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Physics education

Physics education encompasses the systematic teaching and learning of physics principles, concepts, and methodologies across educational levels, from elementary school integration within general science curricula to specialized courses in secondary and higher education, with the goal of fostering scientific literacy, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills vital for technological innovation and societal decision-making.^[1] This field addresses the development of curricula that build foundational understanding of phenomena like motion, energy, and electromagnetism, while preparing students for careers in science, engineering, and related disciplines.^[2] It emphasizes hands-on experimentation, conceptual modeling, and the application of physics to real-world problems, ensuring learners grasp both theoretical frameworks and practical implications.^[3] The importance of physics education lies in its role in cultivating a technically proficient workforce and an informed public capable of engaging with complex issues such as energy policy, climate change, and medical advancements, where physics underpins innovations like MRI technology and renewable energy systems.^[1] Historically, post-World War II reforms, driven by events like the space race, expanded access and enthusiasm for physics instruction, leading to organizations such as the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT), founded in 1930, which promotes excellence in teaching through professional development and resources.^[4] Despite these efforts, challenges persist, including low enrollment—approximately 10% of U.S. high school students take physics (as of 2018–19)—and high attrition rates of about 70% in undergraduate programs (as of 2024), often due to inadequate teacher preparation, where about 47% of secondary physics instructors hold degrees in physics or physics education.^[5]^[6]^[7] Gender and ethnic underrepresentation remains significant, with women comprising about 19% of physics PhD recipients (as of 2019), highlighting ongoing equity gaps.^[8] A cornerstone of modern physics education is Physics Education Research (PER), a discipline that employs empirical and theoretical methods to investigate how students learn physics, identify misconceptions, and evaluate instructional strategies, thereby informing evidence-based reforms.^[9] PER examines cognitive mechanisms, such as conceptual understanding and epistemological beliefs, across K-12 and postsecondary contexts, often using tools like interactive simulations and validated assessments to enhance engagement and retention.^[10] Current trends focus on inclusivity and innovation, addressing diversity through intersectional approaches that consider race, gender, and socioeconomic factors, while integrating active learning techniques to make physics more accessible and relevant in an era of rapid technological change.^[11] Organizations like the American Physical Society (APS) support PER through open-access journals, such as Physical Review Physics Education Research, which disseminate findings on topics ranging from curriculum design to teacher training.^[12]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Foundations

The origins of physics education can be traced to ancient Greece, where philosophical inquiry into the natural world laid the conceptual groundwork for systematic study of physical phenomena. In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle established the Lyceum in Athens around 335 BCE, a center for research and teaching that emphasized empirical observation and logical analysis in natural philosophy, as detailed in his treatise Physics. This work explored motion, change, and the elements, framing physics as a branch of knowledge accessible through reasoned discourse rather than divine revelation, influencing subsequent generations of scholars.^[13]^[14] Complementing Aristotle's approach, Archimedes in the 3rd century BCE advanced experimental methods in mechanics, deriving theorems on levers, buoyancy, and hydrostatics through rigorous testing and mathematical proof, such as his principle that the upward buoyant force equals the weight of displaced fluid. These contributions exemplified early pedagogical use of experimentation to reveal physical laws, bridging theory and practical demonstration.^[15]^[16] During the medieval Islamic Golden Age, scholars built upon Greek foundations, integrating optics and experimentation into structured knowledge transmission. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), active in the 11th century, authored the Book of Optics around 1021 CE, pioneering the scientific method by emphasizing controlled experiments to refute ancient theories of vision, such as those of Ptolemy and Euclid, and establishing that light rays enter the eye from objects. This text, disseminated through madrasas—institutions founded from the 9th century onward that served as hubs for advanced learning in sciences alongside religious studies—facilitated the teaching of empirical optics and mathematics across the Islamic world, preserving and expanding Greek knowledge for later European adoption.^[17]^[18]^[19] The Renaissance marked a pivotal shift toward prioritizing experimentation over ancient authority, exemplified by Galileo Galilei in the early 17th century. Challenging Aristotelian views that motion required continuous force, Galileo conducted inclined plane experiments from 1603 to 1609, rolling balls down ramps to measure acceleration and demonstrate that falling bodies gain speed uniformly, with distance proportional to the square of time. Published in Two New Sciences (1638), these findings promoted a mathematical-experimental paradigm for physics, influencing informal teaching through demonstrations that emphasized direct observation over textual dogma.^[20] In the Enlightenment era, Isaac Newton's works formalized physics as a teachable discipline, blending mathematical rigor with empirical validation. His Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics via laws of motion and universal gravitation, providing a deductive framework that inspired subsequent pedagogical texts. Newton's Opticks (1704), with its query-based experimental approach to light and color, further shaped education by advocating hypothesis testing. These influenced early 18th-century textbooks like Willem Jacob 'sGravesande's Physices Elementa Mathematica (1719–1721), which integrated Newtonian principles with laboratory demonstrations, standardizing physics instruction across European universities and laying groundwork for 19th-century institutional curricula.^[21]^[22]

Modern Evolution and Key Milestones

The establishment of physics as a formal subject in public education during the 19th century was driven by national efforts to modernize curricula amid industrialization and scientific advancement. In Prussia, reforms beginning in the early 1800s integrated physics into secondary school instruction to foster practical knowledge and character development, replacing elements of the classical curriculum with experimental sciences; particularly in realschulen by the 1840s, with increasing integration into gymnasia curricula, emphasizing laboratory demonstrations to prepare students for technical professions.^[23] In Britain, physics gained prominence through public lectures and institutional advocacy, notably Michael Faraday's Christmas Lectures at the Royal Institution, initiated in 1827, which popularized electromagnetism and chemical forces for juvenile audiences and influenced the inclusion of experimental physics in emerging public school systems by the 1850s.^[24] A pivotal milestone was the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, which showcased industrial technologies and generated substantial profits—over £186,000—that were reinvested into science education infrastructure, funding the development of museums, technical colleges, and scholarships in South Kensington to promote practical physics training across social classes.^[25] This event underscored the societal imperative for widespread scientific literacy, inspiring similar exhibitions worldwide and accelerating the institutionalization of physics in national education policies.^[26] The early 20th century marked the widespread adoption of laboratory-based instruction in physics education, exemplified by Robert Millikan's oil-drop experiment in 1909, which measured the electron's charge and was adapted as a hands-on teaching tool to demonstrate quantization of electric charge in high school and university labs, emphasizing empirical verification over rote learning. In 1930, the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) was founded to advance the teaching of physics through professional development and resources.^[4] This approach, rooted in progressive pedagogy, spread globally as physics curricula shifted toward investigative methods, with Millikan's apparatus becoming a staple in American and European classrooms by the 1920s.^[27]^[28] Mid-20th-century reforms were propelled by geopolitical events, particularly the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, which exposed perceived U.S. deficiencies in STEM education and prompted federal intervention through the National Defense Education Act of 1958, allocating funds for teacher training and curriculum development in physics.^[29] This crisis accelerated the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) program, initiated at MIT in 1956 but expanded post-Sputnik, which produced a rigorous high school physics textbook emphasizing conceptual understanding and modern topics like relativity, reaching over a million students by the 1960s and influencing international standards.^[30] Post-World War II, UNESCO played a central role in globalizing physics education through initiatives in the 1950s and 1960s, convening international conferences—such as the 1960 Paris conference on physics education—to standardize curricula in developing nations and promote resource sharing amid decolonization.^[31] These efforts, including the publication of "New Trends in Physics Teaching" volumes starting in 1967, supported laboratory equipment distribution and teacher workshops in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, aiming to align education with scientific progress for economic development.^[32] By the late 20th century, concerns over international competitiveness resurfaced with the 1983 U.S. report "A Nation at Risk," which documented declining science achievement scores—such as a steady drop in 17-year-olds' performance from 1969 to 1977—and warned of STEM inadequacies threatening national security, spurring reforms like increased high school graduation requirements in physics and math.^[33] The report's emphasis on rigorous content and accountability influenced global policy dialogues, reinforcing physics education's role in fostering innovation.^[34]

Pedagogical Approaches

Core Teaching Methods

The lecture-demonstration model forms a cornerstone of traditional physics instruction, where instructors deliver content through verbal explanations supplemented by visual aids and simple experiments to illustrate key principles. In this approach, blackboard derivations are commonly employed to outline mathematical relationships step-by-step, such as deriving equations for uniform motion or acceleration, allowing students to follow logical progressions in real time. Simple apparatus, like pendulums, are used to demonstrate kinematics concepts; for instance, a pendulum's oscillatory motion highlights periodic behavior and gravitational effects without requiring complex setup, reinforcing observational learning in large classroom settings. This method, predominant in physics education since the early 20th century, emphasizes teacher-centered delivery to convey foundational ideas efficiently to passive audiences.^[35]^[36] Textbook-driven learning complements lectures by guiding students through structured problem-solving sequences, particularly in applying Newton's laws of motion. Textbooks typically present Newton's second law, \mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a}, as a central equation, followed by sequential examples that build from basic identification of forces to full analysis. A key tool in this process is the free-body diagram, which isolates an object and depicts all acting forces (e.g., gravity, normal force, friction) as vectors originating from its center, enabling students to sum forces and solve for acceleration or equilibrium. For example, in analyzing an object sliding down an incline, students draw the diagram to resolve components parallel and perpendicular to the surface, applying F = ma iteratively to predict motion. This methodical progression fosters familiarity with quantitative applications in classical mechanics.^[37]^[38] Socratic questioning integrates into classroom discussions to promote conceptual understanding beyond rote procedures, drawing from the historical dialogues of Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) where probing inquiries reveal inconsistencies in assumptions. In physics education, instructors pose targeted questions like "What forces must balance for an object to remain at rest?" to guide students toward self-discovery of principles, such as equilibrium in Newton's first law. Applied in undergraduate settings, this method uses thought experiments or counterexamples during lectures or tutorials to challenge preconceptions, encouraging verbal elaboration and peer dialogue. Studies show it enhances retention of core ideas, like force interactions, by shifting focus from formula recall to relational reasoning.^[39]^[40] Homework assignments and drills play a vital role in reinforcing quantitative skills, providing repeated practice to solidify problem-solving proficiency outside class. In introductory physics, these often involve applying kinematic equations to scenarios like projectile motion, where students compute the horizontal range using the formula

R = \frac{v_0^2 \sin(2\theta)}{g},

with v_0 as initial velocity, \theta as launch angle, and g as gravitational acceleration. Mastery-oriented homework systems, requiring attempts until a threshold (e.g., 80% accuracy) is met, improve skill acquisition by offering immediate feedback through solutions or hints, leading to higher completion rates and conceptual gains in mechanics topics.^[41]^[42] A common pitfall in these core methods is overreliance on rote memorization without forging conceptual links, particularly evident in classical mechanics where students recite formulas like Newton's laws but struggle to apply them flexibly. For instance, learners may memorize force balances for specific problems (e.g., Atwood's machine) yet fail to recognize patterns in novel situations, leading to persistent misconceptions about inertia or acceleration as "speeding up" rather than vector change. This approach exacerbates intuitive errors, such as Aristotelian views of motion requiring constant force, hindering deeper Newtonian comprehension. Physics education research highlights that without explicit connections to real-world contexts, such memorization yields superficial knowledge vulnerable to forgetting.^[43]^[44]

Innovative and Technology-Integrated Strategies

Inquiry-based learning represents a shift toward student-centered approaches in physics education, where learners actively explore concepts through investigation rather than passive reception. In guided inquiry, instructors provide structured prompts to direct exploration, such as measuring voltage, current, and resistance in simple circuits to derive Ohm's law, expressed as V = IR, fostering deeper conceptual understanding compared to traditional scripted labs. ^[45] ^[46] Open inquiry, by contrast, allows greater student autonomy in formulating questions and hypotheses, often leading to enhanced problem-solving skills but requiring more scaffolding to avoid frustration in complex topics like circuit analysis. ^[45] Studies indicate that guided inquiry in physics labs improves content knowledge retention over cookbook methods, particularly for foundational electricity concepts. ^[45] Collaborative group work and peer instruction further engage students by leveraging social interaction to clarify misconceptions. Techniques like Think-Pair-Share involve individuals first pondering a conceptual question, then discussing with a partner, and sharing with the class, promoting active reasoning on abstract ideas such as time dilation in special relativity. ^[47] ^[48] This method, popularized in physics classrooms since the 1990s, has been shown to boost conceptual understanding by up to 50% on multiple-choice assessments when integrated into lectures, as peers articulate rationales and challenge errors. ^[47] In relativity topics, such discussions help demystify non-intuitive principles like length contraction, with faculty-designed questions emphasizing disciplinary thinking over rote recall. ^[49] Integration of digital tools enhances visualization of abstract physics phenomena, making intangible processes accessible. PhET Interactive Simulations, free browser-based applets developed by the University of Colorado Boulder, allow students to manipulate variables in wave interference patterns, observing constructive and destructive effects through double-slit experiments with light or water waves. ^[50] ^[51] These simulations support inquiry by enabling real-time adjustments, improving comprehension of superposition principles in optics and acoustics. ^[51] Virtual reality (VR) extends this to immersive experiences, particularly in quantum mechanics, where users navigate probabilistic wave functions and particle behaviors in 3D environments, such as visualizing electron orbitals in a hydrogen atom. ^[52] Research demonstrates VR modules increase engagement and retention of quantum concepts, as learners interact with phenomena otherwise invisible in classical labs. ^[52] Flipped classroom models invert traditional instruction by assigning video lectures on core principles as homework, reserving class time for interactive problem-solving. For instance, students watch explanations of energy conservation, where kinetic energy (KE) plus potential energy (PE) remains constant (KE + PE = \text{constant}), then apply it collaboratively to scenarios like roller coaster motion or pendulum swings during sessions. ^[53] ^[54] This approach frees in-class time for addressing difficulties, with studies showing 15-20% gains in problem-solving proficiency on mechanics assessments compared to lecture-based formats. ^[54] Empirical evidence underscores the efficacy of these technology-integrated strategies for retention and conceptual grasp. Multimedia resources, including interactive videos, enhance long-term knowledge retention in introductory physics by integrating visual and auditory cues, with one study reporting higher post-test scores and sustained gains over semesters. ^[55] Video analysis tools like Tracker software enable students to import real-world footage—such as a ball's projectile motion—and track kinematic variables like velocity and acceleration, bridging theory and observation to improve attitudes toward physics learning. ^[56] ^[57] In kinematics units, Tracker-based activities have led to better conceptual scores, as students iteratively refine models from video data. ^[56] These methods collectively address limitations of passive learning, yielding measurable improvements in engagement and outcomes.

Curriculum and Assessment

Structure Across Educational Levels

Physics education curricula are structured to build conceptual understanding progressively from primary to postsecondary levels, integrating mathematics as prerequisites and employing variations like spiral sequencing to reinforce topics at increasing depths.^[58]^[59] In elementary education (grades K-5), the focus is on conceptual physics through hands-on exploration of basic phenomena. Students in kindergarten investigate motion and forces by planning experiments to observe how pushes and pulls affect object speed and direction, such as using ramps or strings.^[60] By third grade, they explore balanced and unbalanced forces on the motion of an object.^[61] They also investigate electric or magnetic interactions between objects not in contact.^[62] Fourth grade introduces energy concepts, relating speed to energy.^[63] Students make observations to provide evidence that energy can be transferred from place to place by sound, light, heat, and electric currents.^[64] Fifth grade builds on forces with gravitational interactions.^[65] Students use models to describe that energy in animals' food (used for body repair, growth, motion, and to maintain body warmth) was once energy from the sun.^[66] Middle school (grades 6-8) advances to basic energy principles and quantitative aspects of motion and forces. Students analyze how the net force on an object determines changes in its motion, proportional to mass.^[67] They explore kinetic and potential energy forms and energy conservation through tracking transfers in systems, such as collisions or circuits, without explicit formulas but with data analysis.^[68] High school curricula shift to algebra-based mechanics and electricity, aligning with inquiry-based standards like the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). Core topics include Newton's laws of motion, where students model forces causing acceleration, and energy conservation in mechanical systems. Electricity covers circuits, with concepts like current conservation leading to applications of Kirchhoff's laws for analyzing series and parallel networks. The NGSS structures these through performance expectations that integrate practices like modeling and data analysis.^[69] In higher education, introductory courses for majors are calculus-based, emphasizing vectors and derivatives in dynamics. For instance, acceleration is derived as the rate of change of velocity, \mathbf{a} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}, applied to projectile motion and circular paths. Advanced undergraduate programs delve into electromagnetism, providing an overview of Maxwell's equations that unify electric and magnetic fields:

\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0}, \quad \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0,

\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}, \quad \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{J} + \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}.

^[70] Mathematics integration is essential, with trigonometry prerequisite for optics topics like reflection and refraction before advancing to wave phenomena, ensuring students can handle vector components and angles.^[71] Curricular sequencing often employs a spiral approach, revisiting foundational concepts like forces and energy at progressively deeper levels across grades to promote retention and conceptual connections.^[59] Specific frameworks include the U.S. NGSS, which aligns physics with inquiry across disciplines, and the International Baccalaureate (IB) Physics program, offering coherent progression through themes like mechanics and waves for global coherence.^[72]^[73]

Evaluation and Standards

Evaluation in physics education encompasses a range of methods designed to measure student understanding, skills, and application of concepts, while standards provide benchmarks for educational quality and expected outcomes across levels from K-12 to higher education. These assessments aim to ensure alignment with curriculum goals, identifying both strengths and areas for improvement in learning physics principles such as mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Formative and summative evaluations, guided by national and international standards, help educators refine instruction and track progress toward proficiency in scientific reasoning and problem-solving.^[74] Formative assessments focus on ongoing feedback to address misconceptions and build conceptual understanding during instruction. A prominent example is the Force Concept Inventory (FCI), a 30-item multiple-choice instrument developed to probe students' intuitive beliefs about Newtonian mechanics, particularly force and motion, revealing common errors like attributing motion to continuous force application rather than inertia. The FCI, validated through extensive testing in introductory courses, typically shows pre-instruction scores around 30-40% for college students, highlighting persistent Aristotelian views despite formal teaching.^[75] Other formative tools include classroom quizzes and interactive simulations that target specific topics, such as energy conservation, to iteratively improve comprehension. Summative assessments evaluate overall mastery at the end of instructional units or courses through structured tools like multiple-choice exams, laboratory reports, and performance rubrics. Multiple-choice exams test recall and application of concepts, often including items on derivations or numerical problem-solving in areas like kinematics. Laboratory reports assess experimental design and data interpretation, with rubrics emphasizing criteria such as procedural accuracy, graphical analysis, and conclusion validity. For instance, in experiments measuring gravitational acceleration g via free fall, rubrics evaluate error analysis by requiring students to calculate uncertainties from timing devices and propagate them to final values, distinguishing systematic from random errors to achieve results within 2% of the accepted $9.8 \, \mathrm{m/s^2}. These tools ensure students demonstrate practical skills alongside theoretical knowledge. Standardized tests provide benchmarks for comparing performance across institutions and nations, often aligned with established standards like the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) in the U.S. The Advanced Placement (AP) Physics exams, administered by the College Board, assess college-level readiness through multiple-choice and free-response sections covering topics from mechanics to modern physics. In AP Physics 2, questions on thermodynamics require applying the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, to analyze processes like isothermal expansion, where students calculate work or heat transfer using state variables. Internationally, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) evaluates 15-year-olds' science literacy, including physics-related competencies in energy and systems, with average scores around 480-500 points across OECD countries in recent cycles, indicating moderate proficiency in applying scientific models to real-world scenarios.^[76] Learning objectives in physics education are framed using Bloom's taxonomy to span cognitive levels from basic recall to higher-order thinking, ensuring assessments target appropriate depths of understanding. At the lower levels, students recall equations like Newton's second law, F = ma, while at the application level, they solve problems involving variable forces. Higher levels involve analysis, such as evaluating quantum tunneling probabilities in barrier penetration scenarios, where students compare classical and quantum predictions to assess tunneling's role in nuclear fusion.^[77] This taxonomy, revised in 2001, guides objective-setting in standards like NGSS, promoting progression from remembering facts to creating models in physics contexts.^[78] Challenges in physics evaluation include aligning assessments with evolving standards and addressing equity in high-stakes testing environments. Misalignment can occur when tests emphasize rote computation over inquiry-based skills outlined in NGSS, leading to incomplete coverage of performance expectations like engineering design in physics labs.^[79] High-stakes exams, such as AP or state proficiency tests, often exacerbate inequities, with underrepresented groups showing performance gaps due to biases in question design or unequal access to preparatory resources; for example, gender disparities in physics scores persist, with females scoring 5-10% lower on average in introductory courses, influenced by stereotype threat and testing formats.^[80] Efforts to mitigate these involve inclusive rubric design and bias audits to promote fair evaluation across diverse student populations.

Research in Physics Education

Foundational Studies and Theories

Physics Education Research (PER) emerged as a distinct field in the 1970s and 1980s, driven by growing recognition among physicists and educators that traditional lecture-based instruction often failed to foster deep conceptual understanding among students.^[81] Pioneers such as Lillian McDermott, Robert Karplus, and David Hestenes began investigating student learning difficulties through empirical studies, shifting focus from content delivery to cognitive processes in physics.^[82] A landmark contribution came from David Hestenes in 1985, who developed the foundational work for the Force Concept Inventory (FCI), a diagnostic tool to assess students' grasp of Newtonian force concepts; this instrument, later formalized in 1992, revealed widespread misconceptions and became a cornerstone for evaluating instructional effectiveness.^[83]^[84] Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, outlined in the mid-20th century, provided an early framework for understanding how students' mental stages influence physics learning.^[85] In particular, the concrete operational stage (typically ages 7-11) enables children to perform logical operations on concrete objects, making it suitable for hands-on mechanics experiments where students manipulate physical models to grasp concepts like conservation of momentum.^[85] This stage contrasts with the preoperational phase, where abstract reasoning is limited, highlighting why introductory physics curricula often emphasize tangible demonstrations to align with developmental readiness.^[85] Bloom's taxonomy, introduced in 1956, established a hierarchical structure for educational objectives that profoundly shaped physics instruction, particularly in problem-solving. The taxonomy categorizes cognitive skills from basic knowledge recall to higher-order analysis and synthesis, guiding educators to design physics problems that progress from remembering formulas to evaluating real-world applications, such as deriving equations for projectile motion.^[86] In physics education, this framework underscored the need to move beyond rote memorization toward evaluative skills, influencing curriculum design to promote deeper engagement with concepts like energy conservation.^[86] Seminal studies on student misconceptions further solidified PER's foundations, with Ibrahim Halloun and David Hestenes' 1985 analysis identifying persistent errors in Newtonian mechanics among college students.^[83] Their research surveyed common-sense beliefs, such as the impetus theory—where students viewed motion as requiring continuous force—contrasting sharply with Newton's first law, and found that over 80% of students held such alternative conceptions despite prior instruction.^[83] This work emphasized that misconceptions arise from intuitive, pre-instructional knowledge rather than ignorance, advocating for targeted interventions to reconstruct understanding.^[83] Building on these insights, Andrea diSessa's resource theory, proposed in 1993, offered a phenomenological model of student cognition in physics. Rather than viewing knowledge as coherent but incorrect theories, diSessa described it as "knowledge in pieces"—a collection of fragmented, context-sensitive resources activated dynamically during problem-solving. For instance, in learning mechanics, students might draw on p-prims (phenomenological primitives) like "closer-faster" from everyday experiences, which can both hinder and support formal concept development when properly coordinated. This theory shifted PER toward viewing learning as resource refinement, influencing instructional strategies to leverage intuitive elements constructively.

Current Trends and Applications

Recent research in physics education has emphasized evidence-based interventions to enhance student outcomes, with meta-analyses demonstrating the efficacy of active learning strategies. A comprehensive review of over 200 studies across science, engineering, and mathematics courses found that active learning increases student performance by an average of 0.47 standard deviations, equivalent to raising grades by approximately half a letter grade, and reduces failure rates by 1.5 times compared to traditional lecturing.^[87] These findings underscore the shift toward interactive pedagogies in contemporary physics classrooms, building on foundational theories of student-centered learning. Diversity and inclusion have become central foci in physics education research since the 2010s, particularly addressing persistent gender gaps in enrollment and participation. Studies indicate that women remain underrepresented in advanced physics courses, with enrollment rates often below 30% in introductory university-level classes, attributed to factors such as stereotype threat and lack of visibility for female scientists.^[88] Interventions involving exposure to female role models have shown promise in mitigating these disparities; for instance, a large-scale field experiment in French high schools demonstrated that brief classroom presentations by women in scientific fields increased girls' enrollment in STEM tracks by up to 5 percentage points, while also shifting their perceptions of career viability.^[89] Computational modeling within physics education research (PER) increasingly leverages data analytics to map and support student learning trajectories, especially in complex topics like quantum mechanics. Researchers have developed validated learning progressions using statistical models such as Rasch analysis on student assessment data, revealing hierarchical stages from classical intuitions to probabilistic quantum concepts, which inform targeted instructional scaffolds.^[90] This approach enables educators to track individual progress through large datasets, identifying common misconceptions—such as over-reliance on deterministic thinking—and adapting curricula dynamically to improve conceptual mastery. The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of online learning in physics education, with post-2020 studies highlighting the effectiveness of remote laboratories for hands-on topics like electromagnetism. Virtual simulations, including online oscilloscopes, have enabled students to explore wave phenomena and circuit analysis remotely, achieving comparable learning outcomes to in-person setups while enhancing accessibility.^[91] For example, pragmatic integrations of virtual experiments in electromagnetism curricula have supported inquiry-based exploration of fields and potentials, with evaluations showing improved student engagement and conceptual understanding in diverse settings.^[92] Neuroeducation applications are providing novel insights into cognitive processes underlying physics learning, particularly through neuroimaging studies of spatial reasoning. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research reveals that solving 3D physics problems activates a network including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, and retrosplenial cortex, regions also implicated in visuospatial manipulation, linking mathematical proficiency with physical intuition.^[93] These findings suggest potential for tailored interventions, such as visualization training, to bolster spatial skills critical for mechanics and electromagnetism, though translation to classroom practices remains an active area of empirical validation. As of 2025, emerging trends in PER include the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) tools, such as intelligent tutoring systems, which have demonstrated superior learning gains compared to traditional active learning methods in physics courses. For instance, studies show AI tutors enable students to achieve higher conceptual understanding in less time while increasing engagement.^[94] Additionally, the United Nations' declaration of 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology has amplified research on quantum education, with conferences like the Physics Education Research Conference (PERC) 2025 focusing on developing inclusive curricula and addressing student challenges in quantum concepts to broaden access to this field.^[95]; ^[96]

Global Perspectives

Regional Variations and Practices

Physics education exhibits significant regional variations shaped by cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors, influencing curriculum design, teaching methodologies, and student preparation. In Europe, curricula often prioritize deep theoretical foundations, while Asia emphasizes rigorous examination preparation. North American approaches frequently incorporate hands-on inquiry and interdisciplinary integration, contrasting with resource-limited adaptations in Latin America and Africa that address local constraints and equity goals. In Europe, particularly Germany, physics education in secondary schools underscores theoretical rigor, with the Abitur examination requiring advanced topics such as quantum mechanics to foster conceptual depth. The German International Abitur physics curriculum, for instance, integrates electrostatics, electromagnetic induction, waves, and quantum physics, preparing students for university-level abstraction through structured problem-solving and theoretical analysis. This emphasis on formalism aligns with broader European trends, where curricula in countries like France and the UK also stress mathematical modeling and historical scientific developments to build analytical skills. Asia's physics education is predominantly exam-oriented, reflecting competitive national systems that prioritize high-stakes assessments. In China, the Gaokao university entrance exam drives a curriculum focused on rote mastery and application of core principles, with physics instruction emphasizing mechanics, optics, and electromagnetism through intensive drills and standardized testing to ensure broad coverage under time constraints. Similarly, in India, preparation for the Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) centers on high-volume problem-solving in mechanics, where students tackle complex scenarios involving kinematics, dynamics, and rotational motion, often via coaching institutes that supplement school curricula with advanced numerical exercises. This approach cultivates precision in calculations but can limit exploratory learning. North American practices blend inquiry-driven exploration in the United States with integrated STEM frameworks in Canada, adapting to diverse educational levels. U.S. high school physics frequently employs inquiry-based models, such as guided laboratory activities in the Physics by Inquiry curriculum, where students develop scientific reasoning through open-ended experiments on topics like mechanics and electricity, promoting conceptual understanding over memorization. In Canada, physics is often embedded within broader STEM initiatives, as seen in national programs that link physics concepts to engineering and technology applications, enhancing interdisciplinary skills. Quebec's CEGEP system uniquely bridges high school and university by offering two-year pre-university programs, including sequential physics courses in mechanics, waves, electricity, and modern physics, which build foundational rigor while incorporating practical labs to prepare students for specialized degrees. In Latin America, resource constraints in countries like Brazil have spurred innovative, community-oriented practices within physics education. The Institutional Program for Teaching Initiation Scholarships (PIBID) supports university-student collaborations in public schools, facilitating low-cost, community-based laboratories that use everyday materials for experiments in mechanics and optics, thereby addressing limited infrastructure while enhancing teacher training and student engagement through hands-on, contextually relevant activities.^[97] Africa faces persistent infrastructure challenges in physics education, particularly in South Africa, where the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) adapts post-apartheid reforms to promote equity by standardizing content in mechanics, electricity, and chemical change across diverse settings. CAPS emphasizes practical investigations despite shortages in equipment and facilities, aiming to redress historical inequalities by integrating accessible demonstrations and fostering inclusive access to scientific literacy in under-resourced rural and urban schools.^[98]

Equity, Access, and International Efforts

Equity in physics education encompasses efforts to ensure fair opportunities for all students, addressing disparities influenced by gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and geographic location. Globally, underrepresented groups face significant barriers, with women comprising approximately 33% of researchers worldwide as of 2023, though this figure is lower in physics (around 20-30% in various studies).^[99] Similarly, students from low-income or rural backgrounds often lack access to qualified teachers and resources, leading to lower enrollment in physics courses; for instance, in sub-Saharan Africa, many secondary schools cannot offer physics as a separate subject due to resource limitations.^[100] These inequities not only limit individual potential but also hinder broader scientific innovation by excluding diverse perspectives.^[101] Access to physics education remains uneven, particularly in developing countries where infrastructure deficits and teacher shortages exacerbate gaps. In many low-resource settings, physics curricula are underfunded, resulting in outdated materials and limited laboratory facilities, which disproportionately affect marginalized communities. For example, in parts of Asia and Latin America, indigenous and female students encounter additional hurdles such as language barriers and discriminatory practices, resulting in low participation rates in advanced physics programs.^[102] Assessments like PISA highlight these disparities, showing that students in high-income countries generally outperform peers in low-income nations in science proficiency, including physics-related skills.^[103] These gaps underscore the need for targeted interventions to bridge the divide. International organizations play a pivotal role in advancing equity and access through collaborative initiatives. The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) promotes inclusive physics education by sponsoring workshops and schools in developing countries, emphasizing non-discriminatory access to resources and advancement opportunities for all genders and backgrounds.^[104] UNESCO supports global efforts via programs like the International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport, which advocates for equitable STEM access, and recent colloquia on physics for society launched in 2025 that address societal impacts and inclusion.^[105] ^[106] Additionally, the Institute of Physics (IOP) extends outreach to underserved communities through international exhibitions and partnerships, aiming to foster diversity and equal participation in physics.^[107] The American Physical Society (APS) contributes via global outreach, including equity-focused programs that connect educators across borders to share best practices for inclusive teaching.^[108] These efforts collectively aim to align with Sustainable Development Goal 4 on quality education, prioritizing long-term systemic change, including initiatives tied to the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQ 2025).^[109]

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The Physics Education Research group in the Department of Physics engages in both theoretical and experimental work to understand student learning in physics.
[7]
The future of physics education | College of Science
Apr 1, 2024 · Future physics education aims to improve learning environments, make them more equitable, diversify skillsets, and address issues with ...
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About Physical Review Physics Education Research
A trusted open access journal for significant experimental and theoretical research related to the teaching and learning of physics and astronomy.
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Aristotle - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 25, 2008 · Members of the Lyceum conducted research into a wide range of subjects, all of which were of interest to Aristotle himself: botany, biology, ...Aristotle's Ethics · Aristotle's Metaphysics · Aristotle's Political Theory · Mathematics
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Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC) - Biography - MacTutor
In 335 BC Aristotle founded his own school the Lyceum ... Another topic to which Aristotle made major contributions was natural philosophy or rather physics by ...
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Archimedes - Biography - MacTutor - University of St Andrews
In mechanics Archimedes discovered fundamental theorems concerning the centre of gravity of plane figures and solids. His most famous theorem gives the weight ...
[12]
Greek Science after Aristotle - Galileo and Einstein
Two of his major contributions to physics are his understanding of the principle of buoyancy, and his analysis of the lever. He also invented many ingenious ...Missing: methods | Show results with:methods<|separator|>
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Transmission of Islamic science to the West - UNESCO Digital Library
H e had obtained some knowledge of the cosmological views of Ibn al-Haytham and of Muhammad b. ... His optics was essentially based upon that of Ibn al-Haytham.
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[PDF] The Social Structure of Islamicate Science ...
... Ibn Sīnā's Canon of Medicine (composed around. 1025) and Ibn al-Haytham's Optics (composed before 1040). Using this standard, we look for later books.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Module II: The Islamic Golden Age (500 - 1500 AD) - Jefferson Lab
The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of. Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the ...
[16]
Galileo Galilei - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 4, 2021 · He is renowned for his discoveries: he was the first to report telescopic observations of the mountains on the moon, the moons of Jupiter, the ...
[17]
Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
Dec 20, 2007 · Viewed retrospectively, no work was more seminal in the development of modern physics and astronomy than Newton's Principia. Its conclusion that ...Missing: Enlightenment formalizing education
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Physics textbooks: origins before 1650 and principal natural ...
During the Enlightenment, the Opticks was as influential as Newton's Principia mathematica. But religious leaders believed that his idea of atomistic ...
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Physics Instruction in Prussian Secondary Schools before 1859 - jstor
By the early nineteenth century, efforts to reform the classi- cal schools merged with new pedagogical theories stressing individual character development ...
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History of the CHRISTMAS LECTURES - Royal Institution
Michael Faraday presented his first Christmas lecture in 1827, on the topic of Chemistry. His other lectures included: 1829, 1835 and 1843 on Electricity; 1832, ...
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[PDF] “To increase the means of industrial education and extend the ...
In the late 1840s Prince Albert had the idea of holding an international exhibition in London to celebrate and encourage manufacturing and design.
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Expo 1851 London - Bureau International des Expositions
The Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 invested this money in the creation of a new district of science and learning in South Kensington. The aim of ...
[23]
Millikan's Oil-Drop Experiment: A Centennial Setup Revisited in ...
Feb 1, 2012 · Early in the last century, Robert Millikan developed a precise method of determining the electric charge carried by oil droplets.1–3 Using a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Robert A. Millikan and the Oil Drop Experiment - AIP Publishing
Oct 1, 2019 · As a member of SPS, she was an intern at the American Physical Society where she explored art as an engagement tool for physics; for more ...
[25]
[PDF] Sputnik Politics and American Physicists in the 1950s - MIT
The nation needed a new “National Defense Education Act” (NDEA), its backers declared, using the manpower scare to tie education to national security.
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Reform in Science Education: Then and Now - AIP Publishing
By the time Sputnik was launched, five pilot schools were already teaching PSSC. To keep the main points in focus, I will compare the key components of the ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
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The International Commission on Physics Education
The New Trends in Physics Teaching volumes are a direct result of Unesco initiatives, and Unesco support has been important in the production of the ...Missing: 1950s | Show results with:1950s
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New trends in physics teaching, v.4 - UNESCO Digital Library
This volume is addressed to all those who are activhly interested in the improvement of physics education at any level, with the emphasis on secondary and ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform
* There was a steady decline in science achievement scores of U.S. 17-year-olds as measured by national assessments of science in 1969, 1973, and 1977. * ...
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Three Decades of Education Reform: Are We Still "A Nation at Risk?"
Oct 30, 2013 · In 1983, A Nation at Risk laid bare the state of American education and exposed what that meant for individuals and the country.
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[PDF] Physics Teaching Methods: Scientific Inquiry Vs Traditional Lecture
The major objective of this study was “to study the effect of three levels of scientific inquiry method and traditional method of teaching physics on students' ...
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[PDF] Demonstration Experiments In Physics
... lecture demonstration is thoroughly discussed by the staff and perfected to the point where it shows just what is desired. A set of apparatus is assembled ...Missing: kinematics | Show results with:kinematics
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5.7 Drawing Free-Body Diagrams - University Physics Volume 1
Sep 19, 2016 · Once we have drawn an accurate free-body diagram, we can apply Newton's first law if the body is in equilibrium (balanced forces; that is, F net ...
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Drawing Free-Body Diagrams - The Physics Classroom
Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of all forces acting upon an object in a given situation.
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Classroom Conversations and Socratic Dialogue | Books Gateway
The Socratic method is a conversational approach based on methods employed by the Greek philosopher Socrates (c. bc 470–399) who believed that the best way ...
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[PDF] Socratic Dialogue In Teaching Undergrad Physics
Emphasize hands-on & interactive experience with simple mechanics expt to promote student's mental construction of concepts. • Integrate SDI labs into courses.
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5.3 Projectile Motion - Physics | OpenStax
Mar 26, 2020 · Describe the properties of projectile motion; Apply kinematic equations and vectors to solve problems involving projectile motion. Teacher ...Missing: reinforcing skills
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Mastery-style homework exercises in introductory physics courses
May 18, 2018 · L4: Projectile motion 3. Newton's second law, Week 5a, L1: Drawing FBDs, L1: Drawing FBDs. L2: Equations from FBDs 1, L2: Equations from FBDs.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Student Misconceptions about Newtonian Mechanics
A. Physics Education Research—its Problems and Goals. The field of physics has been successful in expanding our knowledge of the mechanics of the universe at ...Missing: pitfalls | Show results with:pitfalls
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[PDF] A Study in the First Year University Students, UEW
This has led to rote learning among students without proper understanding of concepts. According to Elby (1999), students spend more time focusing on formulae ...
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[PDF] 1 EFFECT OF INQUIRY LABS ON CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AND ...
Apr 17, 2012 · The purpose of this study was to look at two different lab types (traditional cookbook versus guided inquiry) and determine whether these types ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] PRODUCTIVE FAILURE LEARNING IN PHYSICS EDUCATION
For example, if the topic of study is electric circuits, students are first introduced to Ohm's law and then asked to compute the current for a light bulb given ...
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Peer Instruction - PhysPort Methods and Materials
What? Small group discussion of conceptual questions interspersed with lectures, increasing engagement and providing formative feedback on student thinking.Missing: relativity | Show results with:relativity
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From a systematic investigation of faculty-produced Think-Pair ...
Dec 4, 2020 · Our investigation of 353 faculty-produced multiple-choice Think-Pair-Share questions leads to key insights into faculty members' ideas about the discipline ...
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Developing peer instruction questions for quantitative problems for ...
Mar 1, 2020 · Note that PI questions are often referred to as Think-Pair-Share (TPS) in the astronomy community, in recognition of the many similarities ...
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Wave Interference | Double Slit - PhET Interactive Simulations - PhET
Make waves with a dripping faucet, audio speaker, or laser! Add a second source to create an interference pattern. Put up a barrier to explore single-slit ...Quantum Wave Interference · Wave Interference · Hrvatski
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PhET Simulation: Wave Interference - ComPADRE
In this Java simulation, students interactively explore properties of waves as they view simulations of a dripping faucet, an audio speaker, and a laser.
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Application of Virtual Reality in Learning Quantum Mechanics - MDPI
In this study, virtual reality technology was used to develop teaching modules on quantum mechanics, allowing learners to see the particles and wave phenomena.
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View of FLIPPED CLASSROOM APPROACH IN TEACHING PHYSICS
These lessons provide theoretical information about mechanical energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy conservation. During the class, the teacher conducts ...
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Flipping Classroom to Improve Physics Teaching - ResearchGate
Aug 8, 2025 · This study aimed to improve the teaching of Physics topics using the Flipped Classroom. Students' perception on the intervention as well as the change in ...<|separator|>
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Using multimedia modules to better prepare students for introductory ...
Jun 11, 2010 · In this study, we report results from a curriculum intervention in a large enrollment introductory physics class that addresses this problem. In ...
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Physics Instruction Using Video Analysis Technology - AP Central
An investigation on the effects of using interactive digital video in a physics classroom on student learning and attitudes.Program Comparisons · Examples Of Video Analysis... · Rotational Motion
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Tracker Video Analysis and Modeling Tool for Physics Education
Tracker is a free video analysis and modeling tool built on the Open Source Physics (OSP) Java framework. It is designed to be used in physics education.Tracker Help · Tracker Online · Tracker Projects · Tracker Javadocs online
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[PDF] The Spiral Curriculum - ERIC
The spiral curriculum revisits topics with increasing complexity, relating new learning to old, and building on prior knowledge.<|separator|>
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Spiral Physics Downloads
Spiral Physics is a research based introductory physics curriculum developed at Monroe Community College.
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https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/resources/physics-instruction-using-video-analysis-technology
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https://opensourcephysics.github.io/tracker-website/
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https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED538282.pdf
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https://psrc.aapt.org/items/detail.cfm?ID=5666
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MS-PS2 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions
Asking questions and defining problems in grades 6–8 builds from grades K–5 experiences and progresses to specifying relationships between variables.Missing: physics | Show results with:physics
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Read the Standards - Next Generation Science Standards
Grade · K-2; K · 1 ; Practice · Asking Questions and Defining Problems; Developing and Using Models; Planning and Carrying Out Investigations ; Disciplinary Core ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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16.1 Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves - OpenStax
Oct 6, 2016 · In the next section, we show in more precise mathematical terms how Maxwell's equations lead to the prediction of electromagnetic waves that ...
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Next Generation Science Standards: Home Page
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) are K–12 science content standards. Standards set the expectations for what students should know and be able to do.Read the Standards · The Standards · NGSS Appendices · NGSS Lessons and UnitsMissing: progression | Show results with:progression
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Assessment Resources | Next Generation Science Standards
This suite of resources includes annotated examples of assessment tasks for elementary, middle, and high school as well as a series of short resources.
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Force Concept Inventory: More than just conceptual understanding
Jan 27, 2020 · The Force Concept Inventory (FCI) can serve as a summative assessment of students' conceptual knowledge at the end of introductory physics.
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PISA 2022 Results (Volume I) - OECD
Dec 5, 2023 · This is one of five volumes that present the results of the eighth round of assessment, PISA 2022. Volume I, The State of Learning and ...United States · Full Report · Indonesia · Country Notes: BrazilMissing: physics | Show results with:physics
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(PDF) The Application of Bloom's Taxonomy to Higher Education ...
May 23, 2021 · Bloom's Taxonomy is ubiquitous in the higher education assessment community. It can be used as a tool for writing learning outcomes/objectives, ...
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[PDF] 7 Physics Assessment and the Development of a Taxonomy ... - ERIC
Like mathematics, the application of both Bloom's and Biggs' taxonomies have limitations when applied to physics assessments, particularly above the elementary ...
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(PDF) Alignment Between the Physics Content Standard and the ...
Alignment between content standards and standardized tests is a significant issue to society, science pedagogy, and test validation.
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Exploring how complex multiple-choice questions could contribute ...
Introduction: High-stakes exams significantly impact introductory physics students' final grades and have been shown to be inequitable, often to the ...
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[PDF] Uncovering shifts in the history of Physics education - arXiv
A significant driver of change emerged during the 1970s and 1980s, when Physics Education. Research (PER) began to establish itself as an academic discipline.
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[PDF] A Developmental History of Physics Education Research
Mar 11, 2011 · In the early 70s,. Reif, Karplus, Arons, McDermott, Zollman, Fuller and others started looking at teaching and learning of physics from a ...Missing: emergence | Show results with:emergence
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[PDF] Common sense concepts about motion - Halloun
Accordingly, we recognize two general categories: principles of motion, corresponding to Newton's Laws of. Motion, and influences on motion, corresponding to ...
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[PDF] Force Concept Inventory - ResearchGate
Hestenes, "Common-sense concepts about motion," Am. J. Phys. 53, 1056. (1985). This article contains a fairly complete taxonomy of misconceptions about ...
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Physics and Piaget - Europhysics News
Pivotal to this theory is the con cept of stages of intellectual develop ment. The stages are characterized by distinctive features in the patterns of a ...
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How do I develop student learning outcomes for physics courses?
Aug 12, 2021 · A useful tool for evaluating cognitive difficulty is Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom 1956), which describes different cognitive levels from “remember” ...
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Active learning increases student performance in science ... - PNAS
The studies analyzed here document that active learning leads to increases in examination performance that would raise average grades by a half a letter.
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Why female science, technology, engineering, and mathematics ...
Dec 4, 2019 · We surveyed approximately 500 students in introductory level calculus-based physics courses in which 30% of the students are women. Analysis ...
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[PDF] Do Female Role Models Reduce the Gender Gap in Science ...
We show that the role models' interventions led to a significant increase in the share of girls enrolling in STEM fields, but only in the educational tracks ...
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Development and validation of a university students' progression in ...
We report an empirical study on the development and validation of a learning progression (LP) in quantum mechanics (QM) at university level.Missing: trajectories | Show results with:trajectories<|control11|><|separator|>
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Using an online virtual oscilloscope | The Physics Teacher
Oct 1, 2020 · In this article, I describe how best to interface with a virtual oscilloscope, suggest some sample lab experiments, and explore the limitations ...
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Supporting laboratories in physics education with virtual ...
This paper introduces a pragmatic educational proposal for the integration of virtual experiments (VEs) in physics education.
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Brain activity links performance in science reasoning with ...
Dec 2, 2019 · Our fMRI results suggest that when students solve physics problems, they activate a network of bilateral dlPFC, left lOFC, PPC, RSC, and V5 ...
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Launch of international colloquia on physics for society - UNESCO
Apr 14, 2025 · UNESCO and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) are launching a new colloquium series on physics for society.
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Physics Education - IUPAP: The International Union of Pure and ...
Mar 23, 2021 · The IUPAP is committed to taking actions so that access to education, resources, and advancement is available for all without discrimination.Missing: equity | Show results with:equity
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The importance of equality, diversity and inclusion in physics
“We know the value diversity brings to physics. If society is to reap the benefits of this value, we must do more to create a welcoming and inclusive ...
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Unveiling Global Trends in Gender Equality Research within ...
The study predicts the future trajectory of gender equality related to physics education studies. The study emphasizes the sustainable development goals.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Physics teachers' conceptions of equity: Access and achievement
Feb 22, 2023 · We found that the access and achievement dimensions of equity are popular with teachers compared to the identity and power dimensions.
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International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport
The charter states that physical education, activity, and sport are a fundamental right for all, without discrimination, and that it can yield benefits to ...
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The IOP's international work - Institute of Physics
The outreach and national exhibition reach underserved and marginalised communities, providing opportunities to students from rural and disadvantaged areas.Missing: equity | Show results with:equity
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Bridging the gap in physics, one student at a time
Oct 30, 2025 · Through our international outreach activities and worldwide membership, APS serves as a welcoming global hub for physicists from around the ...