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Lycium

Lycium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae, comprising approximately 90 species of thorny shrubs and small trees that are typically deciduous and often armed with spines.^[1] These plants are characterized by simple, fasciculate leaves on short shoots, small tubular flowers in shades of purple, violet, or white, and small berry-like fruits that are usually red or orange. The genus exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution, primarily in arid and semi-arid temperate to subtropical regions worldwide, with the highest species diversity in South America (particularly Argentina and Chile), followed by southern Africa, North America, and Eurasia; species are absent from Antarctica and sparsely present in Australia.^[1] Habitats include dry washes, deserts, coastal dunes, and rocky slopes, where plants adapt to xeric conditions through features like reduced leaf size and pubescence.^[2] Many species are cryptically dioecious, with separate male and female plants that are morphologically similar.^[1] Several Lycium species hold significant economic and medicinal value, most notably L. barbarum and L. chinense, whose bright red berries are harvested as goji berries and used in traditional Chinese medicine for their purported antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-aging properties; these species are cultivated globally as a superfood and in herbal remedies.^[3] Other species, such as L. ferocissimum, are invasive in regions like Australia and New Zealand, where they form dense thickets that impact biodiversity and agriculture.^[4] The genus has been studied for its phytochemical diversity, including alkaloids, flavonoids, and polysaccharides, contributing to ongoing research in pharmacology and nutrition.^[5]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Lycium is derived from the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek term λύκιον (lykion), which denoted a spiny shrub, possibly referring to a thorny shrub from the ancient region of Lycia in southwestern Asia Minor, originating from the ancient region of Lycia. This classical name was applied by Pedanius Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica (ca. 60 CE) and by Pliny the Elder in Naturalis Historia (ca. 77 CE) to describe a thorny plant valued for its medicinal properties, including treatments for eye inflammation, wounds, and skin conditions.^[6]^[7] Carl Linnaeus formally established the genus Lycium in his seminal work Species Plantarum (1753), where he described three species—L. afrum, L. barbarum, and L. europaeum—and adopted the ancient name to classify these thorny shrubs within the Solanaceae family.^[8] The adoption reflected Linnaeus's practice of drawing on classical Greco-Roman references to provide descriptive and historically rooted binomial nomenclature for plants. Since its introduction, the genus name Lycium has remained orthographically stable in botanical literature, with no significant early misspellings or variants recorded at the genus level, though occasional apostrophe errors appear in specific epithets under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.

Classification and synonyms

Lycium is a genus of flowering plants classified within the family Solanaceae Juss., subfamily Solanoideae Burnett, and tribe Lycieae Hunz. This placement reflects its woody habit and floral characteristics shared with other solanaceous groups, as confirmed by molecular phylogenetic analyses.^[9]^[10] The genus was established by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum (1753), where he described three initial species: L. europaeum L., L. barbarum L., and L. afrum L., based on specimens from Europe, Asia, and Africa. Subsequent taxonomic revisions expanded the understanding of its diversity; notable works include A.M. Venter's 2000 Ph.D. thesis on African species and Armando T. Hunziker's 2001 treatment in Genera Solanacearum, which addressed circumscription and synonymy. Recent genomic studies have further confirmed the monophyly of Lycium and clarified diversification patterns. As of 2025, Plants of the World Online recognizes 99 accepted species in the genus, reflecting ongoing integrations from regional floras and phylogenetic data.^[11] Several generic synonyms have been proposed historically, often due to perceived morphological distinctions such as leaf arrangement, fruit type, or spine development that later proved insufficient to warrant separation. Examples include Ascleia Raf. (1838), Cantalea Raf. (1838), and Evoista Raf. (1838), all erected by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque based on minor vegetative or inflorescence variations within Lycium-like plants; these were reduced to synonyms upon recognition of overlapping traits. More recently, Grabowskia Schltdl. (1832) and the monotypic Phrodus (P. microphyllus) were synonymized under Lycium following DNA-based studies demonstrating their nested position within the genus, rendering tribe Lycieae monotypic.^[12]^[13] Phylogenetic analyses using chloroplast DNA and nuclear markers have clarified relationships within Lycium, supporting its monophyly once synonyms are included and revealing a basal split between Old World and New World clades. The genus exhibits a disjunct global distribution across arid and semi-arid regions of southern Africa, Australia, Eurasia, and the Americas, which initially prompted proposals for segregate genera but is now attributed to long-distance dispersal events, with the crown age estimated around 10–18 million years ago based on molecular dating. This biogeographic pattern has influenced taxonomic stability by emphasizing shared evolutionary history over geographic isolation.^[14]^[15]

Description

Morphology

Lycium species are deciduous or semi-deciduous shrubs typically reaching heights of 1-4 meters, often exhibiting a densely branched habit that is erect, scandent, or sprawling.^[16]^[17] These plants are frequently armed with thorns, which are straight or curved and can measure up to 4 cm in length, arising from modified axillary shoots or leaf bases to provide structural defense.^[18] The stems are woody, robust, and pubescent with simple hairs in some species, contributing to their adaptation in arid environments.^[17] Leaves of Lycium are small, ranging from 5-60 mm in length and 1-7 mm in width, narrow to lanceolate in shape, and semi-succulent with entire margins for water retention.^[16] They are alternately arranged on longer shoots or clustered in fascicles on short, spine-tipped branches, subsessile to petiolate, and often coated with a waxy layer or calcium oxalate excrescences.^[17] This fleshy texture supports their persistence in dry conditions. Inflorescences consist of solitary or clustered axillary flowers with funnel- or bell-shaped corollas measuring 5-20 mm, colored white to pale purple, and featuring five fused petals.^[16] Each flower includes five stamens inserted on the corolla tube and an inferior, bilocular ovary, with the calyx being campanulate and four- to five-lobed.^[17] The fruits are juicy, globose to ovoid berries, 5-15 mm in diameter, ripening to red, orange, yellow, or black hues depending on the species.^[16] These two-chambered structures contain numerous small, flattened, reniform seeds that are reticulate and compressed.^[17]

Reproduction

Lycium species typically produce hermaphroditic flowers, though gynodioecy occurs in certain taxa such as Lycium californicum, L. exsertum, and L. fremontii, where populations include both hermaphroditic individuals and male-sterile females.^[19] Some species are dioecious, with separate male and female plants that are morphologically similar, including cryptic dioecy in several African species such as L. horridum and L. villosum.^[1] Flowers are borne solitarily or in small clusters of 1–7, with blooming periods spanning spring to summer and varying by species and region; for instance, L. barbarum flowers from June to September in the Northern Hemisphere.^[20]^[21] Pollination is primarily achieved through insects, including bees and butterflies, which are drawn to the tubular flowers containing nectar at the base of the corolla. Most species favor outcrossing via gametophytic self-incompatibility, but self-compatible cultivars like "Damaye" and "Ningqi 1" enable autogamy, particularly in isolated or cultivated populations where pollinator access is limited. Cross-pollination enhances genetic diversity, though self-pollination can occur without compromising fertility in compatible lines.^[22]^[20]^[23] Fruit development follows successful pollination, with berries forming and ripening in 1–2 months; in L. barbarum, maturation begins in August and extends through October. These berries are fleshy, juicy, and typically orange-red, enclosing 10–100 reniform seeds that are small, brown, and compressed. Seed viability persists for several years under cold storage at 4°C, supporting propagation and germplasm conservation.^[20]^[24]^[25]^[26] Breeding systems in Lycium emphasize outcrossing to maintain heterozygosity, reinforced by self-incompatibility in wild species, though selective breeding has produced self-compatible and male-sterile lines for improved fruit yield and seedlessness in polyploids like tetraploid "Ningqi 9." Investigations into apomixis in southern African species such as L. afrum and L. ferocissimum revealed no evidence of unreduced embryo sacs, confirming reliance on sexual reproduction across ploidy levels.^[20]^[22]^[27]

Distribution and ecology

Geographic distribution

The genus Lycium displays a markedly disjunct distribution across temperate and subtropical regions worldwide, with approximately 90 species documented in total.^[11] The primary centers of occurrence include South America, North America, and southern Africa, accounting for the bulk of the genus's diversity, while smaller numbers are scattered in Eurasia, Europe, and Australia. This fragmented pattern underscores the genus's adaptation to arid and semi-arid environments in these areas.^[14] In South America, around 30 species are native, with notable concentrations in the Andean regions of Peru and Bolivia, as well as Argentina and Chile; this represents the highest regional diversity within the genus. North America hosts approximately 20 species, predominantly in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Southern Africa supports about 20 species, mainly in South Africa and Namibia, while Eurasia and Europe together feature roughly 10 species, and Australia has a single endemic, L. australe.^[14]^[28] Phylogenetic analyses suggest that Lycium likely originated in the Americas, with subsequent long-distance dispersal to the Old World facilitated by birds carrying small, succulent fruits or, in some cases, human-mediated introduction. For instance, L. barbarum, native to Asia, has been widely cultivated and naturalized in temperate zones globally, including parts of North America, Europe, and Oceania, where it often escapes into wild populations.^[14]^[29]

Habitat preferences

Lycium species predominantly occupy arid and semi-arid environments, favoring temperate and subtropical climates where they demonstrate remarkable resilience to extreme conditions. These plants thrive in regions with hot, dry summers and can endure high temperatures reaching up to 40°C, while certain species, such as L. barbarum, exhibit frost tolerance down to -23°C, enabling survival in areas with cold winters.^[30]^[31] Their preference for light exposure further supports growth in open, sunny habitats, where they avoid waterlogged soils that could lead to root rot.^[32] In terms of soil and water requirements, Lycium species favor well-drained sandy, rocky, or alluvial substrates, often in alkaline or calcareous settings that prevent water accumulation. Their deep root systems, which can extend several meters laterally and vertically, allow access to subsurface moisture, conferring high drought tolerance even in nutrient-poor soils. Halophytic adaptations in several species enable them to colonize coastal or inland saline areas, where they manage salt stress through specialized ion exclusion mechanisms.^[33]^[34]^[15] The elevational distribution of Lycium spans a broad range, from sea level in desert lowlands and coastal zones to high-altitude montane habitats exceeding 4,000 m, as seen in species like L. humile in the Andes. This versatility reflects their ability to adapt to varying atmospheric pressures, temperature gradients, and precipitation patterns across elevations.^[35]^[36] Notable physiological adaptations enhance their suitability for these harsh habitats, including succulent leaves that store water to buffer against prolonged dry periods and spines that deter herbivory while minimizing surface area for transpiration, thus conserving moisture. These traits collectively enable Lycium to persist in environments with limited resources, contributing to their widespread occurrence in dry ecosystems worldwide.^[37]^[38]

Ecological interactions

Species in the genus Lycium play significant roles in their native ecosystems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. The berries serve as an important food source for birds and small mammals, facilitating seed dispersal through consumption and excretion. For instance, native wolfberry species like L. andersonii provide nutritious fruits that support wildlife, including quail and rodents, enhancing biodiversity in desert habitats.^[39]^[40] Flowers of Lycium species attract a diverse array of pollinators, primarily insects such as bees, wasps, and flies, which visit for nectar rich in sugars and amino acids. In desert ecosystems like the Monte region of Argentina, Lycium participates in complex plant-pollinator networks, where floral traits like nectar composition influence visitor assemblages and promote cross-pollination.^[41]^[42] Some Lycium species exhibit associations with soil microbiota that aid nutrient cycling, though they lack direct symbiotic nitrogen fixation typical of legumes. In nutrient-poor arid soils, root exudates support bacterial communities involved in nitrogen transformation, indirectly benefiting plant growth and ecosystem fertility.^[43] In introduced ranges, certain Lycium species, notably L. ferocissimum, act as invasive weeds. Native to southern Africa, it forms dense, thorny thickets in Australia and New Zealand, outcompeting native vegetation for light, water, and nutrients while providing poor habitat quality for local fauna. These thickets also impede livestock movement and increase wildfire risks by altering fuel loads.^[4]^[38] Control efforts for L. ferocissimum include mechanical removal, herbicide application (e.g., triclopyr or glyphosate), and biological agents like the rust fungus Puccinia rapipes, which targets leaves and stems to reduce vigor without broad environmental harm. Integrated management combining these methods has shown success in restoring native plant communities, though persistent seed banks complicate eradication.^[38]^[44] Populations of native Lycium species in arid zones face threats from overgrazing, which reduces plant cover and recruitment by favoring palatable understory species and compacting soils. In regions like the Arabian Peninsula and northwestern China, intensive livestock grazing has led to declines in L. shawii and similar taxa, exacerbating desertification.^[45]^[46] Climate change poses additional risks and opportunities, potentially expanding suitable ranges for some species through warmer temperatures and altered precipitation patterns. Modeling for L. barbarum and L. ruthenicum predicts habitat shifts northward in Asia under moderate emissions scenarios (RCP 4.5), though increased drought frequency may stress southern populations.^[32]^[47] Conservation efforts target vulnerable Lycium species affected by habitat loss and overexploitation. For example, restoration planting of L. shawii is used in degraded arid lands in the Middle East to bolster populations. Similarly, L. ruthenicum holds second-grade protected status in China, with initiatives focusing on habitat protection to mitigate threats from urbanization and collection.^[45]^[48]^[49]

Human uses

Culinary uses

The fruits of Lycium barbarum, commonly known as goji berries, are a primary species utilized in culinary contexts, often dried and consumed raw as snacks, steeped in teas, or incorporated into various dishes for their sweet-tart flavor.^[50] These berries are rich in antioxidants such as zeaxanthin and beta-carotene, along with polysaccharides, contributing to their nutritional appeal.^[50] Approximately 100 grams of dried goji berries provide 349 calories and 14.26 grams of protein, alongside high levels of carbohydrates (77.06 grams) and essential vitamins like vitamin A (26,822 IU) and vitamin C (48.4 mg).^[50] Preparation methods for goji berries vary by freshness and cultural tradition; fresh berries can be added to salads or eaten directly, while dried ones are commonly mixed into trail mixes, juices, wines, porridges, rice gruels, yogurts, or vegetable and meat dishes.^[50] In some Asian practices, the leaves of L. barbarum are occasionally prepared as greens or potherbs, similar to spinach, and used in teas or simple cooked preparations.^[50] These versatile applications highlight the plant's role as a nutrient-dense ingredient in both traditional and modern recipes. Goji berries hold significant cultural importance as a staple in Chinese and broader Asian cuisines, where they have been incorporated into meals and beverages for over 2,000 years.^[50] Since the early 2000s, they have gained global recognition as a superfood, with exports surging and products appearing in health-focused markets worldwide due to their nutrient profile.^[51]

Medicinal uses

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), the fruits of Lycium barbarum and L. chinense have been used as tonics to nourish the liver and kidneys, brighten the eyes, and bolster immunity since around 200 BCE, as documented in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing.^[52] These berries are prescribed for conditions such as blurry vision, fatigue, dizziness, infertility, and dry cough, with recommended dosages of 5–12 g of dried fruit daily.^[53] Root bark extracts from both species are employed to treat symptoms like abdominal pain and headache, often in formulations aimed at anti-aging and vitality enhancement.^[54] In Western herbal traditions, Lycium species were noted by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century CE for treating eye ailments and inflammation.^[55] By the 19th century, European herbalists incorporated the plant into remedies for fevers and general debility, drawing from earlier Mediterranean uses for cough and eye disorders.^[54] Key active compounds in Lycium fruits include polysaccharides (5–8% of dry weight), flavonoids, and carotenoids such as zeaxanthin and β-carotene, which contribute to their pharmacological effects.^[53] These components exhibit antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals like superoxide and hydroxyl radicals while enhancing enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase.^[53] Modern research supports traditional applications, with clinical trials in the 2010s demonstrating antidiabetic benefits; for instance, a 2015 randomized controlled trial of 67 type 2 diabetes patients found that 300 mg daily of L. barbarum polysaccharides improved glucose control and reduced insulin resistance over 3 months.^[56] Anti-aging effects have been evidenced in studies showing reduced oxidative stress and DNA damage in aging models, attributed to polysaccharide-mediated immunoregulation and anti-apoptotic activity via pathways like Bcl-2 and p53.^[53] Supplements derived from Lycium berries are commonly used to mitigate oxidative stress, with a 2014 review of human trials confirming improvements in immune function and overall well-being at doses of 8–120 g daily.^[57] As of 2025, recent reviews continue to support these benefits, particularly in improving lipid and glucose metabolism and reducing oxidative stress.^[58] Potential toxicity arises from trace atropine-like alkaloids in unripe fruits, though concentrations in ripe berries (up to 19 ppb) remain far below harmful levels and pose no risk with typical consumption.^[59]

Other uses

Lycium species are valued for their ornamental qualities, particularly in landscaping and hedging due to their thorny, arching growth habit and attractive purple flowers. In Europe, Lycium halimifolium and Lycium barbarum are commonly cultivated as deciduous shrubs for formal hedges and informal barriers, reaching heights of 2–3 meters with dense branching that provides privacy and aesthetic appeal.^[60]^[61] These plants are also drought-tolerant once established, making them suitable for xeriscaping in arid and semi-arid landscapes where water conservation is prioritized; for instance, Lycium andersonii is recommended for dryland gardens to add structure without high irrigation needs.^[62] In agricultural settings, particularly in arid regions, Lycium shrubs serve as effective windbreaks to protect crops and livestock from harsh winds and sandstorms. Species such as Lycium intricatum are planted as living barriers in Mediterranean and North African environments.^[63] Additionally, in rangeland ecosystems of Central Asia, Lycium species contribute to livestock fodder, with their leaves and branches providing nutritious browse during dry seasons, supporting pastoral economies in Uzbekistan and similar areas.^[64] Some species, like Lycium carolinianum, are utilized for erosion control along coastal dunes and riverbanks, where their extensive root systems stabilize soil and prevent degradation in disturbed habitats.^[65] Industrially, berries from certain Lycium species have applications in natural dyes, leveraging their high carotenoid content for coloring textiles. Extracts from Lycium ferocissimum fruits, optimized through central composite design methods, yield vibrant orange-red hues on cotton fabrics when mordanted with alum, offering an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic pigments.^[66] Berries of Lycium ruthenicum, known as black goji, provide pH-stable natural colorants suitable for food packaging and other non-edible products across a wide acidity range.^[67] The cultivation of Lycium for ornamental and agricultural purposes supports a niche segment of the global horticultural trade, with plants valued for their resilience in challenging climates and contributing to sustainable land management practices. However, some non-native plantings exhibit invasive potential, forming dense thickets that outcompete local flora in regions like Australia and New Zealand.^[4]

Species

Diversity

The genus Lycium encompasses 101 accepted species as of 2024, with taxonomic estimates varying between 70 and 105 due to ongoing revisions and synonymy assessments across global floras.^[11]^[68]^[9] This species richness reflects the genus's adaptation to diverse arid and semi-arid environments, where phylogenetic analyses indicate multiple diversification events driven by geographic isolation and ecological shifts.^[9] Morphological variation within Lycium is pronounced, spanning growth habits from prostrate or decumbent forms, such as L. carolinianum and L. californicum, to erect shrubs or small trees up to 4 meters tall, like certain Old World taxa.^[69]^[70] Leaves are typically simple and alternate, often reduced in arid-adapted species, while fruits—a bicameral berry—exhibit regional differences in color (ranging from red and orange in Eurasian species to black or green in some African and American ones) and size (from small ovoid forms under 1 cm to larger oblong berries exceeding 2 cm).^[71]^[72] These traits, including thorn presence and deciduous versus evergreen foliage, contribute to the genus's ecological versatility in subtropical to temperate zones.^[70] Infrageneric groupings are informal and based on morphological characters, particularly fruit structure and calyx features, with sections such as Lycium (predominantly Old World, characterized by certain berry septation) and Mesocope (New World, distinguished by calyx tube traits) aiding in systematic delineation.^[73] Endemism is especially elevated in South America, where at least 32 species are restricted to the continent, often in fragmented Andean and coastal habitats; this regional diversity is increasingly threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from agricultural expansion and urbanization.^[71]^[74]

Notable species

Lycium barbarum, commonly known as goji berry or Chinese wolfberry, is a deciduous shrub native to China and parts of southeastern Europe, growing up to 3 meters tall with bright orange-red ellipsoid fruits that are 1-2 cm long.^[75] It is widely cultivated worldwide for its nutrient-rich berries, which are harvested for use in traditional medicine and as a superfood due to their high antioxidant content.^[50] The plant features arching branches and produces small, purple flowers in late spring.^[76] Lycium chinense, closely related to L. barbarum, is a deciduous woody perennial shrub native to East Asia, typically reaching 1-3 meters in height with more rounded leaves and orange-red fruits that are less sweet than those of its counterpart.^[50] In traditional Chinese medicine, its fruits are valued for nourishing the blood, enriching yin, and supporting kidney and liver function, while the root bark is used for cooling properties.^[77] The species is distributed across regions like China, Japan, and Korea, where it grows in a variety of habitats including hillsides and riverbanks.^[78] Lycium ferocissimum, or African boxthorn, is a thorny evergreen shrub native to South Africa, capable of reaching up to 5 meters in height and width, with rigid, branched stems bearing spines up to 5 cm long and small red berries.^[4] Introduced to Australia in the mid-1800s as a hedge plant, it has become a highly invasive weed, displacing native vegetation, degrading habitats for fauna, and impeding land management in arid and semi-arid regions.^[38] Its extensive root system and prolific seed production contribute to its rapid spread, posing significant ecological challenges.^[79] Lycium californicum, known as California boxthorn, is a sprawling to erect deciduous shrub endemic to coastal regions of North America, particularly California and Baja California, growing 1.5 to 3 meters tall with tolerance to saline soils and maritime conditions.^[80] It features small, semi-succulent leaves and produces tubular purple to pinkish flowers in spring, followed by red berries that attract wildlife.^[81] This species thrives in coastal sage scrub, dunes, and bluffs, where its salt tolerance enables survival in harsh, windswept environments. Lycium andersonii, or desert wolfberry, is a drought-deciduous shrub native to the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the southwestern United States (California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah) and northwestern Mexico, typically reaching 1-2 meters in height with adaptations for aridity such as efficient water-use and facultative salt tolerance.^[18] It exhibits high photosynthetic rates in early spring and increased water-use efficiency under elevated CO2 conditions, allowing persistence in hot, dry habitats with alkaline or saline soils.^[82] The plant produces small, tubular flowers and red berries, contributing to desert ecosystems as a food source for wildlife.^[83]

Formerly placed species

In recent molecular phylogenetic analyses of tribe Lycieae in the Solanaceae family, the genus Lycium has been found to be paraphyletic, with species of Grabowskia and the monotypic Phrodus nested within it.^[10] This has prompted reclassifications that expand Lycium to include former Grabowskia species, such as Grabowskia boerhaviifolia (now Lycium boerhaviifolium), due to shared morphological traits like sclerified fruits and close genetic relationships, particularly with a clade of North American Lycium species (e.g., L. cooperi and L. macrodon).^[10] Similarly, Phrodus microphyllus has been transferred to Lycium as L. bridgesii based on nuclear and plastid DNA data showing its placement within the genus.^[84] Pre-2000 classifications treated Grabowskia and Phrodus as distinct genera, separate from Lycium, based primarily on fruit type (dry capsules in Grabowskia vs. berries in most Lycium) and geographic distribution, with Grabowskia and Phrodus restricted to South America.^[10] However, chloroplast DNA sequences from the late 1990s and early 2000s revealed low divergence within Lycium and convergent evolution in fruit characters, leading to the recognition that these separations were artificial.^[85] No species originally classified in Lycium have been excluded or transferred to other genera like Physalis or Nicandra; instead, the revisions have consolidated the tribe into a broader Lycium, increasing the genus's estimated diversity to over 90 species.^[84] These changes affect biodiversity assessments by refining genus boundaries and highlighting the role of long-distance dispersal in the disjunct distribution of Lycium across continents, which influences conservation strategies for arid-adapted taxa.^[15]

References

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Inflorescence: flowers 1--7; pedicels 10--20 mm. ... Fruit: +- 1 cm, bright red. Seed: 4--20. Chromosomes: 2n=24. ... Synonyms: Lycium halimifolium Mill.Missing: reproduction pollination<|control11|><|separator|>
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[33]
Lycium torreyi - USDA Forest Service
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Torrey wolfberry is a spiny to spineless shrub up to 10 feet (3 m) tall with many spreading branches. The axillary flowers ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
[34]
Lycium horridum | PlantZAfrica - SANBI
Jun 13, 2024 · Lycium horridum, also known as the buck honeythorn, is a thorny shrub with oblong leaves and distinctive orange to red berries.
[35]
distribution of Lycium humile (Solanaceae), an endemic halophyte ...
Nov 8, 2021 · It is a cosmopolitan genus with its greatest diversity occurring in extratropical areas, in southern South America, southern Africa, and ...
[36]
Germplasm Resources and Strategy for Genetic Breeding of Lycium ...
Feb 10, 2022 · This review systematically introduces the present germplasm resources, cytological examination and molecular-assisted breeding progress in Lycium species.
[37]
Lycium carolinianum (Carolina wolfberry) | Native Plants of North ...
Feb 17, 2023 · Growing Conditions ; Water Use: High ; Light Requirement: Sun , Part Shade ; Soil Moisture: Moist ; CaCO3 Tolerance: Medium ; Cold Tolerant: yes
[38]
Biology of Invasive Plants 2. Lycium ferocissimum Miers - BioOne
Mar 4, 2021 · Lycium species typically inhabit arid to semiarid environments (Adamson 1938; Levin et al. 2007). The genus includes approximately 90 species, ...
[39]
Plant of the month: Wolfberry - Arizona Daily Star
Feb 8, 2023 · Wolfberries (Lycium spp.) are a wonderful native plant. They are extremely tolerant of our soils and sun, and provide food and habitat for birds, small mammals ...
[40]
The Genus Lycium, Wolfberries — Spadefoot Nursery, Inc.
Family: Solanaceae. This genus has a disjunct distribution around the globe, with a total of 92 species occurring on most continents in temperate and ...
[41]
The relationship between floral nectar composition and visitors in ...
We evaluated the relationship between floral nectar composition, flower visitors, and floral form for Lycium species from Argentina and Chile.
[42]
Evaluating sampling completeness in a desert plant–pollinator ...
Aug 4, 2011 · We present an exhaustive analysis of the structure of a 4-year plant–pollinator network from the Monte desert in Argentina using qualitative and quantitative ...
[43]
Effects of nitrogen input on soil bacterial community structure and ...
Jan 9, 2023 · Lycium barbarum L., goji berry, is a precious traditional Chinese medicine and food supplement which is heavily dependent on nitrogen for ...Missing: associations | Show results with:associations
[44]
Evaluation of the rust fungus Puccinia rapipes for biological control ...
Lycium ferocissimum (African boxthorn), native to South Africa, is a widespread and significant invasive weed in Australia and New Zealand (Weber, 2017). In ...<|separator|>
[45]
Restoration and Conservation of Deteriorated Arid Land by a Native ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Since Lycium shrubs have the ability to grow in severely degraded areas, with extreme condition of prolonged drought, high temperature and poor ...
[46]
Trade-Off Relationships of Leaf Functional Traits of Lycium ... - MDPI
This area has extreme arid climate, wind erosion, overgrazing and sand burial, which extends from the upstream area to the downstream area and forms unique ...
[47]
Potentially suitable habitats of Daodi goji berry in China under ...
Under different future climate scenarios, the expansion area reached the maximum (28,016.41 km2) under RCP 8.5 in the 2070s and was close to the unchanged ( ...
[48]
Genetic diversity of the endangered and medically important Lycium ...
Lycium species are long-lived perennial shrubs and many inhabit arid to semiarid environments, though some are found in coastal saline habitats. The majority of ...Missing: vulnerable | Show results with:vulnerable
[49]
Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change on the Potential ...
Apart from climatic factors, soil properties also influence the suitable habitats of plant species. ... Lycium ruthenicum in context of climate change.
[50]
Goji Berry—a Novel Nutraceutical "Superfruit" for Florida Master ...
The chromosome number of Lycium barbarum is 24 (Chen et al. 2018) but that of Lycium chinense is in a range from 24 to 48 (Li 1989). Both species have a long ...
[51]
Health Benefits and Applications of Goji Berries in Functional Food ...
Goji berries have long been used for their nutritional value and medicinal purposes in Asian countries. In the last two decades, goji berries have become ...Missing: culinary | Show results with:culinary
[52]
Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects of Chinese Wolfberry - NCBI - NIH
It should be noted that wolfberry is used not only as a drug in TCM prescriptions to treat diseases but also as a popular food by Chinese people in their daily ...
[53]
Lycium Barbarum: A Traditional Chinese Herb and A Promising Anti ...
β-sitosterol can also be used as a plant hormone, can increase the weight of reproductive organs. Increasing the weight of the reproductive organs can trigger ...
[54]
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Summary of each segment:
[55]
Goji (Lycium barbarum and L. chinense) - Thieme Connect
As to the root bark, several compounds have demonstrated a hepatoprotective action as well as inhibitory effects on the rennin/angiotensin system which may ...<|separator|>
[56]
Practical Application of Antidiabetic Efficacy of Lycium barbarum ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The study was a randomized, controlled clinical trial. A total of 67 patients with type 2 diabetes (30 in control group and 37 in LBP group) ...
[57]
An evidence-based update on the pharmacological activities and ...
Dec 17, 2014 · Several clinical studies in healthy subjects show that consumption of wolfberry juice improves general wellbeing and immune functions. LBPs are ...
[58]
HPLC‐MS trace analysis of atropine in Lycium barbarum berries
Jul 10, 2006 · HPLC-MS trace analysis of atropine in Lycium barbarum berries ... Therefore, the content is far below toxic levels. Copyright © 2006 ...
[59]
Lycium barbarum - Manual of the Alien Plants of Belgium
Jan 21, 2011 · (China) – Much cultivated as an ornamental shrub (mostly for hedging or erosion control) in private and public gardens, along railway tracks, ...
[60]
Lycium barbarum (F)|Duke of Argyll's tea tree - RHS
A scrambling, deciduous shrub to 3m tall, with sparsely spiny stems bearing narrow, dull green leaves and small, dull purple flowers in late spring and summer.
[61]
https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/86879/lycium-barbarum-%28f%29/details
[62]
Lycium intricatum Boiss.: An unexploited and rich source of ... - NIH
Jun 24, 2015 · It is used as a hedge and as wind break plant. In addition the dry powder of its fruit was used to protect from eye diseases. However, in ...
[63]
Study of Species Lycium L. of Rangeland Ecosystems of Uzbekistan ...
The article presents the features of biology and ecology, growth and development of various Lycium L. species in different ecological conditions of Uzbekistan.
[64]
Extraction of Carotenoids from Lycium ferocissimum Fruits for Cotton ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The dyeability of cotton with carotenoids extract has also been studied. Unmordant and post-mordanted bleached cotton fabric with alum and ...
[65]
Black goji as a potential source of natural color in a wide pH range
Dec 15, 2018 · Lycium ruthenicum Murr. is a traditional Chinese herb widely distributed in Tibet. The fruit, known as black goji, is popular in traditional ...<|separator|>
[66]
Phylogenetic analysis and divergence time estimation of Lycium ...
Jun 6, 2024 · In this study, we constructed a phylogeny and estimated divergence time based on the chloroplast genomes (CPGs) of 15 species, including subspecies, of the ...Missing: disjunct | Show results with:disjunct
[67]
Lycium in Flora of North America @ efloras.org
Species of Lycium typically inhabit subtropical regions, often growing in desert, coastal, or saline environments.
[68]
[PDF] Lycium L. - USDA Forest Service
Stratified seed of matrimonyvine will maintain good viability for 6 months (NBV 1946), but there is no information on long-term storage of dry seeds. They ...
[69]
Identification of morphological and phenological traits for the ...
Lycium species are typically shrubs or small trees with simple leaves and thorny branches and show considerable interspecific variation in morphological traits ...
[70]
Microstructural and histochemical characteristics of Lycium ...
Jun 15, 2018 · The elongated Lycium barbarum drupes were characterised by a varied length (0.7–1.5 cm) and width (3.5–7.5 mm) (Fig. 1a, b). The pericarp wall ...
[71]
Karyotypic Studies in South American Lycium ( Solanaceae ) - J-Stage
The current infrageneric classifi - cation recognizes four sections: Lycium, Mesocope, Schistocalyx, and Sclerocarpellum ( Chiang. 1983 a, Bernardello l.c.), ...
[72]
Meta-analysis of the impact of future climate change on the area of ...
However, high emission concentrations will increase the fragmentation of suitable woody plant areas and reduce species diversity in the future. Future ...
[73]
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/cytologia1929/61/4/61_4_395/_pdf
[74]
Functional constituents of wild and cultivated Goji (L. barbarum L ...
Lycium barbarum L. is a defoliated shrubbery that grows in China, Tibet, and other parts of Asia and its fruits are 1–2 cm-long, bright orange-red ellipsoid ...
[75]
Lycium Fruit - Institute for Traditional Medicine
Lycium fruit is the red berry obtained from two closely related plants, Lycium chinense and Lycium barbarum, naturally occurring in Asia, primarily in northwest ...Missing: botanical | Show results with:botanical
[76]
The Medicinal Species of the Lycium Genus (Goji Berries) in East Asia
The berries from the Lycium genus are widely consumed and are highly nutritious. Moreover, their chemical constituents have attracted attention for their health ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[77]
[PDF] African Boxthorn: Lycium ferocissimum | Shark Bay
Description: An erect perennial shrub up to 6m in height and 3m across. Characterised by woody, thorny growth with rigid, branched stems that can have spines ...
[78]
[PDF] Common Shrubs of Chaparral - USDA Forest Service
with pink purple flowers and glandular-hairy flower stalks also occur with this species. ... Lycium californicum Nutt. Nightshade Family (Solonaceae). BOX ...Missing: tolerant | Show results with:tolerant
[79]
[PDF] Selected Plants Native to Palos Verdes Peninsula (CM Rodrigue, 07 ...
Jul 26, 2011 · Lycium californicum ... The Cruciferae of Continental North America: Systematics of the Mustard Family from the Arctic to Panama.
[80]
[PDF] Desert Tortoise Annotated Bibliography, 1991–2015
thorn (Lycium andersonii) with five abundant species, (3) creosote bush/white ... instantaneous water-use efficiency compared with control plants.<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
[PDF] Review of climate change impacts on future carbon stores and ...
Effects of elevated CO2 (FACE) on the functional ecology of the drought-deciduous Mojave Desert shrub, Lycium andersonii. Environmental and Experimental ...
[82]
A new generic circumscription in tribe Lycieae (Solanaceae) - Levin
Jun 1, 2011 · Nomenclatural changes for new sectional delimitation in Lycium (Solanaceae) of the new world. Taxon 32: 456–458. 10.2307/1221507. Web of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[83]
Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Genus Lycium (Solanaceae)
Lycium comprises approximately 70 species and is disjunctly distributed in temperate to subtropical regions in South America, North America, southern Africa ...