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K. Ferdinand Braun

Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918) was a German physicist and inventor best known for developing key technologies in wireless communication and early electronics, including the cathode-ray tube and improvements to radio telegraphy systems, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 with Guglielmo Marconi.^[1] Born on June 6, 1850, in Fulda, then part of the Electorate of Hesse (now Germany), Braun received his early education at the local Gymnasium before studying natural sciences at the University of Marburg and Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, where he earned his Ph.D. in 1872 with a dissertation on the oscillations of elastic strings.^[2] Throughout his career, Braun held several prominent academic positions, beginning as an assistant to Professor Quincke at the University of Würzburg and a teacher at St. Thomas Gymnasium in Leipzig in 1874, followed by appointment as extraordinary professor of theoretical physics at the University of Marburg from 1876 to 1880. He later served as extraordinary professor at the University of Strasbourg from 1880 to 1883, professor of physics at the Technical University of Karlsruhe from 1883 to 1885, and professor at the University of Tübingen from 1885 to 1895, where he helped establish a new Physics Institute. In 1895, he returned to the University of Strasbourg as professor of physics and director of the Physical Institute, roles he held until 1915.^[2]^[3] Braun's early research focused on the properties of crystals and dielectrics; in 1874, he discovered the rectifying effect in metal sulfide crystals, which laid foundational work for semiconductor devices like crystal detectors used in early radio receivers.^[4] Braun's most influential inventions came in the late 19th century, including the Braun tube—the first cathode-ray tube (CRT)—developed in 1897, which used electrostatic deflection to produce visual representations of electrical signals and became essential for oscilloscopes, televisions, and other display technologies.^[5] His work on wireless telegraphy in the 1890s involved creating tuned circuits and directional antennas that improved the efficiency and range of radio transmission, addressing limitations in existing systems and enabling practical long-distance communication.^[6] These advancements earned him the Nobel recognition "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy," highlighting his role alongside Marconi in establishing radio as a transformative technology.^[1] Braun died on April 20, 1918, in Brooklyn, New York, while in the United States, where he had traveled in 1915 to testify in a radio patent case and remained due to World War I.^[7]

Early Life and Education

Birth and Family

Karl Ferdinand Braun was born on June 6, 1850, in Fulda, in the Electorate of Hesse (now part of Germany).^[2]^[8] He was the fourth child in a family of modest means, growing up in a middle-class household during the mid-19th century in post-Napoleonic Europe, a period marked by political unification efforts in the German states.^[9]^[10] His father, Johann Konrad Braun, worked as a court clerk and civil servant at the district court in Fulda, providing a stable but unremarkable clerical livelihood.^[11]^[12] Braun's mother, Franziska Goehring, came from a similar clerical background, which offered the family consistent but limited financial support amid the economic challenges of the era.^[11]^[13] These familial ties to administrative roles fostered an environment of discipline and intellectual curiosity, though without direct connections to scientific trades.^[8] As a child, Braun showed early precocity, particularly in mathematics, and his parents held high expectations for his academic potential despite the household's constraints.^[9]^[8] This upbringing in Fulda's provincial setting, with its blend of traditional German schooling and personal initiative, laid the groundwork for his later scientific pursuits, transitioning into formal education at the local Gymnasium.^[2]

Academic Training

Braun received his early education at the local Gymnasium in Fulda, completing his studies there in 1868 with a strong emphasis on classical languages, mathematics, and sciences, which laid the groundwork for his scientific pursuits.^[2] In 1868, he enrolled at the University of Marburg to study natural sciences, with a primary focus on physics, mathematics, and chemistry, immersing himself in experimental methods and theoretical principles that would shape his later research.^[2]^[8] Two years later, in 1870, Braun transferred to the University of Berlin, where he continued his advanced studies under prominent physicists, including Gustav Heinrich Quincke, whose guidance influenced his approach to experimental physics.^[10] At Berlin, Braun completed his doctoral dissertation in March 1872, titled on the oscillations of elastic strings, examining how amplitude and tension affect vibrational periods in elastic materials—a work that demonstrated his early interest in mechanical and wave phenomena.^[2]^[10] This thesis, supervised by Quincke, earned him the PhD and marked his transition from theoretical mechanics to broader physical inquiries.^[10] Braun's foundational studies culminated in early publications that explored key physical properties, including a 1873 paper on the elasticity and oscillations of crystalline structures, analyzing stress responses in materials like quartz.^[2] He also investigated the effects of temperature variations on sound propagation in air, demonstrating how thermal changes alter acoustic velocity and attenuation, which contributed to early understandings of wave behavior in varying media.^[2] These works established Braun's reputation in experimental physics and prepared him for subsequent breakthroughs in electrical conduction and wave technology.

Professional Career

Teaching Positions

Braun's academic career commenced in 1874 with a teaching appointment at the St. Thomas Gymnasium in Leipzig, where he instructed secondary students in physics while pursuing independent research on electrical conduction in crystals. This position provided a stable base for his early experimental work, allowing him to balance pedagogical duties with scientific inquiry.^[2] In 1876, he advanced to the role of Extraordinary Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Marburg, lecturing on electromagnetism and optics until 1880. Here, the academic environment fostered his theoretical explorations, enabling him to develop ideas on wave propagation that informed his later inventions. His teaching emphasized conceptual foundations in physics, attracting students interested in emerging electrical phenomena.^[2]^[14]^[15] From 1880 to 1883, Braun served as Extraordinary Professor at the University of Strasbourg, continuing to teach physics and conducting research in a university setting that supported interdisciplinary studies. In 1883, he was appointed Full Professor of Physics at the University of Karlsruhe (now Karlsruhe Institute of Technology), where he established a dedicated laboratory for experimental physics, enhancing his teaching with hands-on demonstrations of electrical and optical principles.^[2]^[14] Braun's professorship at the University of Tübingen from 1885 to 1895 involved not only lecturing on theoretical and experimental physics but also the design and construction of a new physics institute, completed in 1889, which became a hub for student training in applied sciences. In 1895, he returned to the University of Strasbourg as Professor of Physics and Director of the Physical Institute, a role he held until 1918; in this capacity, he mentored numerous students in applied electricity, integrating research into the curriculum to prepare them for advancements in electrical engineering. During his tenure, he briefly served as university president in 1905, further influencing academic directions in physics education.^[2]^[14]^[10]

Industrial and Research Roles

In the late 1890s, Ferdinand Braun transitioned from academic pursuits to industrial applications of physics, providing expert consultation to companies interested in emerging communication technologies. In 1898, he was consulted by the German industrialist Ludwig Stollwerck on wireless telegraphy systems, leading to experiments on coupled resonant circuits that improved signal transmission efficiency over distances up to 3 km in North Sea tests.^[10] This work bridged his theoretical research with practical telegraphy needs, enabling early commercialization of electromagnetic wave applications.^[16] Braun's industrial involvement deepened with the co-founding of key enterprises to advance wireless technology amid growing international competition. In May 1900, he established "Professor Braun’s Telegraphie G.m.b.H." (known as Telebraun) to develop and market his inventions in wireless telegraphy. This entity merged in July 1901 with Siemens & Halske to form the "Gesellschaft für drahtlose Telegraphie System Prof. Braun und Siemens & Halske m.b.H.," a collaboration between major electrical firms AEG and Siemens aimed at challenging Guglielmo Marconi's patent dominance in wireless communications. By May 1903, the company reorganized as Telefunken, Gesellschaft für drahtlose Telegraphie, with Braun serving as a scientific leader; the Telefunken trademark was registered in November 1903, marking a pivotal step in German industrial radio development.^[10]^[16]^[17] From the mid-1900s onward, Braun directed research efforts at Telefunken's facilities, emphasizing advancements in high-power transmission suited for naval and military applications. His contributions focused on quenched-spark transmitters and syntonic (tuned) circuits, which enhanced signal range and selectivity, supporting the German Navy's adoption of Telefunken systems by 1908 for ship-to-shore communications. In 1917, under his guidance, Telefunken delivered more than 500 portable stations (each weighing over 25 pounds) for use at the front during World War I, prioritizing reliable long-distance propagation for strategic operations.^[18]^[10] World War I profoundly disrupted Braun's career, prompting a relocation to the United States in December 1914. He traveled to New York to testify as an expert witness for Telefunken in a patent infringement lawsuit against the Marconi Company, but escalating hostilities as a German national prevented his return; U.S. entry into the war in 1917 further classified him as an enemy alien, confining him to residence in Brooklyn. There, he continued theoretical work on wave propagation at a private laboratory in his son's home and summer retreats in the Catskill Mountains, though isolated from direct industrial oversight.^[2]^[16] Braun remained in the U.S. until his death on April 20, 1918, in Brooklyn, having shaped the foundational research culture at Telefunken through his earlier leadership.^[2]

Semiconductor Contributions

Rectifier Effect Discovery

In 1874, while serving as a teacher at the St. Thomas Gymnasium in Leipzig, Karl Ferdinand Braun conducted experiments on the electrical conductivity of metallic salts and crystals, leading to his discovery of asymmetric conduction, where electric current flowed more readily in one direction than the other across certain material junctions.^[2] This observation occurred during his investigations into sulfides, marking an early insight into what would later be recognized as semiconductor behavior.^[19] Braun's key experiments involved pressing metal wires against galena (lead sulfide) crystals, where he noted rectification—unidirectional current flow—without the need for vacuum tubes or other complex apparatus.^[20] These setups demonstrated that the resistance varied significantly with the polarity and magnitude of the applied voltage, particularly when using pointed metal contacts on the crystal surface.^[19] He published his findings in the paper "Ueber die Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle" in the Annalen der Physik, detailing measurements across various metal sulfides and emphasizing the role of galena in exhibiting the strongest rectifying properties.^[19] Braun explained the rectifier effect through differences in contact potential at the metal-semiconductor junction, where the interface created a barrier that impeded current in one direction while allowing it in the other, laying a foundational understanding for semiconductor physics.^[20] This theoretical framework highlighted how surface properties and material composition influenced conduction, influencing subsequent research on solid-state devices.^[19] Early implications included potential use in simple detectors for electrical signals, enabling the conversion of varying currents into detectable pulses.^[20]

Point-Contact Diode Development

Building on his earlier discovery of the rectifier effect in metal-semiconductor contacts, Braun refined the concept into a practical point-contact device during the late 1890s, particularly for use as a detector in early wireless experiments.^[10] In 1906, he filed a German patent application (No. 178,871, granted October 22, 1906) describing the point-contact rectifier as a wave-sensitive contact for detecting radio signals, emphasizing its use with psilomelane crystals to achieve one-way current flow.^[21] The patent detailed the construction, including the fine wire probe and crystal mounting, positioning the device as a key advancement for wireless telegraphy receivers.^[21] To validate its performance, Braun tested the rectifier in conjunction with electrolytic cells, demonstrating effective separation of opening and closing currents from inductors, which confirmed its ability to handle low-frequency signals.^[10] Braun publicly demonstrated the device's capabilities in lectures at the University of Marburg, showcasing the conversion of alternating to direct current in real-time setups. These presentations highlighted the rectifier's potential for solid-state detection, free from the moving parts required in contemporary electrolytic or magnetic detectors.^[10] Despite its promise, the point-contact rectifier exhibited notable limitations, including high sensitivity to the precise pressure applied to the contact and the purity of the crystal material, often necessitating manual adjustments to maintain functionality.^[10] Variations in crystal quality could lead to inconsistent rectification, restricting immediate widespread adoption beyond experimental contexts.^[10]

Electronic Display Innovations

Cathode-Ray Tube Invention

In 1897, while serving as professor of physics at the University of Strasbourg, Karl Ferdinand Braun invented the cathode-ray tube, a pivotal device for visualizing electrical phenomena through the manipulation of electron beams.^[2] This innovation, often referred to as the "Braun tube" or Braunsche Röhre, emerged from Braun's efforts to study high-frequency alternating currents and electrical oscillations.^[9] The tube consisted of an evacuated glass envelope with a source of cathode rays, accelerated by an anode, forming a beam that struck a phosphor-coated screen at the far end to produce visible fluorescence.^[9] Central to the tube's operation were electrostatic deflection plates positioned along the beam path, which enabled precise control of the electron stream by applying electric fields to bend it in response to varying voltages.^[22] This setup demonstrated that cathode rays—streams of particles—could be deflected by electric fields, providing empirical evidence that they consisted of charged particles, a finding that aligned closely with J.J. Thomson's concurrent identification of the electron in 1897.^[9] Braun detailed the tube's design and functionality in a seminal paper published in the Annalen der Physik, describing how the device could trace the temporal progression of electrical signals on the fluorescent screen. He presented the invention at a meeting of the German Physical Society in 1897, showcasing its potential for real-time waveform visualization.^[9] Early applications of the Braun tube centered on its use as a rudimentary oscilloscope in physics laboratories, where it displayed electrical waveforms and oscillations that were previously difficult to observe directly.^[2] This capability proved invaluable for experimental studies of rapid electrical variations, bridging visual demonstration with quantitative analysis. In the subsequent years of the 1900s, Braun and subsequent researchers introduced enhancements, such as options for magnetic deflection to achieve greater precision and range in beam control, expanding the tube's utility in scientific instrumentation.^[22] The device also related briefly to Braun's earlier electroscope designs by enabling the visual detection of transient signals that electrometers could measure but not display dynamically.^[2]

Braun's Electroscope Design

In 1887, while at the University of Strasbourg, Karl Ferdinand Braun developed an improved electroscope that functioned as an absolute electrometer for detecting weak electrical charges, as described in his paper in the Annalen der Physik.^[23] The instrument employed a torsion balance mechanism with gold-leaf suspensions to achieve high sensitivity in measuring electrostatic potentials.^[2] Key features of the design included a quadrant configuration with insulated plates, enabling precise measurement of potential differences as low as microvolts through calibration against known voltages. This setup minimized external influences and allowed for accurate quantification in low-charge scenarios. The device highlighted its enhanced sensitivity for applications in environments with minimal electrical activity, such as atmospheric electricity studies.^[2] Braun's electroscope found practical use in investigating air ionization processes and contributed to early X-ray detection experiments around 1896, where it helped quantify subtle charge variations produced by radiation. Compared to earlier gold-leaf electroscopes, the design offered reduced damping effects and superior resolution, making it a standard tool in laboratory settings well into the 1900s.^[2]

Wireless Telegraphy Advancements

Receiver Improvements

This innovation built upon his earlier semiconductor discoveries, where the rectifying properties of metal-crystal contacts formed the basis for point-contact diodes. Braun's discoveries formed the basis for point-contact diodes used in crystal receivers by the early 1900s, enhancing selectivity compared to traditional coherers, as the diodes avoided local heating effects that could cause signal distortion during demodulation.^[24] At Telefunken, co-founded by Braun in 1903, he contributed to the development of directional receivers employing antenna arrays to determine signal bearings, particularly for naval communications, by exploiting phase differences to localize sources and suppress interference from other directions.^[6] These systems extended from his 1905 experiments with phased array antennas, which used multiple elements to steer reception beams electronically.^[25] In trials from the Nauen station starting in 1906, these receiver improvements enabled reliable Morse code reception over distances up to approximately 3,500 km, with transatlantic capabilities demonstrated in subsequent years. A key element in these advancements was Braun's development of tuning circuits incorporating variable capacitors, which allowed precise frequency filtering to minimize interference from unwanted signals, as detailed in his 1898 patent for coupled resonant circuits (DR Patent Nr. 111578).^[6]

Transmitter and Antenna Designs

In the late 1890s, Karl Ferdinand Braun pioneered improvements to wireless telegraphy transmitters by introducing coupled resonant circuits, which separated the oscillation generation from the antenna radiation to reduce damping and enhance efficiency. This design, patented in Germany as DR Patent Nr. 111578 in 1898, allowed for more stable high-frequency generation and was foundational to later systems developed at Telefunken, where Braun served as a consultant after its founding in 1903. To address issues with traditional spark gaps that produced damped oscillations and limited range, Braun explored sparkless excitation methods and collaborated on quenched spark gaps, which provided sharper, more persistent signals up to frequencies of 100 kHz, enabling clearer long-distance signaling.^[10]^[26] Braun's antenna innovations focused on optimizing radiation patterns and minimizing losses for high-power transmission. In 1905, he developed a directional antenna system using three symmetrically arranged antennas in an equilateral triangle configuration, with phase delays of a quarter wavelength to steer the beam electronically across 120-degree sectors, reducing interference and concentrating energy in desired directions. This flat-top design incorporated ground returns to lower radiation losses, significantly improving signal focus over prior omnidirectional setups. These advancements were tested practically and laid the groundwork for modern phased-array technologies.^[26] For maritime applications, Braun contributed to compact antenna designs in 1907 through Telefunken, including umbrella-style configurations with multiple radial wires suspended from a central mast to provide top-loading capacitance, minimizing physical size while preserving efficiency for shipboard use. He also innovated with loading coils to electrically extend antenna wavelengths, broadening bandwidth for more reliable continuous-wave operation on longer distances. In collaboration with the German Navy around 1910, these technologies were integrated into high-power installations, such as those at the Nauen station, achieving transcontinental ranges exceeding 5,000 km with powers scaling to hundreds of kilowatts, facilitating reliable naval communications across vast oceans.^[10]^[18]

Recognition and Legacy

Nobel Prize Award

Karl Ferdinand Braun shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Guglielmo Marconi, receiving half the award in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy.^[1] The Nobel Committee specifically highlighted Braun's invention of the crystal diode detector, which served as an efficient receiver for electromagnetic waves, and his directional antenna designs that minimized signal loss and interference, enabling reliable transoceanic wireless communication for the first time.^[27] These innovations complemented Marconi's transmitter advancements and addressed key limitations in early wireless systems, such as weak reception and non-directional transmission.^[27] The award ceremony occurred on December 10, 1909, at the Stockholm Concert Hall in Sweden, as per the annual Nobel tradition.^[27] The following day, on December 11, 1909, Braun presented his Nobel lecture titled "Electrical Oscillations and Wireless Telegraphy", where he elaborated on the theoretical principles of oscillating circuits and wave propagation that underpinned his wireless telegraphy research.^[6] The total prize amount for the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics was 139,800 Swedish kronor (SEK), divided equally between Braun and Marconi, amounting to approximately 70,000 SEK each.^[28]

Named Honors and Prizes

Braun's contributions to physics earned him election to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1895.^[29] He was also elected as a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905.^[10] Braun died on April 20, 1918, in Brooklyn, New York, while detained as an enemy alien during World War I. His remains were later interred in Fulda, Germany, at Alter Dompfarrlicher Friedhof, and memorials honoring his birthplace exist in Fulda, including a plaque at his childhood home on Kanalstraße 1b.^[30] In recognition of his innovations in display technology, the Society for Information Display established the Karl Ferdinand Braun Prize in 1987 to honor outstanding technical achievements with substantial industry impact. The prize was first awarded that year and has since been given annually; notable recipients include Larry Hornbeck in 1996 for his work on the Digital Micromirror Device (DMD).^[31] In 2023, the IEEE recognized Braun's discovery of the point-contact diode rectifier effect as a historical milestone, highlighting its foundational role in semiconductor technology.^[32] Braun co-founded Telefunken in 1903, which became a cornerstone of the German electronics industry, pioneering wireless telegraphy and later advancing semiconductors; his rectifier effect, describing asymmetric conduction at metal-semiconductor junctions, remains commemorated in modern semiconductor literature as the basis for Schottky diodes.^[17]^[10]

References

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909 - NobelPrize.org
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909 was awarded jointly to Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of ...
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In 1874 Karl Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and rectification in metal sulfides probed with a metal point. (whisker) [3]. Although Braun's discovery was ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
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16. 7.1 The Evolution of Television - Open Text WSU
The cathode ray tube, invented by German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1897, was the forerunner of the TV picture tube. It had a fluorescent screen that ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
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Ferdinand Braun · Nobel Prize lecture · Electrical Oscillations and Wireless Telegraphy · Nobel Prizes 2025.
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Feb 2, 2016 · Biography. Karl Ferdinand Braun, German physicist and Nobel Prize winner was born on 6 June 1850 in the German town of Fulda.
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Karl Ferdinand Braun · Born: June 6, 1850 · Birthplace: Fulda, Hesse-Kassel (now in Germany) · Died: April 20, 1918 · Place of death: Brooklyn, New York.
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... Johann Conrad and Franziska Braun. His father Jo-. hann Conrad Braun has been actuary at the district court Fulda. In his teens he attended the Gymnasium ...
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Karl Ferdinand Braun was born on 6 June 1850, in Fulda, Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, Germany as the son of Johann Konrad Braun and Franziska Goehring.Missing: background | Show results with:background
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In Würzburg the research activities of. Ferdinand Braun mainly were focused on problems of electric conductivity. In the first of these works he investigated ...
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Ferdinand Braun was an experimental physicist during the period of Wilhelmian Germany. He worked on thermodynamics, electrochemistry, and electrical instruments ...Missing: Friedrichs- Gymnasium Kassel 1862
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Sep 4, 2024 · In 1868 he started studying physics, chemistry and math at the University of Marburg. A year later he transferred to the University of Berlin ...Missing: positions chronology
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He worked on his PhD under Quincke's supervision and received his doctor's degree in March 1872 with a thesis on the oscillations of elas- tic strings from the ...
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Apr 28, 2014 · Telefunken emerged as the second-largest wireless company in Europe after the British Marconi Company. It was created by two giant German electrical power ...
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[PDF] The Beginnings of Radio Communication in Germany, 1897-1918
With the formation of the "Gesellschaft für drahtlose. Telegraphie" (Telefunken) in 1903, their joint developments were given a corporate framework. Until the ...<|separator|>
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https://ethw.org/Telefunken
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File:Braun unipolar translated 1874.pdf - IEEE Milestones Wiki
Apr 26, 2023 · Summary. Translation of Braun, F. (1874), "Ueber die Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle" [On current conduction through metal sulfides] ...Missing: elektrischen Stromes
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Jan 15, 1996 · February 24, 1897. 11 F. Braun, German Patent No. 178871, “Wellenempfindliche. Kontaktstelle” [Wave-Sensitive. Contact Device], application ...
[20]
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Ferdinand Braun notes that current flows freely in only one direction at the contact between a metal point and a galena crystal.
[21]
Karl Ferdinand Braun 1850-1918 - The Cathode Ray Tube site
The Braun tube, this small early 1900 tube is in fact a cold Cathode Crookes tube with an internal mica screen covered with phosphorescent paint.
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Ferdinand Braun: Father of the Phased Array & CRT
Mar 11, 2024 · Braun was born on June 6, 1850 at Fulda, Germany, where he was educated at the local “Gymnasium,” or grammar school. He then went on to attend ...Missing: parents occupation family background
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Germany's first high power radio transmitter, it was founded on 1 April 1906 by Telefunken corporation and operated as a longwave radiotelegraphy station ...
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KARL F ERDINAND B RAUN. Electrical oscillations and wireless telegraphy. Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1909. In accepting, today, the great honour and privilege ...
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Nobel Prize in Physics 1909 - Presentation Speech - NobelPrize.org
Braun made a modification in the layout of the circuit for the despatch of electrical waves so that it was possible to produce intense waves with very little ...
[26]
[PDF] Table showing prize amounts
yearly nominal value December 2019 original amount nominal value. December 2019 original amount average. SEK ... 1909. 37. 139 800. 7 212 924. 83%. 1910. 37. 140 ...
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In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun was developing a new form of cathode ray ... Prussian Academy of Sciences. The nomination was written by Emil Warburg and ...
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Apr 25, 2019 · In the early months of 1915 he traveled to New York City to testify in a radio-related patent court case in defense of the German-owned ...
[29]
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KARL FERDINAND BRAUN PRIZE FOR TECHNOLOGICAL IMPACT. 1987 - PRESENT WINNERS. The Karl Ferdinand Braun award is awarded for outstanding technical achievement ...
[30]
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Apr 15, 2018 · *BRAUN, Ferdinand 1850-1918 German physicist (Nobel, 1909) BROCA ... Falcon: Small crater on Family Hill used for landmark tracking from orbit ...
[31]
[PDF] Expertise for the establishment of an IEEE Milestone in recognition ...
May 4, 2023 · Thus Ferdinand Braun has discovered the point contact rectifier effect and by this way created the whisker diode. Undoubtedly, the Thomas ...