nominal allegiance to the in while asserting de facto independence. Under emirs such as (r. 756–788), who built the Great Mosque of starting in 784 CE, and his successors, the state expanded agricultural systems, fostering economic growth through crops like , , and citrus introduced from the East. The emirate's administration blended Arab, , and local Hispano-Roman elements, with a focus on centralized taxation and from diverse ethnic groups, though internal factionalism between Arab elites and Berber troops persisted. By the reign of (r. 912–961), the emirate had achieved peak stability and prosperity, controlling territories from coast to the shores, with a estimated at around 7 million by the 10th century. In 929 CE, Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph, elevating the state to the and severing symbolic ties to , which supported claims of universal Islamic authority and justified expansions against Christian kingdoms in the north. The caliphal period under (r. 961–976) saw advancements in scholarship, with the Córdoba library holding over 400,000 volumes, though reliance on slave soldiers () and succession disputes eroded unity. The caliphate fragmented in 1031 CE amid civil war, leading to the rise of kingdoms—small, independent emirates ruled by local warlords, viziers, or Slavic freedmen. The s, numbering up to 30 in the first period (1031–1086 CE), included prominent emirates such as (under the Abbadids, r. 1023–1091), (r. 1031–1085), (r. 1031–1118), and (r. 1022–1094), each controlling territories from a few cities to larger regions. These polities emphasized cultural , producing works in , , and —exemplified by the Toledan School of Translators bridging and Latin texts—but suffered from chronic inter-emirate warfare and tribute payments (parias) to Christian rulers like those of León and , which accelerated territorial losses. Military weakness prompted appeals to North African Berber dynasties; the Almoravids conquered most taifas by 1086 CE at the , temporarily unifying under emirate-like rule before their own decline led to a second taifa period in the 1140s. Surviving taifas, such as (r. 1078–1266 intermittently), adapted by allying with Christian powers or submitting to the after 1147 CE. The Nasrid Emirate of Granada, founded in 1238 CE by Muhammad I after the Almohad collapse, endured as the final Iberian Muslim emirate until its conquest by and in 1492 CE, controlling a reduced in southern Iberia with as capital. Under rulers like Yusuf I (r. 1333–1354), it maintained defensive alliances, including naval aid to , while developing the palace complex as a symbol of architectural refinement blending Islamic and local styles. 's longevity stemmed from tribute payments, internal stability via Nasrid diplomacy, and exploitation of Christian divisions, though civil strife and encirclement by forces precipitated its fall, with Emir Boabdil surrendering on January 2, 1492. These emirates collectively governed for over seven centuries, influencing Iberian demographics through settlement of around 30,000 Arab tribesmen post-711 and subsequent migrations, while facing persistent resistance from northern Christian polities.

Mediterranean Emirates

The Mediterranean emirates refer to short-lived Islamic polities established on islands and coastal enclaves within the European sphere of the during the early medieval period, primarily through conquests by Arab and forces from and . These entities, including the , the , and the , operated as semi-independent or nominally subordinate states to larger caliphates, relying on maritime raids, piracy, and tribute for sustenance amid ongoing conflicts with Byzantine and Italian Christian powers. Unlike more stable continental emirates, their Mediterranean positions facilitated naval dominance but exposed them to reconquest, with economies centered on slave trading, agricultural exploitation, and disrupting Byzantine trade routes. The , founded around 824–827 CE by exiled Andalusian fleeing Umayyad persecution in , represented an early outpost of Islamic rule in the Aegean. Led initially by , the emirate transformed the island's capital into Chandax (modern ), fortifying it as a base for that terrorized Byzantine shipping and coastal settlements as far as the and . Byzantine chroniclers documented annual raids capturing thousands of slaves for sale in markets like and , generating revenue that sustained a population estimated at 20,000–30,000 alongside subjugated ; internal stability was maintained through tribal alliances among , , and converts, though succession disputes weakened defenses. The polity endured until 961 CE, when Byzantine Emperor launched a massive expedition of 3,000 ships and 27,000 troops, sacking Chandax after a prolonged and restoring Byzantine control, with surviving either fleeing or assimilating. In , the emerged in 847 CE when commander Khalfun seized the city from the Byzantines, establishing a foothold in that expanded to control nearby territories through alliances with local and raids into . Under emirs like Mufarrij ibn Sallam and Sawdan (r. 860–871), the state extracted tribute from Italian princes and engaged in slave trading, with records indicating the capture and ransom of Frankish Emperor Louis II in 866 CE during his campaigns against it. Nominally linked to the Aghlabid dynasty in , Bari's rulers pursued autonomy, minting coins and fostering trade in captives and goods across the Adriatic; its military relied on and naval forces, enabling temporary dominance over Puglia but provoking a coalition of , Byzantines, and . The emirate collapsed in 871 CE following a Byzantine naval and led by Louis II's allies, with Sawdan surrendering the city; remnants dispersed, contributing to sporadic raids until Norman consolidation. The most enduring of these was the , initiated by Aghlabid invasions from starting in 827 CE, with full island control achieved by 965 CE under the Kalbid dynasty appointed by the Fatimids. Emir Asad ibn al-Furat declared independence in 831 CE, centering rule in , which grew into a multicultural hub of 300,000 inhabitants blending Arab, , Byzantine, and Sicilian elements; agriculture thrived via irrigation techniques introducing crops like and , while taxes on Christian dhimmis and maritime commerce bolstered the treasury. Kalbid emirs like al-Hasan II (r. 946–953) navigated Fatimid-Zirid rivalries, but internal revolts by soldiery and Sicilian revolts eroded authority by the 11th century. incursions under I culminated in the fall of in 1072 CE, though Muslim resistance persisted until 1091 CE in enclaves; the emirate's legacy included architectural advancements like the Zisa Palace precursors and tolerant policies allowing Christian and Jewish communities, albeit under taxation.

Societal and Economic Dimensions

Traditional Social Hierarchies

In traditional emirates, particularly those of the , social structures were organized around tribal kinship (qabila), forming patriarchal hierarchies where authority derived from lineage, alliances, and control over resources such as water, grazing lands, and trade routes. The emir, as head of the ruling tribe or —such as the Al Nahyan in or Al Maktoum in —held supreme power, legitimized by descent from prominent ancestors, success in intertribal conflicts, and distribution of spoils from pearling expeditions or raids. This apex position was reinforced by councils, where the emir consulted tribal sheikhs, but ultimate decision-making rested with the ruler and his kin. Subordinate to the ruling family were allied tribal elites and free tribesmen (mufassil), who owed through pacts (difa') and participated in or economic ventures like and ; these groups, often numbering in the thousands per , maintained internal led by lesser sheikhs based on genealogical proximity to the emir's line. Urban merchant families (tujjar), concentrated in coastal entrepôts such as and , wielded economic influence through pearl diving syndicates and but ranked below tribal warriors due to their settled (hadari) lifestyle, which was viewed as less valorous than nomadic (badawi) independence. Religious scholars () occupied an intermediary role, advising on and mediating disputes, yet their status depended on tribal patronage rather than independent clerical . At the hierarchy's base were slaves ( or abd), sourced via the and East African trades, who performed grueling labor in pearling dhows—enduring dives up to 90 feet for hours—household service, and agriculture; estimates suggest they comprised 20-30% of some Gulf populations before formal abolition in the 1960s, with rare and tied to owner whim or religious merit. roles were rigidly divided, with men dominating public spheres of raiding and , while women managed domestic economies like and child-rearing, though pre-oil records indicate occasional female involvement in or pearl sorting. These structures persisted into the early 20th century, adapting minimally to influences but eroding post-oil discovery around 1960, as wealth redistributed loyalties toward state institutions. In non-Arabian emirates, such as , feudal overlays added bureaucratic and military castes, but the tribal-patrilineal core remained evident across Islamic emirate variants.

Resource Management and Trade

In arid environments characteristic of many emirate territories, water management relied on ancient engineering solutions like the falaj (or ) systems, which channeled through underground tunnels to irrigate oases and support limited agriculture. These systems, prevalent in regions such as the and parts of , facilitated the cultivation of date palms, a staple crop that provided and revenue; for instance, date production in Gulf coastal areas sustained local populations amid scarce rainfall averaging under 100 mm annually. Agriculture in emirates was constrained by desert conditions, with supplementing oasis farming of grains, fruits, and in inland areas like Nejd or Central Asian river valleys. In the , irrigation from the Zarafshan River enabled cotton and silk production, integral to local economies until Russian influence in the . Resource extraction included seasonal pearling in Gulf emirates, where divers harvested oysters from May to , yielding pearls that formed up to 75% of exports by the late and employed over 80% of able-bodied men in ports like and . Trade networks underpinned emirate prosperity, leveraging geographic positions along caravan routes and maritime lanes. Central Asian emirates such as served as hubs, exchanging astrakhan furs, silk, and slaves with Russian, Indian, and Persian merchants; by the 19th century, annual trade volumes included thousands of tons of goods funneled through Bukhara's bazaars. In Gulf emirates, maritime commerce involved exporting pearls and dates to and Europe in return for textiles, spices, and timber, with emerging as a re-export center handling goods valued at millions of Maria Theresa thalers annually before the 1930s pearl market collapse due to Japanese cultured alternatives. Emirate rulers often regulated trade through monopolies on key commodities and tolls on routes, fostering economic dependencies while mitigating resource scarcity via diversification into and . This approach sustained viability in resource-poor settings until hydrocarbon discoveries shifted paradigms post-1960, though traditional methods persisted in non-oil emirates.

Positive Legacies

Military and Strategic Achievements

The Nasrid Emirate of Granada exemplified defensive strategic prowess, sustaining Muslim rule in Iberia as the last independent Islamic polity from 1232 to 1492 amid the Reconquista's pressures. Granadan forces adeptly utilized , fortified alpine positions, and naval support to repel Castilian and Aragonese incursions, notably during the of 1482–1492, where they inflicted heavy losses on superior Christian armies despite internal divisions and resource shortages. In central Arabia, the , founded in 1744 as the , orchestrated expansive military campaigns that unified through religiously motivated tribal alliances, capturing strategic centers like Thadiq in 1756 and extending influence to the Hijaz by to control vital trade and pilgrimage corridors. This organized tribal and force, emphasizing rapid mobility and ideological cohesion, secured territorial dominance until Ottoman-Egyptian in 1818, establishing precedents for subsequent Saudi state-building. The maintained military resilience in from the late , reforming nomadic Uzbek warrior traditions into a centralized structure capable of quelling internal revolts and countering and encroachments, thereby preserving sovereignty over until the 1860s conquests. Bukharan armies integrated cavalry-heavy tactics with fortress defenses, enabling sustained across diverse terrains. The Hafsid Emirate in leveraged hybrid forces of tribesmen, Arab levies, and Mediterranean mercenaries to defend against Marinid invasions and secure maritime commerce routes from the 13th to early 16th centuries, achieving naval victories that bolstered economic independence in .

Cultural Preservation and Patronage

In historical emirates, rulers often patronized architecture, literature, and scholarship as extensions of Islamic governance and legitimacy. The of the (1232–1492) exemplified this through monumental constructions like the palace complex, whose intricate vaults, geometric tilework, and gardens represented a of Islamic, Andalusian, and Mediterranean influences, sustaining artistic production amid political isolation. This patronage fostered a multicultural environment where Muslim, Christian, and Jewish artisans collaborated, preserving poetic traditions in and contributing to fields like via translated treatises on systems. Contemporary Gulf emirates have revived such traditions through state-led initiatives blending heritage conservation with global . In the , the Ministry of Culture & Youth's UAE Order for Culture and Creativity, established as the nation's highest honor in this domain, recognizes contributions to and , building on the legacy of earlier awards to promote sustainable cultural growth and of artifacts via the National Register. has protected over 60 modern heritage sites under cultural laws enforced by the Department of Culture and Tourism, including restoration of wind towers and souqs to maintain architectural techniques against urbanization. hosts forums like the Arab Forum for Cultural Heritage, emphasizing youth involvement in conservation and museum innovation to safeguard intangible practices such as and . Qatar's ruling Al Thani family has invested heavily in museums to curate Islamic and Arab artistic legacies, with overseeing institutions like the , which houses over 800 artifacts including 9th-century lusterware and Abbasid manuscripts, and Mathaf: Arab , focusing on 20th-century works to bridge regional narratives. These efforts, supported by public art expansions ahead of events like the , aim to position as a hub for Middle Eastern cultural expression while restoring sites tied to pearling heritage. Such extends to , echoing historical emirate support for observatories, as seen in UAE programs linking Islamic astronomical legacies to modern missions like the 2021 Mars probe. Across these emirates, preservation prioritizes empirical documentation—such as Abu Dhabi's archaeological surveys yielding over 100,000 artifacts from Umm an-Nar periods—and resists dilution by through policies like the UAE's Culture Agenda 2031, which outlines 75 strategies for heritage amid economic diversification. While critics note state control may prioritize image over grassroots authenticity, these initiatives have verifiably increased public engagement, with festivals like Abu Dhabi's Al Dhafra drawing thousands to revive and weaving traditions annually since 2007.

Negative Aspects and Debates

Authoritarian Practices and Repression

In emirates, governance has historically centered on the absolute authority of the , often unchecked by independent institutions, fostering practices such as the , media , and arbitrary detention to maintain dynastic control. This structure derives from Islamic traditions of emirate rule, where the , as both temporal and sometimes spiritual leader, wielded discretionary power over judicial, , and economic affairs, with frequently met by , , or execution of rivals and critics. Contemporary Gulf emirates exemplify these tendencies through sophisticated mechanisms of control. In the , authorities have imprisoned over 100 peaceful activists and government critics on vague charges since the Arab Spring, including bloggers and defenders sentenced in mass trials to up to 15 years in prison. The UAE has also expanded digital surveillance and cyber laws to monitor and prosecute online dissent, entrenching amid economic diversification. Similarly, Qatar's ruling Al Thani family maintains power without elections or , censoring media and restricting , while Bahrain's Al Khalifa dynasty crushed protests with lethal force, detaining thousands and dissolving opposition groups under anti-terrorism laws. , despite a consultative , routinely dissolves parliament and jails dissidents for criticizing the . Historically, such repression manifested in intra-dynastic purges and suppression of regional autonomy. In the 19th-century , emirs enforced strict Islamic orthodoxy, executing or enslaving non-compliant subjects and rival clans to consolidate power over Central Asian territories. Iberian emirates like the in the 11th century saw emirs ally with Christian kingdoms to repress internal Muslim factions, leading to cycles of betrayal and violent purges. These patterns persisted in Ottoman-era emirates, where local rulers, granted semi-autonomy, nonetheless relied on brutal enforcement against tribal revolts, as seen in the repression of uprisings in Nejd under Saudi precursors. While some emirates incorporated advisory councils (), these served more to legitimize rule than constrain it, often sidelining substantive opposition.

Human Rights Violations

In modern Gulf emirates such as the (UAE), , and , migrant workers, who comprise the majority of the workforce, have faced systemic abuses under the kafala sponsorship system, including passport confiscation, wage theft, excessive recruitment fees leading to , and harsh working conditions in extreme heat. In , preparations for the were linked to thousands of unexplained deaths, predominantly from , , and , with authorities failing to provide adequate compensation or investigations despite promises of reform. The UAE reported over 5,000 heat-related illnesses among outdoor workers in 2023, exacerbating vulnerabilities tied to employer control over residency and mobility. Freedom of expression remains severely restricted across these states, with authorities prosecuting individuals for online criticism or under vague and anti-terrorism laws. In the UAE, activist was sentenced to 10 years in prison in 2018 for posts, enduring and allegations of , with no reported release by 2024. and have similarly detained journalists and bloggers, such as Qatari poet Muhammad al-Ajami, who received a life sentence in 2013 for verses deemed critical of Gulf rulers, later commuted but illustrating ongoing . Women in these emirates encounter legal guardianship systems requiring male approval for travel, , or , limiting despite partial reforms like the UAE's 2020 personal status updates, which still enforce discriminatory and rules under Sharia-influenced codes. Sexual relations outside and same-sex conduct are criminalized with penalties up to seven years , contributing to broader LGBTQ+ suppression without documented prosecutions but with routine . Historically, governed under strict Islamic jurisprudence imposed punishments, including flogging for alcohol consumption (e.g., 80 lashes), for , and execution by for , as practiced in entities like the 19th-century Nejd precursors to . persisted in many pre-20th-century Islamic , such as those in the and , where captives from raids or trade were enslaved, with estimates of over 1 million imported to the Gulf by 1900, often subjected to forced labor without rights. These practices, rooted in classical interpretations, lacked modern and reflected absolute monarchical authority, though defenders cite contextual norms of the era against universalist critiques.

Economic Exploitation and Dependencies

In contemporary Gulf emirates such as the (UAE) and , the kafala sponsorship system binds migrant workers—comprising over 80% of the UAE's population and a similar proportion in —to individual employers, granting sponsors extensive control over workers' residency, mobility, and employment, often leading to exploitation including passport confiscation, wage withholding, and forced labor. This framework, inherited from historical tribal patronage but formalized in the 1950s, enables employers to deport workers without for complaints, exacerbating vulnerabilities for the estimated 8.5 million migrant laborers in the UAE alone, predominantly from and . Despite partial reforms, such as 's 2020 labor law allowing job changes without sponsor permission under certain conditions, enforcement remains inconsistent, with reports of ongoing abuse in construction and domestic sectors tied to mega-projects like Dubai's skyscrapers and 's infrastructure. Economic exploitation manifests in , where recruitment fees averaging $2,000–$4,000 per worker, charged by agencies in origin countries, trap migrants in cycles of indebtedness, compounded by below-minimum-wage salaries (often $200–$300 monthly) and deductions for housing in substandard camps lacking basic sanitation. The UAE ranks seventh globally in modern prevalence, with 13.4 victims per 1,000 people, including forced labor in fisheries and , where workers face extreme heat without adequate protections, contributing to hundreds of annual heat-related deaths documented between 2005 and 2019. Historical precedents in emirates like the (now UAE) involved outright chattel until formal abolition in 1963, with enslaved Africans and Persians used in pearling and date farming, transitioning post-abolition to indentured-like systems that preserved economic hierarchies. Emirates' economies exhibit profound dependencies on hydrocarbon exports and expatriate labor, rendering them susceptible to global oil price volatility; for instance, oil accounts for 30% of UAE GDP and 50% of government revenue as of 2023, with fiscal breakeven prices around $50–$60 per barrel exposing budgets to downturns like the 2014–2016 crash that contracted non-oil growth. Qatar's near-total reliance on liquefied natural gas (over 60% of GDP) amplifies risks from energy transitions and market shifts, as evidenced by a 2020 pandemic-induced contraction of 8.1% amid LNG price drops. These dependencies foster "rentier" dynamics, where resource windfalls subsidize citizen welfare but stifle domestic innovation, with total factor productivity declining in the UAE due to overinvestment in non-diversified sectors, perpetuating vulnerability despite diversification efforts like Dubai's tourism pivot yielding only 11% of GDP from non-oil sources by 2022. Migrant labor's expatriate status further entrenches this, as remittances outflow ($45 billion annually from UAE) offsets limited local workforce participation, estimated at under 20% for Emiratis in private sectors.

References

  1. [1]
    Emirate | Encyclopedia MDPI
    Nov 9, 2022 · An emirate is a political territory that is ruled by a dynastic Arabic or Islamic monarch-styled emir.
  2. [2]
    EMIRATE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
    noun emir· ate ˈe-mə-rət -ˌrāt Synonyms of emirate : the state or jurisdiction of an emir Examples of emirate in a Sentence
  3. [3]
    Emirate - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
    among Arabic or Muslim peoples, "chief of a family or tribe; a ruling prince," 1590s, from Arabic amir "commander" (see admiral).
  4. [4]
    Emirate Facts for Kids
    Sep 6, 2025 · An emirate is a special kind of territory or country that is ruled by a leader called an emir. An emir is usually a ruler who comes from a specific family.
  5. [5]
    Emirates - (World History – Before 1500) - Fiveable
    Definition. Emirates are territories or regions governed by an emir, who is a high-ranking political and military leader in Islamic countries.
  6. [6]
    The Emirates of the Arabian Peninsula - Lumen Learning
    The emirates of the Middle East (the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Kuwait) are monarchies ruled by emirs and represent some of the wealthiest Arab nations.
  7. [7]
    The United Arab Emirates - Countries - Office of the Historian
    Prior to 1971, the Trucial Sheikdoms of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharja, Ajman, Umm al-Qaiwain, Fujairah, and Ras al-Khaimah were under a British protectorate. As such ...
  8. [8]
    United Arab Emirates: Government - globalEDGE
    Federal National Council (Majlis al-Ittihad al-Watani) 20 members are appointed by hereditary state rulers and 20 members are indirectly elected by an electoral ...Missing: governance structure
  9. [9]
    AMĪR - Encyclopaedia Iranica
    Etymologically, the Arabic root amara “to command” corresponds to the common Hebrew root āmār “to say;” the amir, as well as being the person entitled to give ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
  10. [10]
    Emir - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
    Originating from Arabic amir meaning "commander," the word means "chief of a family or tribe; a ruling prince" among Arabic or Muslim peoples since the ...
  11. [11]
    emirate, n. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
    The earliest known use of the noun emirate is in the 1830s. OED's earliest evidence for emirate is from 1830, in the writing of T. Thomson.
  12. [12]
    https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-14
  13. [13]
    The Islamic World (Chapter 9) - Political Culture in the Latin West ...
    Between the mid-tenth-century rise of the Buyid emirate in the central Islamic lands and the Mongol onslaught in the thirteenth, the political borders of the ...<|separator|>
  14. [14]
    Governing Structures in Pre-Islamic Arabia
    Jul 12, 2025 · Banu Shayban later accepted Islam and al-Muthanna bin Haritha was appointed by Abu Bakr as the Amir ul-Jihad for the Iraq campaign against the ...
  15. [15]
    Chiefdom, Vassalage and Empire: The Political Structures of Arabia ...
    The chieftainship had three basic organs: (i) Ilah or Aliha – god/gods, equally respected by both the chief and the tribesmen, (ii) Hakim – chief or leader, ...Missing: Jahiliyyah | Show results with:Jahiliyyah
  16. [16]
    The title of "Commander of the Faithful," which is characteristic of the ...
    Before becoming Muslims, people used to call the Prophet "Amir of Mecca" and "Amir of the Hijaz." The men around Muhammad also used to call Sa'd b. Abi ...<|separator|>
  17. [17]
    [PDF] jahiliyah in arab culture, pre and post islam - ijmsrr.com
    Tribalism: Jahiliyah Arabs were mostly tribal people. They considered their tribe first before anything, and regarded the support of a tribesman an ...
  18. [18]
    Emir | Middle East, Rulers, Caliphs - Britannica
    Sep 13, 2025 · Emir, (“commander,” or “prince”), in the Muslim Middle East, a military commander, governor of a province, or a high military official.
  19. [19]
    Amīr al-muʾminīn | Islamic title - Britannica
    Oct 11, 2025 · The title amīr al-muʾminīn, sometimes used of leaders of Muslim military campaigns, was assumed by ʿUmar, the second caliph.
  20. [20]
    Umayyad dynasty | Achievements, Capital, & Facts - Britannica
    Umayyad dynasty, the first great Muslim dynasty to rule the empire of the caliphate (661–750 ce), sometimes referred to as the Arab kingdom.<|separator|>
  21. [21]
    History of International Relations - 4. The Muslim Caliphates
    The first, the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661, was led by the sahabah, the ... Thus some emirs were allied with Christian kings, while kings paid tribute to emirs ...
  22. [22]
    Emir (title) | Research Starters - EBSCO
    The title "Emir" refers to a traditional rank within Islamic governance, historically prominent during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates.
  23. [23]
    Kingdoms of the Arabs - Islam - The History Files
    Islam spread swiftly to cover the western half of Arabia, and the very east of Arabia (the eastern half of the modern United Arab Emirates and Oman plus ...
  24. [24]
    Expansion Under the Umayyad Caliphates | World Civilization
    The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created.
  25. [25]
    The rise of Islamic empires and states (article) - Khan Academy
    Islam spread through military conquest, trade, pilgrimage, and missionaries. Arab Muslim forces conquered vast territories and built imperial structures ...
  26. [26]
    https://historyguild.org/the-umayyad-and-abbasid-empire/
  27. [27]
    The Abbasid Caliphate - VOICES FOR IRAQ
    During al-Ma'mun's reign, the provincial governors, called emirs, became increasingly independent. The governor of Persia set up his own dynasty and ruled ...
  28. [28]
    The 'Abbasid Caliphate – HIST-1500: World History
    The 'Abbasids began their long, slow decline under al-Ma'mun, who was the first caliph to confer greater freedom upon his emirs, or provincial governors, ...
  29. [29]
    Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur: Supervising the Districts of Baghdad
    Aug 13, 2021 · ... as a wiliyah or imarah and ruled over by a governor (wali) or Emir respectively. These provinces are further sub-divided down to the local…
  30. [30]
    Taifa - World History Encyclopedia
    May 16, 2022 · Taifas ("factions" or "camps") were small independent Muslim kingdoms and principalities that emerged after the fall of hegemonic Muslim ...
  31. [31]
    Cordoba Emirate - Safar Salama Tours
    Its history may be divided into two major periods—that of the independent emirate (756–929) and that of the caliphate (929–1031)—and may be interpreted as ...
  32. [32]
    HISTORY - The Cordoba Mosque-Cathedral
    The emirate was declared the Caliphate of Cordoba in the tenth century by Abd al-Rahman III, establishing its independence from the Baghdad Caliphate.
  33. [33]
    Taifas of Spain | History, Culture & Legacy - Study.com
    These taifas waged wars against each other for power and territory in Spain, with some taifas falling and others gaining sovereignty due to rebellion.
  34. [34]
    A complete history of Harar; the city of Saints (1050-1887 AD)
    Dec 4, 2022 · The metropolis of Harar was the capital of one the most powerful empires in north-east Africa, and it later emerged as an independent city-state ...
  35. [35]
    The Story of the Shammar Tribe, the Indigenous Inhabitants of the ...
    Mar 14, 2018 · The transformation of the Arab tribe of Shammar into an Emirate in the 15th century was unique. It started in Jabal Shammar in the Hail region east of the ...
  36. [36]
    Khanate and Emirate of Bukhara - Silk Road Research
    Oct 7, 2018 · The Khanate of Bukhara was a Central Asian state from 1506 to 1785, followed by the Emirate of Bukhara from 1785 to 1920 in what is now modern-day Uzbekistan.<|separator|>
  37. [37]
    United Arab Emirates | History, Culture, Population, Map ... - Britannica
    The seven emirates are Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, Ras al-Khaimah, and Fujairah. What is the significance of Abu Dhabi ...
  38. [38]
    https://www.mundocontemporaneo.es/unit_6/task_2_dependent_emirate__and_independent_emirate.html
  39. [39]
    Emirates of Provinces in Saudi Arabia - Saudipedia
    Emirate of Riyadh Province: It operates from its headquarters in Riyadh City, and oversees twenty-two governorates. · Emirate of Makkah Province: It is ...
  40. [40]
    Administrative Divisions of Saudi Arabia - Saudipedia
    ... emirates of provinces. Administrative divisions in Saudi Arabia consist of thirteen provinces, which are further divided into 150 governorates, and 1,377 ...
  41. [41]
    HIST 341 : Abbasid Caliphate History | Faculty members
    During al-Ma'mun's reign, the provincial governors, called emirs, became increasingly independent. The governor of Persia set up his own dynasty and ruled as a ...
  42. [42]
    [PDF] The Abbasid Caliphate
    The Abbasids established the new position of vizier (high-ranking government official) to delegate central authority, and delegated even greater authority to ...
  43. [43]
    [PDF] Islam and the British Administration in Northern Nigeria
    Besides extensive administrative powers, the. Emir could make rules which ... working relationship and maintain the Emir's authority and pres- tige. For ...
  44. [44]
    Constitution of Qatar - University of Minnesota Human Rights Library
    Apr 29, 2003 · The Heir Apparent shall assume the powers and discharge the functions of the Emir ... The Executive Authority shall be vested in the Emir and he ...
  45. [45]
    Qatar Legal Research Guide: Government and Political Structure
    Apr 15, 2025 · ... Emir's authority, though the Emir retains significant executive and legislative authority. ... powers are limited by the Emir's authority. III.
  46. [46]
    Kuwait - State.gov
    The 1962 constitution grants the emir executive authority and authorizes the emir ... powers." Citizens had the right to change their representatives in ...
  47. [47]
    The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates
    Article (3) A member Emirate shall exercise sovereignty over its own territories and territorial waters in all matters which are not within the jurisdiction of ...
  48. [48]
    (PDF) The Majlis al-shura tradition in Islamic public administration
    May 22, 2025 · concept of majlis has a long history in Arab culture and Islamic civilisation. Arabic-speaking or Islamic-majority countries. early Muslim ...
  49. [49]
    The Federal National Council | The Official Portal of the UAE ...
    Dec 30, 2024 · The Federal National Council (FNC) is the consultative council, the parliamentary body of the UAE. It has 40 members.
  50. [50]
    Application of 'Urf in Islamic Law by Shafi'i Bello :: SSRN
    Jan 12, 2013 · 'Urf or Customary law is one of the most important supporting sources in Islamic law. This can be seen through many legal rulings (ahkam) in ...
  51. [51]
    [PDF] 'Urf -o-Ādah (Custom and Usage) as a Source of Islamic law
    In Islaic law „Urf (custom) and „ādah (tradition) are considered important sources of law. Numerous injunctions of the Islamic Fiqh are based on customs and ...<|separator|>
  52. [52]
    Understanding the Role of Custom ('Urf) In Islamic Law
    Mar 27, 2014 · This article aims to provide a succinct discussion on what is the place of custom ('urf) -based considerations in Islamic legal thought.
  53. [53]
    [PDF] a case study of state, shari'a, and 'urf
    The coexistence of shari 'a and 'urf law in North Sinai is consistent with other cases of legal pluralism observed in tribal-based societies across the Middle ...
  54. [54]
    Tribes and the Saudi Legal-System: An Assessment of Coexistence
    Oct 1, 2009 · The customary law of the Bedouins and other tribal groups is called 'urf. The Arabic word translates “what is commonly known and accepted” and describes the ...Missing: Gulf Sharia
  55. [55]
    United Arab Emirates - Judiciaries Worldwide
    The UAE's modern legal system draws from its complex historical evolution, where customary tribal norms, Islamic jurisprudence, and British-influenced treaties ...
  56. [56]
    [PDF] Rule of Law in the U.A.E.: The Peaceful Path to Nation-Building in ...
    and incorporated into Emirati government structure and practices, but also as it reflects a commitment to use neutral, professional merit factors rather. 49 ...
  57. [57]
    Role of Islamic Sharia in UAE Civil Code - Alqada.ae
    Oct 15, 2024 · Sharia influences UAE civil transactions, especially in financial dealings, contracts, and inheritance, including prohibiting interest and ...
  58. [58]
    The Formation Of The Federation – NLA
    When Ras al Khaimah joined on February 10, 1972, the federation was complete with the inclusion of all of the seven former Trucial States. This newly founded ...
  59. [59]
    History | UAE Embassy in Washington, DC
    The UAE's rich history is rooted in trade and tied to Islam, which came to the region in 630 C.E. The Emirates' location between Europe and the Far East ...
  60. [60]
    United Arab Emirates - Federal Countries - Forum of Federations
    The United Arab Emirates is composed of 7 emirates (constituent monarchies). The UAE is a federal, presidential, absolute monarchy.
  61. [61]
    The Constitution | The Official Platform of the UAE Government
    Article 116 provides that the emirates shall exercise all powers not assigned to the federation by this Constitution. They shall all participate in the ...
  62. [62]
    United Arab Emirates 1971 (rev. 2004) - Constitute Project
    The Emirates shall exercise all powers not assigned to the Union by this Constitution. The Emirates shall all participate in the setting up of the Union and ...
  63. [63]
    Political System & Governance - UAE Embassy in Washington, DC
    Under the UAE system of government, the president is elected by a body known as the Supreme Council of Rulers. The Supreme Council is the top policy-making ...Missing: emir's | Show results with:emir's
  64. [64]
    Federal National Council | UAE Embassy in Washington, DC
    The Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE is one of the country's five federal authorities, as established by the Constitution.Missing: supreme | Show results with:supreme
  65. [65]
    United Arab Emirates (03/16/11) - State.gov
    While the U.A.E. has worked to strengthen its federal institutions since achieving independence, each emirate still retains substantial autonomy. A basic ...
  66. [66]
    https://dailytrust.com/how-govs-reshaped-northern-emirates/
  67. [67]
    https://www.facebook.com/groups/3362960523771762/posts/25005068585800977/
  68. [68]
    https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/nnorth-east/829938-bauchi-government-creates-13-new-emirates-list.html
  69. [69]
    https://www.legit.ng/nigeria/1679673-breaking-northern-governor-signs-law-creating-13-emirates/
  70. [70]
    https://www.nigerianeye.com/2025/10/bauchi-gov-appoints-elder-brother-as.html
  71. [71]
    History of the Emirate of Nekor, the First Muslim State in North Africa
    Aug 3, 2021 · The emirate was founded in the year 710 of the Common Era (CE) by al-Himyari Ibn Mansour Salih. It'll play a decisive role in spreading Islam in the Rif region.
  72. [72]
    About the Emir - Abdelkader Education Project
    The Emir Abdelkader ibn Muhieddine, namesake of the Abdelkader Education Project, was an Islamic scholar from Algeria who resisted French colonialism in the mid ...Missing: Emirate | Show results with:Emirate
  73. [73]
    Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader
    Abd el-Kader is not only a symbol of resistance and struggle against foreign domination, but the embodiment of true theological, moral and rational ideas ...
  74. [74]
    Libya - Cyrenaica - GlobalSecurity.org
    The 01 June 1949 declaration of independence by Cyrenaica followed negotiations by the Emir, Idris Al-Senussi, later King Idris, and the British military forces ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
  75. [75]
    The Libyan Kingdom: - Temehu
    On the 1st of March 1949, Sayyid Idris proclaimed the eastern region of Libya as "The Emirate of Cyrenaica", and appointed himself the Emir of Cyrenaica.
  76. [76]
    [PDF] THE (R)URBANIZATION OF MAURITANIA - HAL-SHS
    In Mauritania, the first proto-states entities were the four emirates. (Trarza in the southwest, Brakna in the center south, Adrar in the north and Tagant in ...
  77. [77]
    [PDF] The Colonial Origins of Institutions in Mauritanina
    Mar 6, 2023 · a military campaign against the Arab tribes in the Emirate of Trarza, which was the most powerful Emirate that fought against the Western ...
  78. [78]
    Emirate, Egyptian, Ethiopian - Project MUSE
    Ben-Dror tells the story of Turco-Egyptian colonial ambitions and the processes that integrated Harar into the global system of commerce.<|separator|>
  79. [79]
    Colonial Experiences in Late Nineteenth-Century Harar on JSTOR
    Before 1875, the city had been an independent emirate; after 1887 it was conquered by and incorporated into Shewa, one of the kingdoms of Ethiopia. In the ...
  80. [80]
    Idrīsid dynasty | Berber Dynasty, Morocco, Maghreb - Britannica
    Idrīsid dynasty, Arab Muslim dynasty that ruled in Morocco from 789 until 921. The founder, Idrīs I (Idrīs ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ḥasan II), who reigned 789–791 ...
  81. [81]
    A Brief History of the Kingdom of Tlemcen - Algeria.com
    Over the next two hundred years Tlemcen saw rulers come and go, until in 1554 the Ottoman Empire deposed the ruling Zayyanid dynasty and afforded the city ...Missing: Emirate | Show results with:Emirate
  82. [82]
    Zayyanid Royal Palace El Mechouar in Tlemcen, Algeria - Facebook
    Sep 19, 2024 · El Mechouar Palace Mechouar Palace or the Zianide Royal Palace is the former official residence of the Zayyanid dynasty in the city of Tlemcen ...Missing: Emirate | Show results with:Emirate
  83. [83]
    Ḥafsid dynasty | North Africa, Tunisia, Maghreb - Britannica
    The Hafsid dynasty was an Amazigh (Berber) dynasty of the 13th–16th century in Ifrīqiyyah (Tunisia and eastern Algeria), founded by the Almohad governor Abu ...Missing: emirate | Show results with:emirate
  84. [84]
    The Making of a Mediterranean Emirate: Ifriqiya and Its Andalusis ...
    There, a newly founded Hafsid dynasty (1229-1574) welcomed members of the Andalusi elite and showered them with honors and high positions at court. While ...
  85. [85]
    [PDF] The ceremonies and honors in the Era of the Hafsid state (625–675 ...
    Jul 30, 2024 · Emir Abu Zakariya Yahya proclaimed the Hafsid state in 625 AH/1227 AD, organizing the affairs of Ifriqiya and treating the populace well, ...<|separator|>
  86. [86]
    Cyrenaicaarms
    This emirate of Cyrenaica was the nucleus of the Kingdom of Libya, which was declared on 24 December 1951 when Idris as-Senussi was proclaimed King Idris I. A ...
  87. [87]
    Cyrenaica, Emirate (1949 - 1951)
    Dec 9, 2015 · The war lasted Oct, 1912, with the defeat of the Ottomans. Initially the territory was known as Italian North Africa, but in 1922 it was split ...
  88. [88]
    The emirates of Northern Nigeria : a preliminary survey of their ...
    "A piece of the Continent, a part of the main" Emirates deriving from the Hausa States Emirates deriving from the Bornu Empire Emirates deriving from the ...
  89. [89]
    State, Society and Ethnicity in 19th century Adamawa
    Jun 29, 2025 · This article explores the social history of pre-colonial Adamawa through the interaction between the state and its multiple ethnic groups.
  90. [90]
    Brief history of the Emirate - Nigeria and World News
    Nov 27, 2016 · The Adamawa Emirate was part of the Fulani Empire of 1809-1909. It was established in 1809 until it was disestablished on July 29, 1909.
  91. [91]
    The rise and fall of Fulani rule in Adamawa 1809-1901.
    The result was the creation of Adamawa as an emirate of the Soketo empire. Adama set up a central administration over the conquered territory. The leaders ...
  92. [92]
    https://tertulia.com/book/emirate-of-trarza-jesse-russell/9785511065601
  93. [93]
    The British Occupation of the Sokoto Caliphate - jstor
    The Sokoto Caliphate was occupied in stages. First, Nupe and Ilorin were conquered by the army of the Royal Niger Company in 1897. The Royal Niger.
  94. [94]
    British Conquest of the Sokoto Caliphate 1903 - OnWar.com
    The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British high commissiones could depose ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  95. [95]
    [PDF] Saudi Arabia and Iran: Sectarianism, a Quest for Regional ...
    Aug 10, 2017 · The Emirate of. Jabal Shammar was ruled by the House of Rashid, based in Ha'il, a wealthy northern Najd city because of its position on the ...
  96. [96]
    [PDF] A HISTORY OF SAUDI ARABIA - Islam Awareness
    Control over the oases in Jabal Shammar was, however, a different matter. Ha il, the urban core of the emirate, remained loyal to the Rashidi leadership as ...
  97. [97]
    An Unneighborly Rapport: How Yemeni-Saudi Relations Went Astray
    Dec 24, 2021 · The Taif Treaty between North Yemen and Saudi Arabia ended the 1934 war between the two states and led to the Saudi annexation of the ...
  98. [98]
    The Foundation of Saudi Arabia and Its Evolving Relationship with ...
    Jan 7, 2024 · In 1932, the “Kingdom of Saudi Arabia” was declared, unifying the regions of Hijaz, Najd, Asir, and Al-Ahsa under a single name. This marked the ...
  99. [99]
    https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781644692882-002/html
  100. [100]
    https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-284
  101. [101]
    HISTORY: THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF SINDH - Newspaper - Dawn
    Oct 31, 2021 · HISTORY: THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF SINDH · THE TALPURS. The Talpurs migrated from Balochistan to Sindh on the invitation of their murshid ( ...Missing: dynasty emirate
  102. [102]
    [PDF] Downfall of Talpur dynasty and British annexation of Sindh - Dr Pathan
    The reluctance of Talpurs was dealt by the threats of British annexation of Sindh. Meanwhile, the ruler of Punjab also wanted to conquer Sindh, keeping in view ...Missing: emirate | Show results with:emirate
  103. [103]
    [PDF] The Battle of Miani and the Conquest of Sindh - Pakistan Horizon
    ' Hence, the conquest 'was a necessity.' For the British, Napier's victory at Miani, against very heavy odds, was a very welcome new chapter in their military ...
  104. [104]
    The forgotten Arabs of Iran - Arab News
    A century ago, the autonomous sheikhdom of Arabistan was absorbed by force into the Persian state. Today the Arabs of Ahwaz are Iran's most persecuted ...``seven Reasons Why I Should... · From Autonomy To Betrayal · A Persecuted People
  105. [105]
    KSA History - وزارة الخارجية السعودية
    The first Saudi State was established in 1139 AH / 1727 AD in Al-Dir'iya, its capital, by Imam Muhammad bin Saud. The imams of the first Saudi state were able ...
  106. [106]
    First Saudi State - Saudipedia
    The First Saudi State is the state established by Imam Mohammed bin Saud in 1727, with Diriyah as its capital.
  107. [107]
    Jabal Shammar | Tribal Kingdom, Northern Highlands, Najd
    An independent principality of the Ibn Rashīd dynasty from 1834 to 1921, Jabal Shammar was involved in constant strife among the eastern Saʿūd dynasty, the ...
  108. [108]
    The History of the Idrisid Emirate in Arabia - The Moorish Times
    Apr 25, 2021 · From 1908 to 1930, an Idrisid emirate, founded and directed by a religious leader from Fes, extended in the middle of the Arabian Peninsula.
  109. [109]
    Emirate of Beihan - Wikipedia
    Its capital was Suq Abdulla, now called Beihan. The Emirate was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of the People's Republic of South Yemen and is now part of ...Missing: Gulf Dhala
  110. [110]
    Central Asian History - Keller: Khanates on the eve - Academics
    Emirate of Bukhara​​ In Bukhara between 1747 and 1756 Muhammad Rahim Ataliq Manghit, an Uzbek of the Manghit tribe who had served as chief courtier for the last ...
  111. [111]
    Image 9 of Tārīkh-i ḥuzn al-milal-i Bukhārā | Library of Congress
    Between 1785 and 1920 Bukhara was ruled by eight amirs of the Manghit dynasty. After the Russian conquest of Samarkand in 1868, the emirate of Bukhara became a ...
  112. [112]
    Bukhara - Russia's Periphery
    In 1868 the Russian Empire forced the Emirate of Bukhara to accept protectorate status. Over the following forty years the Russian Empire eroded away at the ...
  113. [113]
    Bukhara - Iran Turan
    In the second half of the 18th century the non-Chinggisid Manghit dynasty (1753–1920) took over the khanate which became known as the Emirate of Bukhara. The ...
  114. [114]
    Khorezm and the Khanate of Khiva - Oxford Research Encyclopedias
    May 23, 2019 · As with the Bukharan Emirate, the Khivan Khanate continued to exist formally as a protectorate under Russian control.
  115. [115]
    Khanate of Kokand - Silk Road Research
    Oct 7, 2018 · The Khanate of Kokand was established in 1709 when the Shaybanid emir Shahrukh, of the Ming Tribe of Uzbeks, declared independence from the ...
  116. [116]
    The Fall of Khiva, 1872–3 (Chapter 7)
    In 1873, Russia launched a carefully planned campaign with multiple columns, leading to the fall of Khiva and the massacre of the Yomud Turkmen.<|separator|>
  117. [117]
    Emir of Bukhara (Saiyid Mir Alim) - Russia's Periphery
    Russian forces conquered the Emirate of Bukhara, one of the three Uzbek dynasties ruling Middle Asia, in 1868 (Kappeler, 195). Unlike some territory in this ...
  118. [118]
    [PDF] Arab Rule in Sindh after the - PJHC
    Both the Arab emirates were independent in their internal affairs, but owed allegiance to the Abbasid caliphate, until the time their territo- ries were ...
  119. [119]
    https://hashemitesadaats.com/2015/04/arrival-and-rule-856-1026-ce-of-of-habbari-arab-in-sindh/
  120. [120]
    Arrival and Rule (856-1026 CE) of Of Habbari Arab in Sindh
    Apr 15, 2015 · Habbari dynasty ruled Sindh until 1024 (Khafif al-Habbari, last ruler of the Habbari dynasty).
  121. [121]
    Multan, Punjab Province, Pakistan - Mark Horner
    It was conquered by the Ummayad military commander Muhammad bin Qasim in 712. The city later became independent as the capital of the Emirate of Multan in 855 ...
  122. [122]
    Dharma in the Bhāratīya Frontier - Multan, Part 1 - Brhat
    Apr 16, 2023 · After Muhammad ibn Qasim's conquest, Multan was ruled by Muslims, but it functioned as an independent state known as the Emirate of Multan from ...
  123. [123]
    [PDF] Sindh Through History and Representations - Sani Panhwar
    Aug 28, 2024 · Talpur dynasty, which ruled Sindh from 1783 to the British conquest in 1843, there was a store always full of grains for nourishing the ...
  124. [124]
    History of Khairpur Mir's - HubPages
    May 15, 2010 · Khairpur State was ruled by Talpur Mirs (ameers) of the Talpur dynasty from 1783 to 1955. In 1947, when Pakistan gained independence, Khairpur Mir's was one of ...
  125. [125]
    The End of Kurdish Autonomy (Chapter 3) - The Cambridge History ...
    This chapter argues that one of the longest-surviving forms of local, indirect administration that actually predated the Ottomans were the Kurdish emirates.
  126. [126]
    The Untold History of Turkish-Kurdish Alliances - New Lines Magazine
    Nov 22, 2024 · By 1834, the Ottoman Empire had dismantled the Emirate of Soran, located in what is now the Kurdistan region of Iraq. In 1847, the Emirate of ...
  127. [127]
    The Rise and Fall of the Kurdish Emirates (Fifteenth to Nineteenth ...
    The process of full integration of Kurdish lands into the Ottoman imperium resumed at the end of the nineteenth century by crushing the weapons it once ...
  128. [128]
    The Emirate of Botan - Kurdistan Chronicle
    Aug 18, 2024 · The Emirate of Botan existed from the early 14th century to 1847, under the Azizan family, and was an Ottoman vassal. Bedr Khan modernized it ...Missing: Bohtan | Show results with:Bohtan
  129. [129]
    the Kurdish Baban and Bohtan emirates - ResearchGate
    Modern Kurdish historiography, which examines resistance to provincial centralisation in Ottoman Kurdistan, focuses largely on Bedir Khan's Bohtan emirate ...
  130. [130]
    Al-Andalus | Facts, History, & Maps | Britannica
    Oct 11, 2025 · Al-Andalus, Muslim kingdom that occupied much of the Iberian Peninsula from 711 ce until the collapse of the Spanish Umayyad dynasty in the early 11th century.
  131. [131]
    The Arab Emirate of Sicily - PILOT GUIDES
    The Arabs occupied Sicily for almost 250 years, defeating the Byzantine Empire which had taken over from Romans. They made Palermo their capital.
  132. [132]
    Al-Andalus: The Story of Muslim Iberia - Algarve History Association
    The Emirs of al-Andalus employed barbarous means to maintain a balance of power among the many rebellions and family feuds which they faced. The severe al-Hakam ...
  133. [133]
    The glorious 'emirates of Europe' - The National News
    Dec 3, 2020 · The emirate of Zaragoza peaked under the Banu Hud dynasty in the 11th century. The Aljaferia Palace, the oldest surviving example of Islamic ...
  134. [134]
    History of al-Andalus - El legado andalusi
    The concept of al-Andalus refers to the territory of the Iberian Peninsula under the Muslim power, which spread over between 711 and 1492.
  135. [135]
    The Emirate of Sicily: Arab Influence and History in Sicily
    The Emirate of Sicily was an Islamic empire that ruled the island from 965-1091. (The actual Arab conquest of Sicily started way earlier, in 827.).
  136. [136]
    [PDF] the caucasus emirate and its significance - Gov.pl
    The Caucasus Emirate was officially proclaimed on 7th October 2007 by the president of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, Dokka Umarov. Referring to. "the will ...Missing: emirates | Show results with:emirates
  137. [137]
    The Caucasus Emirate, the Other Russian Front - CIDOB
    The rise of Islamic State (ISIS) is having a significant impact on the Russian Caucasus. Hundreds of fighters have left the region to join the ranks of armed ...
  138. [138]
    The Caucasus Emirate: From Anti-Colonialist Roots to Salafi-Jihad
    Mar 18, 2014 · On October 21, 2013, a lone suicide bomber from Dagestan boarded a bus in Volgograd, Russia, and detonated an explosive device that killed ...Missing: emirates | Show results with:emirates<|separator|>
  139. [139]
    Effendi N. Katkhanov and Sheikh Uzun-Khadji: Vectors of Ethno ...
    Aug 9, 2025 · Unlike N. Katkhanov, the Avar mullah Uzun-Haji proclaimed the crea-tion of the Shariah monarchy, officially called the North Caucasian Emirate.<|separator|>
  140. [140]
    [PDF] Caucasus Emirate - Mapping Militants Project
    Aug 13, 2018 · The Caucasus Emirate's links to AQ and the Taliban began prior to its formation in 2007. The main militant groups in the region—the Chechen ...<|separator|>
  141. [141]
    EMARAT KAVKAZ | Security Council - UN.org.
    Jul 29, 2011 · Emarat Kavkaz, or the “Caucasus Emirate”, is a terrorist organization operating in the North Caucasus.
  142. [142]
    The Art of the Umayyad Period in Spain (711–1031)
    Oct 1, 2001 · 'Abd al-Rahman I (r. 756–88) made Córdoba his capital and unified al-Andalus under his rule with a firm hand, while establishing diplomatic ties ...
  143. [143]
    The Spanish Umayyads (711–1031) - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
    The Spanish Umayyads arrived in 711, established rule, rebuilt Córdoba, and created Madinat al-Zahra. Their rule ended in 1031, but art continued.Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
  144. [144]
    Caliphate of Cordoba | Map, History, & Facts - Britannica
    Oct 6, 2025 · Caliphate of Córdoba, Muslim state that existed in Spain from January 16, 929, when ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III assumed the supreme title of caliph, to 1031
  145. [145]
    Taifa | Muslim dynasty, Iberian Peninsula, Al-Andalus - Britannica
    Oct 11, 2025 · Taifa, a faction or party, as applied to the followers of any of the petty kings who appeared in Muslim Spain in a period of great political fragmentation.Missing: sovereignty | Show results with:sovereignty
  146. [146]
    https://www.almuqaddima.com/post/the-muslim-emirate-of-crete
  147. [147]
    The Muslim Emirate of Crete - al Muqaddima
    Nov 25, 2024 · The main period however when Crete became part of the early Muslim empire was the time between 824 and 961. A group of Andalusian exiles landed ...
  148. [148]
    The State Muslims Established in the Heart of Italy for 25 Years
    Sep 17, 2024 · ... emirates in southern Italy. The Islamic Emirate of Bari, centered in the city of Bari in southern Italy from 847 to 871 CE, represented the ...
  149. [149]
    Emirate of Crete: An Islamic State in the Byzantine Era - Geotour Crete
    The Emirate of Crete was an Islamic state that existed on the island of Crete from the late 820s to 961.
  150. [150]
    The Emirate of Crete - Islamic Focus
    Mar 21, 2023 · Brief explainer of the Emirate of Crete which was an Islamic state that existed on the Mediterranean island of Crete from the late 820s.<|separator|>
  151. [151]
    https://about-history.com/history-of-the-emirate-of-sicily/
  152. [152]
    History Of The Emirate Of Sicily
    The Sicilian emirate was a Muslim state that controlled the entire island of Sicily from 965 to 1072.
  153. [153]
    [PDF] United Arab Emirates Cultural Field Guide - Public Intelligence
    Oil Jobs. The local populations of the pre-oil Gulf societies were small and lacked the technical skills needed for modernizing their traditional societies.
  154. [154]
    United Arab Emirates Tribes and Clans - FamilySearch
    Jun 11, 2025 · Throughout Arabian history, free, arms-bearing tribesmen, whether nomadic or settled, dominated society. Sultans, emirs, and sheikhs were often ...
  155. [155]
    Tribalism in the Arabian Peninsula: It Is a Family Affair
    Feb 1, 2012 · The tribal majlis or dewaniya culture became so important to Gulf states that it was one of the main launching pads of the civil society ...
  156. [156]
    The Arabian Gulf Before the Discovery of Oil - ArcGIS StoryMaps
    May 6, 2021 · However this area, as all inhabited areas are by definition, was not “undiscovered”. The region was occupied primarily by tribal nomadic Bedouin ...
  157. [157]
    Medieval Muslim societies (article) - Khan Academy
    In early Islamic societies, pre-Islamic Arab culture was still very influential; the family was organized around a patriarchal clan with a common male ancestor.
  158. [158]
    https://journals.openedition.org/arabianhumanities/8343
  159. [159]
    https://www.tero.com/graduates_resource_culture-uae-briefing.php
  160. [160]
    Tero Graduates | Protocol and Cultural Briefing - United Arab Emirates
    Arranged endogamous marriage within the kinship (tribal) group was the preferred method in the pre-oil period, but this pattern is changing. Individuals now ...Missing: era | Show results with:era
  161. [161]
    The Tribal Society of the UAE and its Traditional Economy
    Tribe was the principal building block of the then-UAE society, with tribal affiliations forming the very bases of the social fabric (Abed and Hellyer 2001; ...
  162. [162]
    Water Resources in UAE - Fanack Water
    Oct 17, 2017 · Water resources in the UAE can be classified into two main categories: conventional, such as surface water (including aflaj water systems, springs and dams) ...
  163. [163]
    Shifting Sands And Rapid Change: The UAE Before Oil - The Gazelle
    Nov 30, 2013 · For much of the UAE's pre-oil history, the environment was the most important factor. The harshness of the desert, which covers 80 percent of ...
  164. [164]
    (PDF) Pearl industry in the UAE region in 1869-1938 - ResearchGate
    Aug 7, 2025 · The article aims to explore and analyze the development of the pearl industry in the UAE region, how it was constructed and reproduced from 1869 to 1938.
  165. [165]
    Pearls used to make up 75% of the Persian Gulf's exports
    Jan 30, 2020 · The pearl industry made up 75% of the Persian Gulf's total exports at the end of the 19th century. At the time, free diving was the only way to ...
  166. [166]
    THE BUKHARA EMIRATE: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
    Dec 18, 2024 · The economy was driven by agriculture and trade, particularly along the Silk Road, while the region became a prominent center for intellectual ...
  167. [167]
    [PDF] The trade relations of the emirate of Bukhara with the countries of ...
    Main part: The emirate of Bukhara has been considered the center of the astrakhan skin trade in Central Asia and around the world. Since very ancient times ...
  168. [168]
    Beyond Bukhara: Trade, identity and interregional exchange across ...
    Jul 13, 2018 · This article explores the nature of inter-Asian trade dynamics through a consideration of the role played by traders from northern ...
  169. [169]
    What is Pearl Diving in UAE? Discovering the Heart of Emirati Heritage
    Jun 29, 2025 · Economic Impact. Until the early 20th century, the Gulf supplied 80% of the world's pearls, attracting traders from India, Persia, and Europe.Scuba Diving Uae: A New... · Top Pearl Diving Sites And... · How Pearl Diving Techniques...
  170. [170]
    UAE Natural Resources: Rise of the Oil and Gas Industry - Reflowx
    Aug 6, 2025 · Before oil, the UAE had a simple economy. People relied on fishing, pearl diving, and small-scale trade. Harsh desert conditions limited farming ...
  171. [171]
    [PDF] has the uae escaped the oil curse? - Economic Research Forum (ERF)
    Until the mid-1980s Dubai relied heavily on oil extraction and exports, even though it had a long history as a trade hub for the Gulf region. After 1985 oil.<|separator|>
  172. [172]
    The Efficiency of the Emirate of Granada's Resistance During the ...
    Consequently, the Banū Naṣr waged war against the king and queen in 1482. This eventually resulted in the fall of the Emirate of Granada, the last Iberian ...
  173. [173]
    The Fall Of Grenada- The Last Muslim Kingdom of Spain
    In 1482, war began between the new Kingdom of Spain and the Emirate of Granada. Despite being in a much weaker position, the Granadans fought valiantly. One ...
  174. [174]
    Army of the First Saudi State - Saudipedia
    The army was formed to organize the state's military affairs, defend its territories, expand its rule, and ensure its stability and security.
  175. [175]
    (PDF) Bukharan armies and Uzbek military power, 1670 - 1870
    This article inquires into the organisation of the military in the Khanate/Emirate of Bukhara over the long term, from the late seventeenth century up to ...
  176. [176]
    FROM THE HISTORY OF MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE EMIRATE OF ...
    Nov 10, 2022 · This article analyzes some aspects of the history of military affairs in the Bukhara Emirate in the second half of the 18th century - the middle ...
  177. [177]
    TunisiaArms
    In 1159, Tunisia was conquered by the Almohad caliphs of Morocco. The Almohads were succeeded by the Berber Hafsids (c.1230–1574), under whom Tunisia prospered.
  178. [178]
    The Art of the Nasrid Period (1232–1492)
    Oct 1, 2002 · Their most singular artistic achievement was the famous Alhambra (al-qal'a al-hamra), or the red castle, so-called perhaps because of the color ...
  179. [179]
    The Nasrid Dynasty and the Birth of the Alhambra Palace
    Jun 23, 2020 · The Alhambra in Granada is one of the best examples of the Nasrid Dynasty's cultural achievements that has survived to this day.
  180. [180]
    UAE Order for Culture and Creativity
    The UAE Order for Culture and Creativity is the UAE's highest cultural honour, aimed at promoting cultural diplomacy, encouraging sustainable growth in ...
  181. [181]
    The Department of Culture and Tourism announces the protection of ...
    DCT Abu Dhabi has publicly revealed the first set of 64 modern heritage sites, requiring immediate and unconditional protection.<|separator|>
  182. [182]
    The 5th Arab Forum for Cultural Heritage Kicks Off in Sharjah
    Sep 29, 2025 · Three-day forum spotlights women and youth in heritage conservation and museum innovation. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates - 29 September 2025 – ...
  183. [183]
    Qatar Museums - Qatar Museums
    Welcome to Qatar Museums – Bringing to life art, culture & heritage in Qatar. Visit our museums, galleries & historic sites. Discover, take part & enjoy.Corporate Sponsorship · Contact Us · About Us · Contemporary Qatar
  184. [184]
    Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art - Mathaf
    See something new today. Mathaf celebrates the modern & contemporary, showcasing art created in Qatar, the Middle East & the international Arab diaspora.About Us · Plan Your Visit · What's On · The Collection
  185. [185]
    Qatar's ambitions to become 'the art Mecca of the Middle East' | CNN
    Dec 23, 2021 · The Middle East nation of Qatar has announced an ambitious plan to expand its public art program as it prepares to play host to the 2022 Fifa World Cup.
  186. [186]
    Emirates Mars Mission Builds on Centuries of Islamic Advances in ...
    Feb 11, 2022 · The Emirates Mars Mission is providing new inspiration for Arab youth to study the sciences. It builds on a legacy that goes back centuries.Missing: patronage | Show results with:patronage
  187. [187]
    (PDF) Cultural Heritage Resources in Abu Dhabi Emirate
    PDF | On Jan 1, 2009, Mark Beech published Cultural Heritage Resources in Abu Dhabi Emirate | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate.
  188. [188]
    Uae culture agenda 2031 - Policy Monitoring Platform - UNESCO
    the culture agenda 2031 is the first country-level strategy for the cultural sector in the uae, with a roadmap of 7 strategic objectives and 75 strategic ...
  189. [189]
    https://law.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/LTW-Kuran.pdf
  190. [190]
    [PDF] Institutional Roots of Authoritarian Rule in the Middle East
    As a core element of Islam's classical institutional complex, it helped to perpetuate authoritarian rule by keeping the state unmonitored and largely ...
  191. [191]
    Repression and injustice in the United Arab Emirates - Amnesty UK
    Apr 1, 2025 · More than 100 peaceful activists and critics of the UAE government have been imprisoned on broad and vague national security-related charges since 2011.
  192. [192]
    UAE Tightens Autocracy Through Digital Repression and Activism ...
    Oct 18, 2024 · The UAE authorities have relied on digital repression and intrusive surveillance technologies, alongside advancements in network ...
  193. [193]
    UAE: Sweeping Legal 'Reforms' Deepen Repression
    Jun 5, 2022 · “The UAE government has chosen to squander an opportunity to improve freedoms across the board and instead has doubled down on repression.”.
  194. [194]
    United Arab Emirates - United States Department of State
    The constitution and law prohibited torture and “degrading treatment” and there were no credible reports that government officials employed practices it deemed ...
  195. [195]
    Gulf: Don't believe the hype, GCC states are as repressive as they've ...
    Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) — simply ...
  196. [196]
    The Conundrum of Political Parties in the Gulf Countries: Unwanted ...
    Jun 25, 2021 · The six monarchies of the Arabian Peninsula— in alphabetical order Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates ...
  197. [197]
    The United Arab Emirates: Evolving AuthoritarianTools (Chapter 16)
    After all, although the UAE neverexperienced mass protests in 2011 and has been ableto avoid the sort of austerity drives seen in SaudiArabia and other Gulf ...
  198. [198]
    [PDF] ISLAM AND AUTHORITARIANISM
    The aim is to assess whether the hypothesis that links Islam to authoritarianism enjoys empirical support when one controls for other possible determinants of ...
  199. [199]
    World Report 2025: United Arab Emirates | Human Rights Watch
    Migrant workers continue to face widespread abuses like wage theft, illegal recruitment fees, and passport confiscation, which leave workers in situations that ...United Arab Emirates · Freedom Of Expression... · Migrant Workers
  200. [200]
    World Report 2025: Qatar | Human Rights Watch
    Qatar's hosting of the 2022 FIFA Men's World Cup left a legacy of widespread migrant labor abuses, including thousands of unexplained deaths, rampant wage ...Migrant Worker Rights · Women's and Girls' Rights · Freedom of Expression
  201. [201]
    Qatar: Six Months Post-World Cup, Migrant Workers Suffer
    Jun 16, 2023 · Six months after the 2022 World Cup final in Doha, FIFA and Qatari authorities have failed to provide compensation for widespread abuses, ...
  202. [202]
    2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Qatar
    Significant human rights issues included credible reports of: disappearances; arbitrary arrest or detention; serious restrictions on freedom of expression and ...
  203. [203]
    World Report 2024: United Arab Emirates | Human Rights Watch
    Jan 12, 2024 · UAE-based migrant workers face widespread abuses, including escalating climate risks, and these abuses contribute to climate injustice in ...
  204. [204]
    Human rights in United Arab Emirates - Amnesty International
    Stay up to date on the state of human rights in United Arab Emirates with the latest research, campaigns and education material from Amnesty International.
  205. [205]
    World Report 2024: Qatar | Human Rights Watch
    Qatari authorities and FIFA failed to provide compensation to migrant workers for widespread abuses, including wage theft and the unexplained deaths of workers.Migrant Workers · Women's Rights · Sexual Orientation and...
  206. [206]
    Human rights in the Gulf states - House of Lords Library
    Nov 17, 2022 · They are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The Congressional Research Service is among bodies ...
  207. [207]
    2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: United Arab ...
    a. Torture and Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment · b. Protection of Children. Child Labor · c. Protection to Refugees. Provision of First ...
  208. [208]
    United Arab Emirates (UAE) - Amnesty International USA
    The government continued to commit human rights violation, unfair trial, torture and ill-treatment and suppression of freedom of expression.
  209. [209]
    Human rights in Saudi Arabia - Amnesty International
    Despite some limited labour reforms migrant workers, in particular domestic workers, continued to be subjected to forced labour and other forms of labour abuse ...Missing: emirates | Show results with:emirates
  210. [210]
    THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES IN ... - Brillopedia
    Mar 9, 2022 · In this article, we will discuss the different human rights violations that have been occurred in UAE throughout the years. There is a lot of ...
  211. [211]
    What Is the Kafala System? | Council on Foreign Relations
    Nov 18, 2022 · The lack of regulations and protections for migrant workers' rights often results in low wages, poor working conditions, and employee abuse.
  212. [212]
    Briefing paper: Migrant rights and the Kafala system in the United ...
    May 27, 2024 · ... worker power imbalance and preventing migrant workers from reporting abuse or exploitation. ... worker's experience in the United Arab Emirates ...<|separator|>
  213. [213]
    Q&A: Migrant Worker Abuses in Qatar and FIFA World Cup 2022
    Dec 18, 2021 · Are migrant workers free to speak out on the abuses they face? Is Human Rights Watch joining the call for boycotting FIFA 2022? What are FIFA's ...
  214. [214]
    Labor Migration in the United Arab Emirates: Challenges and ...
    Sep 18, 2013 · Many recruitment agencies exploit workers by charging exorbitant visa fees leading to debt bondage (see Migration's Middlemen: Regulating ...
  215. [215]
    Modern slavery in United Arab Emirates | Walk Free
    The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has the second highest prevalence in the Arab States region, and the seventh highest prevalence in the Global Slavery Index.
  216. [216]
    [PDF] City of Gold, City of Slaves: Slavery and Indentured Servitude in Dubai
    Cooper, Nicholas. "City of Gold, City of Slaves: Slavery and Indentured. Servitude in Dubai." Journal of Strategic Security 6, no. 3 Suppl.
  217. [217]
    The Post-oil Economy in the UAE and How It Is Preparing
    Spurred by the crash in oil prices in 2014, the UAE realised its vulnerabilities in a fluctuating global market. So much of its economic growth is dependent on ...
  218. [218]
    Oil: how vulnerable are Gulf countries to falling prices?
    Jul 24, 2025 · Regarding external accounts, the breakeven prices of four out of six countries are below USD 50/bbl, and even USD 40/bbl for the United Arab ...
  219. [219]
    Can the UAE Avoid the Oil Curse by Economic Diversification?
    The findings support the fact that the UAE is facing an oil curse. Declining levels of total factor productivity, GDP volatility, negative returns on investment ...Missing: dependency | Show results with:dependency
  220. [220]
    As the Gulf Region Seeks a Pivot, Reforms.. - Migration Policy Institute
    Dec 5, 2024 · Collectively, the six GCC Member States—Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates—form one of the world's largest ...