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Lexicalization

Lexicalization is a core process in linguistics whereby new lexical items—such as words, multi-word expressions, or novel senses—emerge and become conventionally established within a language's vocabulary, often through mechanisms like word formation or semantic shift.^[1] This phenomenon contrasts with grammaticalization, which shifts elements toward functional roles, and instead emphasizes the integration of contentful, referential units into the lexicon.^[2] Lexicalization operates along a continuum from productive syntactic constructions to fixed, stored forms, reducing compositionality over time as speakers institutionalize nonce creations.^[1] Theoretical approaches to lexicalization vary, but many center on the interplay between grammar and lexicon, where rule-governed structures give way to arbitrary, memorized entries.^[1] For instance, it can involve fusion, where multi-element phrases lose internal structure to form opaque idioms, or separation, where elements gain independence as autonomous lexical units.^[1] In cognitive terms, lexicalization establishes long-term associations between a form's phonology, semantics, and syntax, enabling efficient retrieval and use. Diachronically, it often proceeds unidirectionally through small metonymic changes, such as generalization or specialization, leading to increased frequency and entrenchment in usage.^[2] A key domain of research is lexicalization patterns, which examine how languages differentially encode conceptual components of events into lexical forms.^[3] Pioneered by Leonard Talmy, this framework highlights typological variation, particularly in motion events comprising elements like manner, path, figure, and ground.^[3] Satellite-framed languages, such as English, typically lexicalize manner in the verb (e.g., run) and path in a satellite (e.g., out), while verb-framed languages like Spanish incorporate path into the verb (e.g., salir) and express manner separately (e.g., corriendo).^[3] These patterns extend to other event types, like caused motion or change of state, influencing narrative style and even cognition among speakers.^[3] Historically, lexicalization has been studied since the 19th century, with scholars like Michel Bréal noting processes of concretization and semantic narrowing.^[2] Modern corpus-based analyses, such as those using historical texts, reveal paths like the evolution of collective nouns into mass nouns, optimizing lexical storage through homogenization.^[2] In sign languages, lexicalization similarly pairs conventional forms with meanings, often via iconicity or borrowing, underscoring its universality across modalities.^[4] Overall, lexicalization underscores language change as a dynamic interplay of innovation, convention, and cognitive adaptation.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Lexicalization is the process by which new linguistic items—such as words, set phrases, or word patterns—are incorporated into a language's lexicon, establishing a conventionalized mapping between concepts and fixed forms.^[1]^[2] This addition can occur through various mechanisms, including borrowing from other languages, derivation, compounding, or semantic shifts, resulting in entries that function as unified units rather than analyzable constructions.^[5] A key distinction exists between lexicalization and word-formation: while word-formation processes are often productive and compositional, allowing speakers to generate novel expressions rule-based, lexicalization produces stored, holistic units in the mental lexicon that are retrieved and processed as indivisible wholes.^[5]^[6] For example, in English, the noun furniture has lexicalized through semantic evolution, shifting from a collective sense referring to individual items to a mass noun denoting an undifferentiated whole, where its meaning is now fixed and non-compositional in contemporary usage.^[2] Lexicalization involves institutionalization, whereby novel expressions gain widespread acceptance in the speech community, becoming conventionalized and eventually listed in dictionaries as established lexical items.^[7]^[8] In psycholinguistic models, such lexicalized forms are accessed more efficiently than novel combinations due to their representation as single entries in the mental lexicon.^[5]^[9]

Historical Development

The concept of lexicalization in linguistics gained prominence in the late 1960s and 1970s, building on foundational work in morphology and semantics. James D. McCawley introduced the term "lexicalization" in 1968 to describe the process by which semantic components are associated with lexical forms in generative grammar, particularly in discussions of lexical insertion without deep structure.^[10] This built on earlier morphological studies, such as those exploring word formation and semantic composition, and marked a shift toward viewing lexical items as holistic units rather than purely decomposable elements.^[10] By the mid-1970s, Leonard Talmy further developed the idea through his analysis of lexicalization patterns in motion events, emphasizing cross-linguistic variations in how meanings are encoded in verbs and satellites.^[11] In the 1980s, the concept evolved under the influence of generative linguistics, particularly Ray Jackendoff's semantic theory, which integrated lexicalization into broader frameworks of conceptual structure and syntactic expression. Jackendoff's work, such as in Semantics and Cognition (1983), highlighted how lexical items serve as the interface between syntax and semantics, influencing understandings of how new lexical meanings become conventionalized. The 1990s saw further expansion through cognitive linguistics, with Ronald Langacker's usage-based models portraying lexicalization as the entrenchment of symbolic units derived from actual language use. In Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (1987–1991), Langacker argued that lexical forms emerge from generalized patterns of usage, shifting focus from rule-based morphology to experiential grounding. A key debate in the field's development contrasted early morphological interpretations of lexicalization—centered on word formation—with later emphases on semantic and pragmatic institutionalization. Leonhard Lipka's research, starting in the 1970s and elaborated in works like Outline of English Lexicology (1990), distinguished lexicalization (the creation of new lexical entries with unpredictable meanings) from institutionalization (broader conventionalization in usage), resolving tensions between structural and functional approaches.^[12] This distinction addressed criticisms that morphological views overlooked pragmatic factors in how expressions become fixed in the lexicon.^[12] Post-2000 developments integrated lexicalization studies with corpus linguistics, enabling empirical analysis of real-time processes through large-scale data. Projects like the CLICS database (2019, updated 2020) examine colexification—where languages lexicalize related concepts in single words—across hundreds of languages, revealing patterns of semantic convergence and change.^[13] Such tools have quantified lexicalization dynamics, as in studies of frequency-driven entrenchment using corpora like FRANTEXT.^[2] Lexicalization parallels grammaticalization as a pathway in language change, though the former emphasizes enrichment of the open-class lexicon while the latter shifts toward closed-class functions.^[10]

Types of Lexicalization

Morphological Lexicalization

Morphological lexicalization is the process by which new open-class lexical items are added to a language's lexicon through morphological operations, such as derivation with affixes, compounding of roots or stems, or blending of elements, resulting in forms that are stored and processed holistically rather than decomposed into their parts.^[5] This contrasts with productive word formation, as lexicalized items often lose transparency and become fixed units that speakers retrieve as wholes during language use.^[5] Key mechanisms driving morphological lexicalization include blocking and fossilization. Blocking occurs when an existing lexicalized form inhibits the creation or use of a potential rival form that would otherwise be expected from a productive rule; for example, the suppletive plural oxen blocks the regular form oxes.^[14] Fossilization, meanwhile, involves the entrenchment of forms that have undergone phonological, semantic, or morphological changes, rendering them opaque and resistant to analysis; a classic case is cupboard, originally a compound of cup and board but now stored as an indivisible unit with no productive motivation.^[12] Representative examples illustrate these processes across languages. In English, the blend smog, formed from smoke and fog in the early 20th century, exemplifies derivation-like creation that has fossilized into a standalone noun, losing any potential for further blending or decomposition.^[5] German provides clear instances of compounding leading to lexicalization, such as Handschuh ('glove', literally 'hand shoe'), which is treated as a single lexical unit despite its compositional transparency, with its internal structure often obscured in processing and stress patterns indicating holistic storage.^[15] Theoretical frameworks emphasize the role of such processes in word-formation typologies. Hans Marchand's seminal work on English word formation identifies lexicalization as a stage where compounds or derivations lose their motivational links to constituents, resisting decomposition through phonological unification (e.g., primary stress on the entire form) and semantic opacity, as seen in items like bluebell or callboy.^[12]^[16] This typology underscores how lexicalized forms transition from rule-governed constructions to stored entries, contributing to the lexicon's stability while allowing for language evolution.^[12]

Syntactic Lexicalization

Syntactic lexicalization refers to the process by which syntactic constructions or multi-word units evolve into fixed, non-compositional entries in the lexicon, such as idioms, where the overall meaning cannot be predicted from the individual components.^[17] This transformation treats phrasal expressions as holistic units rather than freely generated syntactic structures, integrating them into the mental lexicon alongside single words.^[18] A key process in syntactic lexicalization is the loss of semantic predictability and compositional transparency, leading to storage of these units as wholes in accordance with construction grammar principles. In Adele Goldberg's construction grammar framework, such lexicalized constructions carry conventionalized meanings that are not fully derivable from the meanings of their parts, allowing for partial productivity while maintaining fixed form-meaning pairings.^[19] This storage mechanism distinguishes lexicalized phrases from productive syntax, as they exhibit syntactic rigidity—limited flexibility in word order, substitution, or modification—and semantic opacity, where the figurative sense dominates the literal interpretation.^[18] Criteria for identifying syntactic lexicalization include non-substitutability of core elements and resistance to decomposition, ensuring the phrase functions as a single lexical item.^[17] Representative examples illustrate this phenomenon across languages. In English, "kick the bucket" lexicalizes as an idiom meaning "to die," with its literal components (kicking a pail) opaque and syntactically inflexible, preventing variants like "bucket the kick."^[20] Similarly, the French expression "avoir le cafard" (literally "to have the cockroach") conveys "to feel blue" or "to be depressed," stored holistically due to its non-literal semantics and fixed structure, where substitution of "cafard" disrupts the idiomatic meaning.^[21] In phraseology studies, syntactic lexicalization plays a central role in understanding how fixed phrases expand the lexicon beyond morphological compounding, offering alternatives to word-internal processes for expressing complex ideas.^[18] These units are differentiated from free syntactic combinations by their conventionalized, non-arbitrary form-meaning associations, which resist full analysis and contribute to language efficiency in production and comprehension.^[17]

Semantic Lexicalization

Semantic lexicalization is the process by which a word or phrase acquires a new, conventionalized meaning that becomes fixed in the lexicon, independent of its original etymological or compositional components. This involves semantic shifts that result in polysemy, where a single lexical item develops multiple distinct senses, contributing to the growth and evolution of a language's vocabulary.^[2] Unlike purely morphological processes, semantic lexicalization focuses on changes in meaning without necessarily altering the form, though it may integrate with morphological structures in compounds to reinforce new senses.^[22] Key mechanisms driving semantic lexicalization include metaphor, which transfers meaning based on perceived similarity between domains; metonymy, which shifts meaning through contiguity or association; and processes like narrowing (semantic specialization) or broadening (generalization). These shifts often begin as innovative usages in discourse but become institutionalized through repeated exposure and frequency in the speech community, leading to the conventionalization of the new meaning. For instance, metaphor and metonymy facilitate the extension of concrete terms to abstract concepts, while frequency reinforces their lexical status.^[22]^[10] A classic example is the English word mouse, originally denoting a small rodent, which lexicalized a new sense in the 1960s to refer to a computer input device due to its shape resembling the animal's tail and body. This metaphorical extension became fixed through widespread technological adoption and usage.^[22] Similarly, the English chapter derives from Latin capitulum ("little head"), a diminutive of caput ("head"), where the metaphorical sense of a "heading" or division in a text evolved into a conventionalized meaning for book sections.^[23] Such cases illustrate how polysemy arises, allowing lexical items to efficiently encode diverse concepts and supporting lexical growth across languages. In theoretical frameworks, Brinton and Traugott describe semanticization as a core component of lexicalization, where semantic shifts lead to the fixation of meanings in lexical entries, often culminating in idiomatization—the development of opaque, non-compositional senses that are stored holistically. Their model emphasizes how these processes parallel but contrast with grammaticalization, highlighting institutionalization as key to distinguishing productive innovations from established lexicon entries.^[10] This approach underscores the role of usage-based factors in semantic lexicalization, promoting conceptual understanding of how languages adapt meanings to new communicative needs.^[10]

Lexicalization Patterns

Cross-Linguistic Variations

Languages exhibit significant typological diversity in lexicalization, the process by which concepts are encoded as lexical items, influenced by morphological structure, historical development, and cultural factors. Isolating languages like Mandarin Chinese tend to have smaller core lexicons with a preference for analytic constructions, relying on compounding and serialization to express complex ideas, whereas polysynthetic languages such as Inuktitut incorporate multiple morphemes into single words to lexicalize intricate notions like possession or causation in one unit. This variation in lexicon size and encoding preferences reflects broader typological parameters, with agglutinative languages like Turkish favoring suffixation for derivation, leading to expansive verb forms that bundle semantic elements absent in analytic systems. A prominent example of such differences appears in verb complexity across languages. English, an analytic language with moderate inflection, lexicalizes actions through relatively simple verbs supplemented by particles or prepositions (e.g., "put down"), while Chinese employs a more limited set of basic verbs, extending them via resultative complements or serial verb constructions to convey nuanced meanings (e.g., "chī-wán" for "eat-finish" meaning "finish eating"). In contrast, Romance languages like French and Italian show a preference for prefixed verbs in lexicalization, deriving new items from Latin roots by adding prefixes to indicate direction or aspect (e.g., French "approcher" from "proche" near, versus English's phrasal "come near"). These patterns highlight how languages prioritize different strategies for lexical expansion, with synthetic languages integrating more morphological material into roots. The theoretical underpinnings of these variations draw from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which posits that linguistic structures, including lexical choices, influence cognitive categorization and cultural worldview. For instance, Whorfian perspectives suggest that the lexicalization of spatial relations in languages like Japanese, which uses geocentric terms (e.g., "uphill" rather than egocentric "left"), shapes speakers' environmental perceptions differently from English speakers. Empirical support comes from the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS), which documents over 2,600 languages and reveals correlations between morphological typology and lexicalization strategies, such as the prevalence of incorporation in polysynthetic languages across the Americas. These cross-linguistic differences pose substantial challenges for translation and second-language acquisition, as non-equivalent lexical items often require circumlocution or cultural adaptation. Translators must navigate "lexical gaps," where a concept lexicalized in one language lacks a direct counterpart in another, complicating fidelity in fields like literature or technical documentation. Similarly, language learners encounter interference from L1 lexical patterns, hindering the acquisition of L2-specific encodings. As a brief case study, motion events illustrate this, with languages like Spanish lexicalizing path more explicitly through verb roots compared to English's reliance on satellites.

Encoding of Motion Events

Leonard Talmy's framework examines how languages lexicalize the components of motion events, which are dynamic scenes involving a figure moving relative to a ground. A motion event typically comprises several semantic components: the figure (the moving entity, such as a person or object), the ground (a reference point, like a location), the path (the trajectory or site of motion, including directions like entering or exiting), the motion itself (the fact of displacement), the manner (the style of motion, e.g., running or floating), and the cause (the force initiating motion, e.g., pushing).^[11] These components are not always expressed separately; languages conflate (combine) them within lexical items, particularly verbs or associated elements, leading to systematic typological patterns in encoding motion.^[11] Talmy proposes a binary typology distinguishing satellite-framed and verb-framed languages based on how path and manner are conflated. In satellite-framed languages, such as English, the verb typically conflates motion with manner, while path is expressed via a satellite (e.g., a particle or prefix) attached to the verb. For instance, English "The bottle floated into the cave" encodes manner (floating) in the main verb and path (into) in the satellite "into."^[11] This pattern allows for rich expression of manner, as the satellite handles path without burdening the verb. In contrast, verb-framed languages, such as Spanish and French, conflate motion and path in the main verb, relegating manner to a subordinate element like a gerund or adverbial phrase if expressed at all. Spanish exemplifies this with "La botella entró en la cueva flotando" (The bottle entered the cave floating), where "entró" (entered) incorporates path. Similarly, in French, "La bouteille est entrée dans la grotte en flottant" conveys path in the verb "entrée" (entered) and manner in the gerund "flottant" (floating).^[11] These patterns reflect deeper cognitive and grammatical preferences in how languages package event information.^[11] Post-1985 developments have critiqued and extended Talmy's binary model, addressing languages that do not fit neatly into satellite- or verb-framed categories. Dan Slobin introduced a third type, equipollently-framed languages, where path and manner are encoded with equivalent grammatical status, often through serial verbs, compound verbs, or parallel forms rather than subordination or satellites.^[24] Japanese illustrates this pattern, using verb compounds to balance the components; for example, "arui-te iku" (walk-go) conflates manner (walking) and path (go toward) in equally weighted verbal elements.^[24] This extension highlights greater typological diversity, incorporating languages like certain serial-verb systems in Southeast Asia and Africa, and has prompted further refinements to Talmy's conflation classes.^[24]

In Psycholinguistics

Lexical Access Models

Lexical access refers to the process by which listeners or readers retrieve stored representations of words or multi-word units from the mental lexicon during language comprehension. In psycholinguistics, this retrieval is modeled as involving activation of semantic, syntactic, and phonological information triggered by incoming sensory input, such as speech sounds or visual orthography. Lexicalized items, such as idioms or frequent compounds, are hypothesized to facilitate faster access compared to novel or compositional phrases due to their entrenched representations in the lexicon.^[25] One core model of lexical access is the spreading activation framework, which posits that activation spreads from a stimulus node through interconnected semantic networks, with the speed and extent of activation influenced by associative strength and frequency. Proposed by Collins and Loftus in 1975, this model explains how lexicalized forms, being high-frequency units, activate more rapidly and robustly, leading to quicker recognition during comprehension. For instance, encountering a familiar idiom like "kick the bucket" triggers holistic activation of its figurative meaning (death) alongside literal associations, bypassing slower compositional analysis. Lexical access operates at multiple levels, distinguishing between the lemma (an abstract representation encoding syntactic and semantic properties) and the lexeme (the specific phonological or orthographic form). In comprehension, input activates the lemma level first, providing conceptual meaning without full form specification, while lexicalization reduces the need for morphological decomposition in complex words. High-frequency lexicalized compounds are often accessed holistically, where frequency can override decompositional processes.^[26] This holistic route is particularly pronounced for fully lexicalized items. Priming experiments provide key evidence for these mechanisms, demonstrating that lexicalized idioms undergo holistic processing distinct from compositional phrases. In cross-modal priming studies, when the final word of a predictable idiom (e.g., "spill the ___") is visually presented, response times to idiom-related targets are faster than to literal ones, indicating direct access to the stored idiomatic unit rather than piecemeal composition. In contrast, compositional phrases like "spill the water" show balanced priming for both literal and potential figurative targets, highlighting the role of lexicalization in streamlining retrieval. Such findings support hybrid models where lexicalized units are stored as whole entries but can draw on compositional processes when context demands.^[27]^[28] Several factors modulate access to lexicalized units, including frequency, familiarity, and contextual predictability. Higher frequency of a lexicalized item, as measured by corpus counts, correlates with shorter recognition latencies in tasks like lexical decision, reflecting stronger neural pathways in the mental lexicon. Familiarity, often intertwined with exposure history, enhances activation for idioms, reducing interference from literal meanings. Contextual cues further accelerate access by pre-activating related nodes in spreading activation networks, making lexicalized expressions more salient in supportive discourse. These factors collectively underscore how lexicalization entrenches units for efficient comprehension.^[29]

Role in Language Production

In language production, speakers rely on a modular process to transform conceptual intentions into articulate speech, as outlined in Levelt's influential blueprint for the speaker. This model posits three primary stages: the conceptualizer generates a preverbal message representing the intended meaning; the formulator, which includes a lexicalizer component, selects appropriate lemmas (abstract lexical representations) and encodes them grammatically and phonologically; and the articulator translates the phonological form into overt speech.^[30] Lexicalized items, such as idioms and fixed phrases, play a key role in the lexicalization stage by being stored as holistic units in the mental lexicon, enabling direct retrieval rather than piecemeal assembly of individual words.^[31] This storage mechanism links the idiomatic entry to its constituent lemmas, facilitating efficient selection during planning.^[32] The primary advantage of lexicalized items lies in their facilitation of rapid and efficient speech production, particularly for frequent expressions. Holistic retrieval of idioms allows speakers to bypass the computational demands of combining separate lexical elements, resulting in faster processing times compared to generating equivalent novel phrases. In contrast, non-lexicalized novel expressions are more susceptible to production errors, such as word substitutions or hesitations, due to the increased cognitive load of on-the-fly composition.^[33] Empirical evidence underscores the efficiency of lexicalized items in production. Tip-of-the-tongue states, where a concept is clear but its lexical form eludes retrieval, occur more frequently for non-lexicalized or low-frequency concepts that lack pre-stored units, as these demand effortful phonological access without holistic support.^[34] Corpus studies further reveal that idioms and fixed phrases are prevalent in spoken language, appearing at rates that promote fluent discourse; for example, analyses of academic speech corpora identify idioms in a substantial portion of utterances, reflecting their routine integration for conciseness and naturalness.^[35] Such frequency patterns indicate that lexicalized items streamline production by aligning with habitual communicative needs.^[36] Developmentally, children demonstrate the role of lexicalization through earlier mastery of common phrases over novel constructions. Young learners typically produce and comprehend lexicalized idioms like "let go" (meaning to release or stop pursuing) before they can generate equivalent descriptive phrases, such as "stop holding onto," due to the former's storage as unitary entries acquired via exposure.^[37] This pattern emerges around ages 5–7 for familiar idioms, with reaction-time studies showing faster classification and production of lexicalized forms in school-aged children, highlighting how lexicalization supports incremental language efficiency from childhood onward.^[38]

In Sign Languages

Formation from Gestures

In sign languages, lexicalization from gestures involves the transformation of spontaneous, productive gestures—often iconic depictions of actions or objects—into conventionalized, fixed lexical signs through repeated use and community agreement. This process begins with gestures that are generated on-the-spot to convey meaning, such as miming eating by bringing the hand to the mouth, and progresses as these forms are adopted, standardized, and stripped of variability within a Deaf community. Over time, the gesture loses its productivity, becoming a "frozen" sign with a stable form that no longer allows for individual variation in depiction.^[39] The stages of this lexicalization can be outlined as initialization, where a gesture is used productively in context-specific ways; lexicalization proper, involving fixation of the form through community conventionalization; and eventual loss of productivity, where the sign becomes arbitrary and obligatory in its conventional form. During initialization, gestures are highly variable and tied to the signer's perspective, but as they enter the lexicon, they undergo regularization, reducing iconicity and increasing arbitrariness to fit phonological constraints of the language. This community-driven stabilization ensures that the sign functions as a predictable lexical unit, detached from its original gestural motivation. Iconicity often facilitates this initial adoption by making the gesture intuitively comprehensible.^[4]^[40] A classic example in American Sign Language (ASL) is the sign for "EAT," which originates from the iconic gesture of bringing food to the mouth using an O-handshape, tapping or moving toward the lips; over historical use, this has conventionalized into a fixed, non-productive form recognized across the ASL community. Similarly, in Israeli Sign Language (ISL), which emerged in the 1930s and 1940s among deaf immigrants arriving at schools in Jerusalem, many lexical signs arose from a mix of homesigns and gestures brought by individuals from diverse linguistic backgrounds, such as European and Middle Eastern Jewish communities; the Deaf school's communal interactions stabilized these into shared lexical items. The role of the Deaf community is crucial here, as repeated interactions in educational and social settings drive the selection and fixation of forms, preventing fragmentation.^[41]^[42] Theoretically, Nancy Frishberg identified key parameters that stabilize during lexicalization in ASL, including handshape simplification (e.g., from complex to basic configurations), location centralization (moving from peripheral body contact to neutral space), movement symmetrization (reducing asymmetry), and palm orientation toward the signer. These changes reflect a shift from gestural iconicity to linguistic arbitrariness, observed through comparisons of 19th- and 20th-century ASL records, and apply broadly to sign language evolution. Such parameters ensure the sign integrates into the language's phonological system, losing gestural flexibility.^[40]

Iconicity in Lexicalization

Iconicity refers to the property of signs in which the form of the sign bears a resemblance to its referent, thereby motivating the lexicalization process in sign languages by providing an intuitive link between meaning and form. For instance, the British Sign Language (BSL) sign for "DRINK" involves a handshape mimicking the action of bringing a cup to the mouth, exemplifying how such visual resemblance facilitates the initial creation and adoption of lexical items.^[43]^[44] This contrasts with the predominantly arbitrary nature of spoken language words, where motivation is rare except in cases like onomatopoeia. In young or emerging sign languages, iconicity plays a crucial role in accelerating lexicalization by allowing signers to draw on gestural depictions for quick communication establishment. In Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL), for example, early cohorts relied heavily on iconic forms to build vocabulary, with subsequent generations conventionalizing these into more standardized signs through repeated use and social transmission. Over time, these iconic signs undergo phonological changes—such as alterations in handshape, location, or movement—that reduce their transparency, leading to greater arbitrariness and integration into the language's phonological system.^[45]^[46] Empirical evidence supports iconicity's facilitative effect on lexical acquisition, particularly for children. Studies of deaf children acquiring sign languages from birth show that iconic signs are produced and comprehended earlier and more accurately than arbitrary ones, with acquisition rates improving due to the mnemonic benefits of resemblance. This mirrors the role of onomatopoeic words in spoken languages, where sound imitation aids early vocabulary building, though iconicity is far more pervasive in sign lexicons (comprising 20-50% of signs in established languages like American Sign Language).^[47]^[48]^[44] Debates in sign language linguistics center on the balance between iconicity as a motivational force and conventionalization as a driver of linguistic structure. William Stokoe's chereme theory, which posits that signs are composed of discrete, abstract parameters (handshape, location, movement) akin to phonemes, underscores how even iconic forms become conventionalized units within a phonological framework, challenging views of sign languages as purely mimetic. This tension highlights iconicity's initial utility in lexicalization while emphasizing its subordination to arbitrary, community-agreed conventions for full linguistic integration.^[49]

Lexicalization in Language Change

Relation to Grammaticalization

Lexicalization and grammaticalization represent two distinct yet interrelated processes in language change, where lexicalization involves the creation or evolution of content words belonging to open-class categories, such as nouns, verbs, or adjectives, which carry substantive, concrete meanings. In contrast, grammaticalization refers to the shift of lexical items or constructions into function words or morphemes in closed-class categories, such as auxiliaries, prepositions, or inflections, serving abstract, relational roles in syntax.^[50] A classic example of grammaticalization is the English construction "going to," originally a lexical motion verb phrase indicating physical movement toward a goal, which has reanalyzed over time into a future tense marker ("I'm going to leave"), losing much of its concrete spatial semantics.^[50] Both processes share mechanisms of conventionalization, where frequent use leads to the routinization of form-meaning pairings and increased obligatoriness in discourse, often involving phonetic reduction and semantic shift through reanalysis or analogy.^[51] However, they diverge fundamentally in direction and outcome: lexicalization typically enhances semantic specificity and expressiveness by filling gaps in the lexicon with new, idiomatic, or compound forms (e.g., English "holiday" from "holy day," gaining a specialized denotation for leisure time), whereas grammaticalization erodes semantic content through bleaching, making forms more abstract and grammatically integrated. This opposition highlights lexicalization's role in expanding referential vocabulary and grammaticalization's in refining structural scaffolding. Theoretically, the relationship is framed by the unidirectionality hypothesis, which posits that grammaticalization proceeds from less to more grammatical status without reversal, as articulated by Hopper and Traugott, though they acknowledge that lexicalization operates as a parallel or counter-process that does not inherently violate this path by rejuvenating bleached forms into new lexical items.^[50] Cycles of change can emerge wherein fully grammaticalized elements undergo re-lexicalization, restoring concrete meanings in innovative contexts, such as when erstwhile auxiliaries spawn novel idioms, thereby preventing total semantic loss.^[51] In French, the verb avoir ("have") exemplifies grammaticalization in its development from a full possession verb to an auxiliary in perfect tenses (e.g., j'ai mangé, "I have eaten," marking completed action), involving desemanticization and syntactic bonding.^[52] Conversely, avoir lexicalizes in idiomatic expressions like avoir faim ("to be hungry"), where the construction acquires a specialized, non-literal sense of bodily state, increasing its referential precision without grammatical function.^[53] These dynamics illustrate how lexicalization and grammaticalization interplay to drive lexical renewal alongside grammatical evolution.

Historical Examples

One prominent historical example of lexicalization in English involves the evolution of "goodbye" from the full phrase "God be with ye," a farewell invoking divine protection. This syntactic construction, common in late 14th-century English, gradually contracted through phonetic reduction and frequent use, emerging as a single lexical item by the 1570s, spelled variably as "godbwye" or "goodby."^[54] The process exemplifies how multi-word phrases can fuse into independent words, losing their original compositional transparency while gaining idiomatic status as a fixed expression of parting. Another English case is the semantic shift in "understand," which originated in Old English as "understandan," literally meaning to "stand under" or "among," evoking a physical position of subordination or proximity, as in being in the midst of an assembly. By the Middle English period (circa 1100–1500), this literal sense extended metaphorically to cognitive comprehension, reflecting a broader pattern where spatial metaphors underpin abstract concepts; the modern meaning of intellectual grasp became dominant by the 16th century. This shift illustrates lexicalization through semantic narrowing and specialization, transforming a descriptive phrase into a unitary verb with non-literal connotations. In other languages, similar processes are evident. The Latin word "testamentum," derived from "testari" meaning "to bear witness," initially denoted a formal declaration or testimony but lexicalized by late antiquity into the specific sense of a "last will," emphasizing the witnessing of one's final intentions regarding property. This evolved form entered English via Old French around the late 13th century, retaining both the general "covenant" and specialized "will" meanings, with the latter dominating legal contexts.^[55] In Mandarin Chinese, serial verb constructions—such as "chi fan" (eat rice, meaning "to eat a meal")—have historically lexicalized into tight compounds, where originally independent verbs fuse into single units with unified semantics, a process documented from classical texts to modern usage, driven by the language's analytic structure.^[56] Evidence for these lexicalization patterns draws from etymological dictionaries and historical corpora, which track shifts through dated quotations. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), for instance, compiles over 3 million citations from 1150 onward, revealing "goodbye's" emergence in 16th-century texts like Shakespeare's works and "understand's" cognitive dominance in 17th-century prose; similar corpus analyses from the 16th to 20th centuries show "testament" solidifying in legal documents by the 1500s. For Mandarin, historical corpora like the Chinese Text Project illustrate serial verbs' compounding from Han dynasty records (206 BCE–220 CE) through Qing-era literature. Driving these changes are factors like frequency of use, which accelerates phonetic erosion and semantic specialization; analogy, where new forms pattern after existing lexical items (e.g., "goodbye" aligning with "good day"); and social influences, such as technological adoption post-1800, as seen in "email," a clipping of "electronic mail" first attested in 1979 but rapidly lexicalized by the 1990s through widespread digital communication.^[57]^[58] High-frequency exposure in social contexts thus promotes completion of lexicalization, often paralleling pathways in grammaticalization where syntactic elements gain lexical autonomy.

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[PDF] Lexicalization and Institutionalization
Lexicalization is defined here – by Hohenhaus – as a gradual historical process, involving graphemic, phonological and semantic changes and the loss of ...
[8]
Lexicalization & Institutionalization * The State of the Art in 2004
Lexicalization & Institutionalization * The State of the Art in 2004 ... This dictionary is designed to get to the heart of American and British ...
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Lexicalization and Language Change
Lexicalization, a process of language change, has been conceptualized in a variety of ways. Broadly defined as the adoption of concepts into the lexicon, ...
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[PDF] 2 Lexicalization patterns: semantic structure in lexical forms
English does have a few examples, which can serve to introduce the type. One is the form heme in its use as a satellite, where it has the meaning 'to his/her/.
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[PDF] The concepts of lexicalization and institutionalization are important ...
A useful cover term for all types of linguistic expressions, originally proposed by. Mathesius (1975) and adopted by Štekauer (2000: 337 f, 352), is naming unit ...
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http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTL01/lipka.pdf
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Blocking | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
Jun 9, 2016 · Lexical blocking is generally presented as competition between an actual and a possible word (word form or lexeme), though even this point does ...
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[PDF] German word stress and lexical phonology. - SFU Summit
debate whether certain lexicalised compounds, such as Schornstein,. 6. Himbeere, Bahnhof, Handschuh, are indeed compounds, which is frequently. A disputed on ...
[15]
the categories and types of present day english word formation
Sep 19, 2022 · the categories and types of present day english word formation. by: hans marchand. Publication date: 1969.Missing: typology lexicalization
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Idioms and Phraseology
### Summary of Syntactic Lexicalization in Phraseology
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[PDF] Constructional Idioms, Morphology, and the Dutch Lexicon
Constructional idioms are syntactic constructions with a non-compositional meaning, where only a subset of terminal elements is fixed, and they act as ...
[18]
A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure, Goldberg
Adele E. Goldberg proposes that grammatical constructions play a central role in the relation between the form and meaning of simple sentences.
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https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo3683810.html
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Summary of each segment:
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Lexical Access - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Lexical access is defined as the retrieval of words from the mental lexicon during both recognition and production, involving two levels: form and function.
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(PDF) Lexical Access, Cognitive Psychology of - ResearchGate
Lexical access takes place when sensory information is matched to lexical information. The nature of the code in which this match takes place was examined in ...
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The access and processing of idiomatic expressions - ScienceDirect
Two experiments examined the nature of access, storage, and comprehension of idiomatic phrases. In both studies a Phrase Classification Task was utilized.
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The comprehension of idioms - ScienceDirect.com
The access of idiomatic expressions was investigated in three cross-modal priming experiments. When the idiomatic string was predictable, subjects were faster.
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[PDF] THE WORD FREQUENCY EFFECT AND LEXICAL ACCESS*
The word frequency effect relates a word's frequency of occurrence to the time required for its recognition, with the visual recognition threshold being a ...Missing: lexicalized | Show results with:lexicalized
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Speaking: From Intention to Articulation | Books Gateway | MIT Press
Publication date: 1989. In Speaking, Willem "Pim" Levelt, Director of the Max ... Chapter 6: Lexical Entries and Accessing Lemmas Available. Doi: https ...Missing: lexicalizer | Show results with:lexicalizer
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Lexical access during the production of idiomatic phrases
Psycholinguistic studies of idiom comprehension have addressed the questions of how idiomatic expressions are identified as such, how listeners derive the ...
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(PDF) Lexical access during the production of idiomatic phrases
In three experiments we test the assumption that idioms have their own lexical entry, which is linked to its constituent lemmas (Cutting & Bock, 1997).
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The Idiom Processing Advantage is Explained By Surprisal - PMC
Jul 20, 2025 · The majority of studies on idioms in psycholinguistics have looked at comprehension as a window into processing, and these studies have ...Missing: holistic | Show results with:holistic
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When the Idiom Advantage Comes Up Short: Eye-Tracking ...
Aug 1, 2021 · The literature on idioms often talks about an “idiom advantage,” such that familiar idioms (spill the beans) are generally processed faster ...
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[PDF] A theory of lexical access in speech production
In every- day language use, a lexical concept is often activated as part of a larger message that captures the speaker's commu- nicative intention (Levelt 1989 ...
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What causes a tip‐of‐the‐tongue state? Evidence for lexical ...
Apr 13, 2011 · We show that TOTs are more likely to arise on low-frequency words that have few close phonological neighbours. We further discuss the effect of ...
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[PDF] A Corpus-Based Study of Idioms in Academic Speech
We began this research project to find out whether idioms occurred at all in academic speech and, if so, what conclusions could be drawn based on a corpus of ...
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A thematic corpus-based study of idioms in the Corpus of ...
Oct 17, 2019 · Applied and corpus linguistics can offer solutions to this problem by identifying frequencies and patterns of idiom use in order to give ...
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Lexicalization of idioms in urban fifth graders: a reaction time study
The purpose of this study was to examine lexicalization of idioms in a group of school-aged children. Using a phrase classification design, this research tested ...
[36]
The acquisition of Hebrew idioms: Stages, internal composition, and ...
Sep 11, 2018 · Children, unlike adults, store nondecomposable phrasal idioms as independent entries, rather than as subentries of their lexical head. The ...
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Variation, lexicalization and grammaticalization in signed languages
Nov 3, 2010 · ... gestures and highly iconic signs evolve into conventionalised lexical signs and thus, in turn, become available for grammaticalization. It ...
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Historical Change in American Sign Language - jstor
Other changes focus the lexical information in the hands (and the move- ments of the hands) away from more general movements of face or body along with the ...
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[PDF] Emerging Sign Languages
Israeli Sign language (ISL) is another new deaf community sign language. It evolved along with the Israeli deaf community beginning about 75 years ago, in a ...
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Drink - British Sign Language Dictionary
Description: Primary hand mimes drinking out of a glass. · Definition: To take liquid into your body through your mouth. · Also Means: glass, tumbler, beer ...
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A faster path between meaning and form? Iconicity facilitates sign ...
In three experiments, we found that iconicity in BSL facilitated picture–sign matching, phonological decision, and picture naming.
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Lexical Iconicity is differentially favored under transmission in a new ...
Signs used today by older signers, who first created NSL, reveal how iconicity is leveraged to generate new lexical items; signs used by younger signers, who ...3.0. Results · 3.1. Variability · Figure 3Missing: young | Show results with:young
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Iconicity in the emergence of a phonological system?
Jul 15, 2023 · We aim to investigate how iconicity might influence the emergence of a phonological system along with the evolution of a new sign language.
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[PDF] Type of Iconicity Matters in the Vocabulary Development of Signing ...
Feb 1, 2016 · Recent evidence, however, has shown that iconic signs are the first to be acquired by deaf children learning a sign language from their deaf ...
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Iconicity and Sign Lexical Acquisition: A Review - Frontiers
Aug 1, 2017 · The present review presents a critical overview of the literature on the acquisition of a sign language as first (L1) and second (L2) language.
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Signed Languages | The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics
Stokoe coined the term “chereme” for these units, the structural equivalent of the phonemes of spoken languages. Stokoe analyzed the phonology of signs into ...
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Grammaticalization - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
This is a general introduction to grammaticalization, the change whereby lexical terms and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve ...
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Grammaticalization and lexicalization - Oxford Academic
Lehmann (2002a) explicitly distinguishes a kind of broad lexicalization from a type of lexicality associated with meaning in terms of degree of concreteness (p.
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/grammaticalization/420C6D59856F8020065C275312FE2E1B
[51]
Avoir - Have - Essential French Verb - Lawless French Grammar
Avoir literally means "to have," but also serves as an auxiliary verb and is found in many idiomatic expressions. Avoir = to have, possess. J'ai une voiture ...Missing: grammaticalization | Show results with:grammaticalization
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Good-bye - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Salutation meaning farewell, originating from 1590s as a contraction of "God be with ye" (late 14c.), influenced by greetings like good-day and good ...Missing: OED | Show results with:OED
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Testament - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Late 13c. origin from Latin testamentum, meaning "last will," derived from testari "make a will," reflecting a witness's role in final property disposition.
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[PDF] THE SO-CALLED CHINESE VV COMPOUNDS—A CONTINUUM ...
Some so-called. VV compounds are best analyzed as lexicalized items while others are really serial verb constructions (e.g. Paul 2004). 1. Lexicon and Syntax.
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email, n.² meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
OED's earliest evidence for email is from 1979, in Electronics. email is formed within English, by clipping or shortening. Etymons: electronic mail n. See ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Word frequency and context of use in the lexical diffusion of ...
My goal is to demonstrate that word frequency and context frequency are factors that can affect variation and should be taken into account in future studies of ...