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Major prophet

In the Christian Old Testament, the Major Prophets refer to the category of longer prophetic books that include Isaiah, Jeremiah (often encompassing Lamentations as well), Ezekiel, and Daniel. These writings are designated as "major" not due to the relative importance of their messages, but because of their substantial length and detailed scope compared to the twelve shorter books known as the Minor Prophets.^[1]^[2] In the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), however, the Major Prophets are limited to Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, with Daniel classified instead among the Writings (Ketuvim) rather than the prophetic corpus.^[1] The Major Prophets served as divine messengers during a turbulent period in Israel's history, primarily from the 8th century BCE through the 6th century BCE, spanning the Assyrian threat, the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel, and the Babylonian exile of Judah.^[3] Their oracles addressed Israel's covenant unfaithfulness, including idolatry, social injustice, and moral corruption, pronouncing God's impending judgment through foreign invasions and exile while also offering hope through promises of repentance, restoration, and a future new covenant.^[4] Central themes across these books emphasize Yahweh's sovereignty over nations and history, the consequences of sin, calls for ethical reform, and prophetic visions of redemption, including messianic figures and the renewal of Jerusalem.^[4]^[1] These texts not only provide historical and theological insights into ancient Israel's relationship with God but also influence later Jewish and Christian eschatology, with passages frequently cited in the New Testament as foreshadowing Jesus Christ.^[4] The prophetic literature underscores a recurring pattern: divine holiness demands justice and fidelity, yet mercy prevails for the remnant that turns back to God.^[4]

Overview and Definition

Definition and Criteria

In biblical scholarship, the Major Prophets designate four key books in the Old Testament—Isaiah, Jeremiah (often including the associated Lamentations), Ezekiel, and Daniel—classified together due to their extended length and expansive narrative scope in contrast to the briefer writings of the Minor Prophets.^[2]^[5] The primary criteria for this classification emphasize the books' substantial volume, with lengths varying: Isaiah contains 66 chapters, Jeremiah 52, Ezekiel 48, Lamentations 5, and Daniel 12, enabling detailed explorations that surpass the concise format of the twelve Minor Prophets.^[6]^[7] Beyond length, these texts demonstrate thematic breadth, addressing divine judgment against Israel's unfaithfulness and the nations, assurances of future restoration for a faithful remnant, and messianic prophecies foretelling a coming redeemer, elements that underscore their comprehensive theological framework.^[8]^[9] This grouping has exerted significant historical influence on Jewish and Christian theology, providing foundational texts for understanding covenantal promises, ethical imperatives, and eschatological hope that permeate subsequent scriptural interpretation and doctrine.^[10]^[4] The terminology of "Major" and "Minor" Prophets emerged in Christian canonical traditions around the early 5th century CE, notably in Augustine of Hippo's City of God, where he distinguishes the shorter prophetic writings as "minor prophets" for organizational purposes; this division holds no basis in the Hebrew Bible, where all prophetic books are simply categorized as the Latter Prophets without such hierarchy.^[11]^[12] Daniel's inclusion, despite its shorter span, stems from its profound apocalyptic content and visionary scope, aligning it with the others' influential depth rather than strict length alone. In Catholic Bibles, the Major Prophets also include the deuterocanonical Book of Baruch.^[2]^[4]

Distinction from Minor Prophets

The distinction between the Major Prophets and the Minor Prophets in the Old Testament primarily arises from the physical and structural characteristics of their respective books rather than any difference in theological importance or prophetic authority. The Major Prophets consist of the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Lamentations, and Daniel, each preserved as individual scrolls or volumes due to their substantial length, ranging from 5 chapters in Lamentations to 66 in Isaiah. In contrast, the Twelve Minor Prophets—Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi—comprise shorter works, with chapter counts varying from 1 in Obadiah to 14 in Hosea and Zechariah; these were traditionally compiled into a single scroll known as "The Twelve" in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). This collection format for the Minor Prophets reflects their brevity, allowing them to be treated as a unified corpus, while the Major Prophets' extended format necessitated separate treatment in ancient manuscripts.^[1]^[6] Thematically, the Major Prophets often blend narrative accounts of prophetic biographies, poetic oracles, and visionary elements to address sweeping historical and theological developments, such as the impending exile of Judah, the fall of Jerusalem, and promises of restoration and return from captivity. For instance, these books encompass broader geopolitical contexts involving empires like Babylon and Persia, integrating personal stories of the prophets with divine judgments and hopes for renewal. The Minor Prophets, however, tend to concentrate on more localized or immediate concerns, delivering pointed calls to repentance, indictments of social injustices, or warnings of judgment against specific regions like Israel, Judah, or neighboring nations such as Nineveh or Edom. This focused approach emphasizes covenantal faithfulness in everyday life, with less emphasis on extended biographical or visionary narratives.^[13]^[14] In terms of interpretive significance, the greater length of the Major Prophets enables more elaborate explorations of eschatological themes—visions of end-times judgment and redemption—and messianic prophecies that have profoundly shaped Christian theology, including typological readings of figures like the Suffering Servant in Isaiah as foreshadowing Christ. These detailed prophecies have been extensively quoted and alluded to in the New Testament, amplifying their role in Christian hermeneutics. The Minor Prophets, while equally authoritative, prioritize urgent exhortations to covenant fidelity and ethical living in the present, with their shorter format lending itself to concise, memorable declarations that underscore God's sovereignty over history without expansive future-oriented frameworks. This distinction highlights how the Major Prophets provide a panoramic view of salvation history, whereas the Minor Prophets offer targeted applications of prophetic truth.^[2]^[15] Quantitatively, the Major Prophets collectively contain 4,440 verses across 183 chapters, dwarfing the Minor Prophets' 1,050 verses in 67 chapters, a disparity that underscores the structural basis for their categorization. The term "Minor Prophets" (Latin: prophetae minores) originated with early Christian writer Augustine of Hippo in the late fourth century, deriving from minor in the sense of "shorter" or "smaller" in volume, not implying lesser spiritual weight or prophetic stature—a misconception sometimes arising from the English translation, though the Latin root aligns with brevis ("brief" or "short") in emphasizing conciseness. Both categories equally convey God's word, with the division serving practical purposes in canon organization and study.^[6]^[16]

Historical Context

Prophetic Tradition in Ancient Israel

In ancient Israelite society, a prophet, known in Hebrew as naviʾ, functioned primarily as a spokesperson for Yahweh, divinely commissioned through visions, auditory experiences, or direct calls to convey God's messages. This role emphasized passive summons by the divine, distinguishing prophets from priests, who mediated rituals and sacrifices, and kings, who held political authority. The term naviʾ likely derives from a Semitic root meaning "to call" or "to proclaim," underscoring the prophet's duty to announce Yahweh's will rather than predict the future independently.^[17] The prophetic tradition evolved significantly from its early manifestations in the 11th century BCE, beginning with figures like Samuel, who bridged the transition from judges to monarchy and operated within guilds of prophets characterized by ecstatic experiences induced by music or trance. During the monarchic period (10th–8th centuries BCE), prophets such as Nathan, Elijah, and Elisha expanded this role, serving as royal advisors, miracle-workers, and critics of the court, often forming organized groups known as "sons of the prophets" to preserve oral traditions. By the classical era (8th–6th centuries BCE), amid the rise of the Assyrian and Babylonian threats, prophecy shifted toward written compositions during the monarchy's decline and the Babylonian exile, with figures like Isaiah and Jeremiah producing literary works that formalized these messages for posterity. This progression marked a transition from spontaneous, oral proclamations to enduring textual records, influencing post-exilic Jewish thought.^[18]^[17] Prophets played crucial societal roles as moral and spiritual watchmen, frequently warning against idolatry, such as the worship of Canaanite deities or foreign gods, which they viewed as covenant violations leading to national downfall. They also condemned social injustices, including the exploitation of the poor, corrupt trade practices, and neglect of the vulnerable, urging adherence to Yahweh's ethical demands for justice and mercy. Additionally, prophets critiqued reliance on foreign alliances, like those with Egypt or Assyria, as betrayals of trust in Yahweh alone. These interventions often involved dramatic methods, including prophetic ecstasy—states of divine frenzy—symbolic acts such as wearing sackcloth or performing gestures to enact judgments, and direct confrontations with kings and elites to enforce accountability.^[19]^[18] A hallmark of prophetic speech was the introductory formula "thus says the Lord" (koh amar YHWH), which appears over 290 times in the Hebrew Bible, predominantly in the prophetic books, signaling divine authority and authenticity. This motif reinforced the prophets' role as intermediaries, framing oracles as unmediated words from Yahweh. The Israelite tradition shared parallels with broader Near Eastern prophecy, notably in the 18th-century BCE Mari texts from Mesopotamia, where prophetic messages—often delivered by ecstatics or intermediaries to kings—included divine assurances, warnings, and ritual instructions, reflecting similar institutional and performative elements.^[20]^[21]

Chronological Framework

The ministries of the major prophets occurred primarily between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, encompassing a turbulent era of imperial expansion, national collapses, and forced displacements that reshaped the identity of ancient Israel and Judah.^[1] This period began with the rising threat of the Assyrian Empire, which conquered the northern kingdom of Israel and destroyed its capital, Samaria, in 722 BCE, leading to widespread deportations of the population.^[22] The subsequent dominance of the Neo-Babylonian Empire intensified the crises for the southern kingdom of Judah, marked by the deportation of King Jehoiachin and Judean elites to Babylon in 597 BCE, followed by the siege and destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple in 586 BCE, which initiated the Babylonian Exile.^[23] The era transitioned with the Persian king Cyrus the Great's conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE and his subsequent edict permitting the Jewish exiles to return to Judah and reconstruct their Temple, signaling the onset of the post-exilic period.^[24] Throughout these events, the major prophets served as divine spokespersons amid the geopolitical turmoil, framing the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions as consequences of Judah's and Israel's violations of their covenant with Yahweh, while simultaneously conveying assurances of eventual restoration and renewal.^[25] Isaiah's prophetic activity is dated to approximately 740–700 BCE, overlapping with the Assyrian campaigns against Judah during the reigns of kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.^[1] Jeremiah prophesied from around 627 to 586 BCE, spanning the final decades of Judah's independence under kings Josiah through Zedekiah and directly confronting the Babylonian assaults.^[1] Ezekiel began his ministry in 593 BCE among the exilic community in Babylon, continuing until about 571 BCE, thus overlapping with Jeremiah's later years and addressing the immediate aftermath of Jerusalem's fall.^[1] Daniel's service and visions are placed from 605 BCE, following the initial Babylonian deportations under King Jehoiachin, extending to around 536 BCE during the early Persian era and the return from exile.^[1] These timelines highlight the prophets' sequential yet interconnected roles, with their messages collectively bridging the pre-exilic warnings, the exilic suffering, and the hopeful prospects of restoration.^[26]

Canonical Variations

Placement in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)

In the Hebrew Bible, known as the Tanakh, the prophetic books are housed within the second major division called Nevi'im (Prophets), which follows the Torah and precedes the Ketuvim (Writings). The Nevi'im is subdivided into two categories: the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets consist of four historical books—Joshua, Judges, Samuel (treated as a single book), and Kings (also as one)—that narrate the early history of Israel from the conquest of Canaan through the monarchy and exile. These precede the Latter Prophets, which include four books: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and The Twelve (a compilation of the shorter prophetic works: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi). This arrangement totals eight books in the Nevi'im, emphasizing a progression from historical narrative to direct prophetic oracles.^[27]^[28] Among the Latter Prophets, the order begins with Isaiah, positioned first due to its early composition in the 8th century BCE, followed by Jeremiah and Ezekiel, both from the 6th century BCE during the Babylonian exile, and concluding with The Twelve, which spans pre-exilic to post-exilic periods. This sequencing reflects a primarily chronological framework within the Latter Prophets, prioritizing the timing of the prophets' ministries and messages over strict length, though longer books like Isaiah and Jeremiah naturally lead due to their scope. The Hebrew canon thus organizes these texts to highlight thematic continuity in divine warnings, judgment, and restoration, distinct from the narrative focus of the Former Prophets.^[27]^[28] Notably, the Book of Daniel is excluded from the Nevi'im and placed instead in the Ketuvim, specifically among writings like Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles. Rabbinic tradition views Daniel's content as primarily apocalyptic and wisdom literature—featuring visions of future empires and mystical revelations—rather than classical prophecy focused on forthtelling God's word to Israel in real-time. This genre distinction, combined with the closure of the prophetic canon by the late Second Temple period (circa 200 BCE), prevented its inclusion in Nevi'im, as the section was deemed complete with the eight established books. The full Tanakh canon, including this structure, was finalized by the 2nd century CE, as evidenced by references in the Mishnah and other rabbinic texts.^[28]^[29]^[30]

Placement in Christian Bibles

In Christian Bibles, the major prophetic books are grouped within the Old Testament's prophetic section, which follows the Pentateuch, historical books, and wisdom literature. This arrangement reflects the fourfold division of Law, History, Wisdom/Poetry, and Prophets adopted in early Christian canons, influenced by the Septuagint's structure rather than the tripartite Hebrew Bible.^[31]^[32] In the Protestant Old Testament, the major prophets form a distinct subsection immediately preceding the minor prophets, positioned after the wisdom books. The standard order is Isaiah, Jeremiah (often including Lamentations as an appendix), Ezekiel, and Daniel, arranged roughly by decreasing length to facilitate reading and liturgical use. This sequencing mirrors the Vulgate's influence and emphasizes the prophets' thematic progression from judgment to restoration.^[10]^[2]^[33] Catholic Bibles, drawing from the Septuagint tradition, incorporate deuterocanonical books into the prophetic corpus while maintaining a similar core order for the major prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Baruch (including the Letter of Jeremiah), Ezekiel, and Daniel. Baruch is placed after Lamentations due to its thematic ties to Jeremiah's laments, expanding the section to include additional prophetic writings accepted at councils like Trent. This order preserves the Septuagint's arrangement, where prophetic books are unified under a single category.^[34]^[32] Eastern Orthodox Bibles follow a comparable Septuagint-based order but exhibit slight variations, such as integrating Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah directly with Jeremiah, resulting in Isaiah, Jeremiah (with Baruch and Letter), Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. Additional deuterocanonical texts may appear in adjacent positions, reflecting diverse manuscript traditions like Codex Alexandrinus. These placements underscore the Orthodox emphasis on the Septuagint as the authoritative Old Testament text.^[35]^[32] The historical development of this placement traces to the Latin Vulgate, translated by Jerome in the late 4th century CE, which grouped prophetic books by length and fully integrated Daniel among the prophets—contrasting with its position in the Writings of the Hebrew Bible. Jerome's arrangement, prioritizing Hebrew sources for protocanonical texts while retaining Septuagint deuterocanonicals, influenced Reformation-era Protestant Bibles to adopt a streamlined version excluding the latter, while Catholic and Orthodox traditions retained the fuller canon. Together, the major prophetic books constitute approximately 20% of the Protestant Old Testament by chapter count, highlighting their central role in Christian scripture.^[36]^[37]

The Prophetic Books

Book of Isaiah

The Book of Isaiah is traditionally attributed to the prophet Isaiah son of Amoz, who lived in the 8th century BCE during the reigns of kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah.^[38] This attribution aligns with the book's opening verse and internal references to Isaiah's prophetic activity amid the Assyrian threats to Judah.^[39] However, modern biblical scholarship widely posits a composite authorship, dividing the text into three main sections composed over several centuries: Proto-Isaiah (chapters 1–39), attributed to the historical Isaiah and focusing on pre-exilic Judah; Deutero-Isaiah (chapters 40–55), written by an anonymous author during the Babylonian exile (circa 550–539 BCE); and Trito-Isaiah (chapters 56–66), likely composed by disciples or a school of Isaiah's followers in the post-exilic period after the return from Babylon.^[40] This view is supported by linguistic, thematic, and historical differences across the sections, such as references to Cyrus the Great in chapters 40–55, which postdate Isaiah's lifetime. The book consists of 66 chapters, characterized by a predominantly poetic style rich in imagery, oracles, and visionary elements. It is structurally divided into two primary halves: chapters 1–39, which include judgment oracles against Judah and surrounding nations (chapters 1–35), interspersed with historical narratives (chapters 36–39) recounting events like the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem in 701 BCE under King Sennacherib; and chapters 40–66, which shift to themes of consolation, restoration, and a new exodus from exile.^[41] Within this framework, distinctive literary features include the four "Servant Songs" (Isaiah 42:1–4; 49:1–6; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12), poetic passages depicting a suffering yet exalted servant figure who brings justice and redemption.^[42] These songs, along with apocalyptic visions and biographical anecdotes, contribute to the book's layered composition, blending prophecy, lament, and promise.^[43] Central themes revolve around divine judgment on Judah for social injustice, idolatry, and alliance with foreign powers, particularly amid the Assyrian invasions that culminated in the 701 BCE siege of Jerusalem, where Isaiah advised King Hezekiah to trust in God rather than Egypt.^[44] Prophecies of hope emphasize a messianic figure, such as the "Immanuel" child (Isaiah 7:14) symbolizing God's presence with Judah, and the suffering servant who vicariously bears sins for universal salvation (Isaiah 53).^[45] Other key elements include Isaiah's inaugural vision of the holy God in the temple (chapter 6), commissioning him to proclaim judgment while preserving a remnant; oracles naming Cyrus as God's anointed to free the exiles (Isaiah 45:1); and visions of cosmic renewal extending redemption to all nations.^[43] These motifs have profoundly influenced Christian theology, particularly in interpreting Jesus as the fulfillment of the servant and messianic prophecies.^[42]

Book of Jeremiah

The Book of Jeremiah, attributed to the prophet Jeremiah from Anathoth in the late 7th to early 6th century BCE, details his ministry as a priestly descendant who received a divine call around 627 BCE to warn Judah of impending judgment.^[46] Baruch ben Neriah served as his scribe, recording oracles and narratives, as described in Jeremiah 36:4, where Baruch transcribes the prophet's words on a scroll.^[47] The text incorporates Jeremiah's personal confessions—intimate laments expressing anguish over his role and persecution—and the temple sermon in chapters 7 and 26, where he condemns false reliance on the temple and predicts its destruction.^[46] Comprising 52 chapters, the book blends poetic oracles with prose narratives, forming a non-chronological anthology edited likely during or after the Babylonian exile around 550 BCE.^[48] This structure includes biographical episodes, such as the letter to the exiles in chapter 29, urging them to settle in Babylon and seek its welfare for 70 years.^[47] The compilation reflects post-exilic redaction, emphasizing Judah's covenant failures amid social injustice and idolatry, while offering glimmers of restoration.^[48] Central themes revolve around Judah's breach of the Mosaic covenant through unfaithfulness, prompting a call for personal and national repentance to avert disaster.^[46] Jeremiah employs symbolic acts, like wearing a yoke in chapter 27 to represent submission to Babylon, underscoring God's use of the empire as an instrument of judgment.^[46] He faces persecution from kings, priests, and officials, including arrest and threats during Zedekiah's reign (chapters 37–38).^[47] A pivotal promise emerges in chapter 31:31–34, foretelling a new covenant where God inscribes the law on hearts, forgiving iniquity and enabling true knowledge of Him.^[48] Jeremiah's ministry spanned from King Josiah's religious reforms in 622 BCE through the Babylonian conquest and destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, extending to the brief governorship of Gedaliah afterward.^[46] His prophecy of 70 years of exile, articulated in chapters 25 and 29, frames the Babylonian dominance as divine discipline, linking directly to the events culminating in the temple's fall.^[47] This prophetic corpus influenced the Book of Lamentations, traditionally attributed to Jeremiah for its echoes of his warnings about Jerusalem's ruin.^[49]

Book of Lamentations

The Book of Lamentations is a collection of five poetic dirges that respond to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, capturing the profound grief of the city's fall and the suffering of its people.^[50] Composed anonymously shortly after these events, the poems employ the qinah meter—a rhythmic pattern of three short syllables followed by two—to evoke mourning, though chapter 5 shifts to a more uniform structure.^[51] At 154 verses, it stands as the shortest among the books classified as Major Prophets in the Christian canon. Traditionally attributed to the prophet Jeremiah based on ancient interpretations linking its themes to his experiences, the text itself provides no explicit authorship, and scholarly consensus regards it as the work of an unknown Judean poet or poets reflecting communal trauma rather than personal prophecy.^[49] The structure emphasizes alphabetic acrostics in chapters 1, 2, and 4, where each verse begins with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet (aleph to tav), creating a sense of completeness amid chaos; chapter 3 expands this into a triple acrostic of 66 verses (three per letter), intensifying the lament, while chapter 5 follows a looser acrostic pattern without strict adherence. Jerusalem is personified throughout as a widowed woman—desolate, afflicted, and abandoned—symbolizing the nation's betrayal by allies and divine judgment.^[50] Central themes revolve around raw grief over the temple's ruin and the people's exile, coupled with acknowledgment that sin provoked God's wrath as the root cause of the catastrophe.^[52] The poems interweave pleas for divine mercy and restoration, culminating in a poignant expression of hope rooted in God's steadfast compassion: "The steadfast love of the Lord never ceases; his mercies never come to an end; they are new every morning; great is your faithfulness" (Lamentations 3:22–23).^[50] Unlike the individualized laments in the Book of Jeremiah, this text emphasizes collective mourning for Judah's communal loss. In Jewish tradition, the entire book is recited during the Tisha B'Av fast, commemorating the temples' destructions and reinforcing its role in liturgical expressions of sorrow and resilience.

Book of Ezekiel

The Book of Ezekiel is attributed to Ezekiel, a priest from a priestly family who was exiled to Babylon in 597 BCE during the deportation of King Jehoiachin and the Judean elite by Nebuchadnezzar II.^[53] His prophetic ministry spanned from approximately 593 BCE, when he received his initial call vision at the age of 30 by the Chebar canal—a waterway in Babylonian exile—to around 571 BCE, as indicated by the dated oracles within the text.^[54] Ezekiel's role as both priest and prophet emphasized themes of divine holiness and ritual purity, delivered to fellow exiles in a settlement near Nippur, where he performed symbolic actions and recorded visions to convey God's messages of judgment and restoration.^[55] The book comprises 48 chapters, structured in three main sections: chapters 1–24 focus on judgments against Israel and Judah for their covenant unfaithfulness, culminating in prophecies of Jerusalem's fall; chapters 25–32 pronounce oracles of judgment against foreign nations; and chapters 33–48 shift to themes of restoration, including visions of renewal and a renewed covenant community.^[56] This organization reflects a chronological progression tied to historical events, with 13 specific dates anchoring the prophecies to the Babylonian calendar, beginning in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's exile (593 BCE) and extending to the twenty-seventh year (571 BCE).^[57] The text's priestly perspective is evident in its detailed attention to temple imagery and divine order, contrasting the corruption in Jerusalem with a future ideal. Central themes include the mobility and holiness of God's kabod (glory), depicted as departing from the defiled temple in chapters 1 and 10 due to Israel's idolatry, only to return in chapter 43 to a purified sanctuary, symbolizing divine presence amid exile.^[56] Another key motif is individual responsibility for sin, articulated in chapter 18, where Ezekiel rejects collective familial guilt in favor of personal accountability: "The soul who sins shall die," underscoring that repentance can avert judgment regardless of ancestry.^[56] The vision of a new temple and equitable division of the land in chapters 40–48 envisions eschatological restoration, with precise measurements of the temple complex and a life-giving river flowing from it, representing cosmic renewal and God's eternal dwelling with Israel.^[53] Ezekiel employed dramatic symbolic acts to communicate his messages, such as eating a scroll filled with words of lamentation, mourning, and woe in his commissioning (chapters 2–3), signifying the internalization of God's bitter message for proclamation.^[56] He also lay bound on his left side for 390 days to represent the years of Israel's iniquity, followed by 40 days on his right side for Judah's sin, while eating rationed food to depict the siege of Jerusalem (chapter 4).^[56] The iconic vision of the valley of dry bones in chapter 37 illustrates God's power to resurrect Israel: Ezekiel prophesies over scattered skeletons that reassemble, gain flesh, and receive breath, forming a vast army as a metaphor for national revival from exile's despair.^[56] These elements, particularly the throne-chariot vision and Gog oracles, exerted significant influence on later apocalyptic literature, providing motifs of divine intervention, cosmic battles, and renewed creation that shaped works like Daniel and Revelation.^[58]

Book of Daniel

The Book of Daniel is set during the Babylonian exile and early Persian period, spanning approximately 605 to 536 BCE, and narrates the experiences of the Jewish exile Daniel and his companions in the royal courts of Babylon and Persia. Traditionally ascribed to Daniel himself as a 6th-century BCE composition, the book is regarded by modern scholars as a product of the 2nd century BCE, likely finalized around 164 BCE during the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and pseudonymously attributed to the ancient figure of Daniel to lend authority to its messages of resistance and hope. This late dating is supported by detailed historical allusions in chapters 10–12 to events like the desecration of the Jerusalem Temple in 167 BCE, which align with known persecutions but extend no further, suggesting composition amid ongoing crisis rather than hindsight prophecy.^[59] The book's structure divides into 12 chapters, blending narrative, wisdom, and apocalyptic genres: chapters 1–6 feature court tales of faithfulness and divine intervention, while chapters 7–12 deliver symbolic visions of future empires and eschatological judgment. It is composed in two languages—Hebrew for chapters 1–2:4a and 8–12, and Aramaic for 2:4b–7:28—reflecting its origins in both Jewish and imperial contexts, with the Aramaic sections possibly drawing from earlier traditions circulated in the exile.^[60] This hybrid form underscores its role as a bridge between historical recollection and visionary prophecy, though the Aramaic portions emphasize universal themes accessible to non-Jewish audiences in the diaspora. Central themes revolve around unwavering faithfulness to God in the face of imperial oppression and the ultimate sovereignty of the divine kingdom over human powers, illustrated through tales like Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego's survival in the fiery furnace (Daniel 3) and Daniel's deliverance from the lions' den (Daniel 6). Visions in chapters 2 and 7 depict four successive world empires—commonly interpreted in critical scholarship as Babylon, Media, Persia, and Greece (with the fourth kingdom's "little horn" as Antiochus IV), or in traditional views as Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome—culminating in an everlasting divine realm that crushes all earthly dominions.^[61] The book introduces eschatological concepts such as the resurrection of the dead (Daniel 12:2) and the "abomination of desolation" (Daniel 9:27; 11:31; 12:11), symbols of ultimate vindication for the righteous amid persecution. A pivotal element is the "seventy weeks" prophecy in chapter 9, portraying a divinely ordained timeline from the decree to rebuild Jerusalem to the arrival of an anointed one and the cessation of sin, often linked to messianic expectations. Its inclusion among the Major Prophets in Christian canons contrasts with its placement in the Ketuvim (Writings) of the Hebrew Bible, where it follows Esther, due to the perceived lateness of its composition and its dominant apocalyptic style, which differs from the classical oracular prophecies of earlier books; this positioning has fueled scholarly debate on whether Daniel qualifies strictly as prophetic literature or represents a transitional genre toward intertestamental apocalypticism.

References

[1]
6. The Major Prophets | Bible.org
Feb 21, 2006 · The Latter Prophets are subdivided into the Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel), and the twelve Minor Prophets.
[2]
What are the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets? | GotQuestions.org
Oct 25, 2024 · There are five Major Prophets: the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. There are twelve Minor Prophets.
[3]
Chronology Of The Old Testament Prophets
Jul 29, 2024 · The sixteen prophets—Isaiah to Malachi—whose writings have come down to us lived during four centuries, from about 800 to 400 B.C. Most of them ...
[4]
Introduction to the Major Prophets | TGCBC | Peter J. Gentry
The major prophets in the Old Testament of the Bible refer to the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. They are “major” because of their scope and size.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[5]
Who Were the Major Prophets and What Did They Do?
Oct 31, 2023 · In the Bible, there are four major prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. All are featured in books from the Bible, and Jeremiah may have written two.
[6]
How Many Chapters & Verses are in Each Book of the Bible
29. Ecclesiastes, 12, 222, 18. Song of Songs, 8, 117, 15. Isaiah, 66, 1292, 20. Jeremiah, 52, 1364, 26. Lamentations, 5, 154, 31. Ezekiel, 48, 1273, 26. Daniel ...
[7]
What distinguishes Major from Minor Prophets? - Bible Hub
... Major from Minor Prophets is the disparity in the size of the books: • Isaiah has 66 chapters, and Jeremiah 52. • Ezekiel has 48 chapters, and Daniel 12 ...
[8]
What is the core message of the Major Prophets? | GotQuestions.org
Feb 27, 2024 · They are called “Major Prophets” because they are longer than the twelve “Minor Prophets” that follow them in the Old Testament.
[9]
Major Prophets in the Bible - Explaining The Book
Dec 27, 2024 · The Major Prophets share several common themes: God's holiness, the severity of sin, the certainty of judgment, and the hope of restoration.Isaiah: The Gospel Prophet · Ezekiel: The Prophet Of... · Common Themes And...Missing: thematic breadth
[10]
Tour of the Bible, part 4: the Major Prophets - Bible Gateway Blog
Jun 22, 2011 · The Major Prophet books are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The “major” prophets are so called not because the “minor” prophets are ...Isaiah · Jeremiah · Ezekiel
[11]
CHURCH FATHERS: City of God, Book XVIII (St. Augustine)
— Of the Prophecy of the Three Prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. There remain three minor prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, who prophesied ...
[12]
Introduction to the OT Book of the Twelve Minor Prophets
The earliest reference of the Book of the Twelve as the “Minor Prophets” is found in Augustine's The City of God (18.25), completed about 425 AD. As we ...
[13]
Old Testament Statistics - New American Bible - Catholic Resources
Feb 11, 2025 · The tables below, using the order in which the 46 OT books are normally arranged in Catholic Bibles, provide the following statistics, based on the New ...
[14]
[PDF] Week Forty-nine Introduction to the Books of the Prophets Major ...
• The distinction between "major" and "minor" is about book length and thematic scope, not prophetic importance. Page 4. Pastor's Bible Study. Becoming ...
[15]
Overview: Approaching the Minor Prophets - Oxford Academic
Feb 10, 2021 · For other readers, thematic approaches have invited comparison between books and critique of the ideology reflected both in the books and their ...
[16]
Four Truths About the Minor Prophets - - Clear Creek Resources
Jun 2, 2020 · There are four major prophets in the Old Testament: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. They are called major because of their length.
[17]
7. The Minor Prophets | Bible.org
Feb 21, 2006 · The common title for these twelve books of the English Bible is “minor prophets.” This title originated in Augustine's time (late fourth century AD).Hosea (persevering Love) · Joel (the Coming Of The Day... · Micah (who Is Like God?)
[18]
Prophecy and Hebrew Prophets - Daniel Block | Free Online Bible
Mar 27, 2024 · A Guide to the Old Testament - Lesson 25. You must log-in ... Tradition divides these two, the latter, into two groups, the major prophets ...
[19]
Prophecy in Ancient Israel | My Jewish Learning
The Bible allows us to trace the history of prophecy in ancient Israel. Not counting Moses, the earliest prophets described in the Bible were seers, charismatic ...
[20]
The Twelve Prophets and Work | Theology of Work
The unifying theme of these prophets is that in God there is no split between the work of worship and the work of daily life.
[21]
Intro Latter Prophets - Miles Van Pelt | Free Online Bible
And just in terms of some basic statistics that may be interesting, the prophetic messenger formula, thus says the Lord, appears 293 times in the Hebrew Old ...
[22]
Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East | Denver Journal
Most of the letters actually come from the city of Mari, although some come from surrounding population centers, including Babylon. Most of these prophecies are ...
[23]
Assyrian Deportation and Resettlement: The Story of Samaria
Aug 8, 2019 · In 722 BCE., Assyria conquered the kingdom of Israel, and deported many of the residents of Samaria and its surroundings to other Assyrian provinces.
[24]
Judahite Jerusalem (587 bce)
Feb 22, 2024 · The kingdom of Israel, which tried to resist, was dismantled, with Samaria falling to the Assyrians in 722 bce. To uproot the local power base, ...
[25]
The Cyrus Cylinder - Biblical Archaeology Society
Mar 17, 2023 · The Cyrus Cylinder is one of the best-known surviving texts from the Achaemenid Persian Empire due to its proposed connection to the bible.
[26]
The Prophets of the Exile | Religious Studies Center
A fairly clear picture can be drawn from Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, 1 Esdras, the postexilic prophetic books.Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[27]
Timeline of the Prophets | Theology of Work
The table below shows where in time the prophets fit within the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah.
[28]
The Structure of Tanach - Chabad.org
Nevi'im (Prophets) ; 13. The Twelve Prophets, Trei Asar, תרי עשר ; Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah. Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, ...
[29]
Biblical literature - Nevi'im, Prophets, Scriptures | Britannica
### Summary of Nevi'im (Prophets) in the Hebrew Bible
[30]
Chanukah, Daniel 11 and the Rabbis' Limited Knowledge of History
Dec 22, 2014 · Assuming a second century B.C.E. dating for Daniel, the book could not enter Nevi'im because that section of the Bible already was closed.
[31]
[PDF] Daniel's Position in the Tanach, the LXX-Vulgate, and the Protestant ...
Daniel is in the Ketuvim between Esther and Ezra/Nehemiah in the Tanach, in the Prophets after Ezekiel in the Septuagint, and between Ezekiel and Hosea in the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
The Old Testament in Order - Conciliar Post
Dec 13, 2024 · Daniel (14 chapters), Micah, Daniel (12 chapters) ... ~586-539 BCE: Obadiah, Deuteronomy 1-4, 29-30, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah 40-55, Psalms ...
[33]
What Is the Septuagint? The Beginner's Guide - OverviewBible
Aug 24, 2018 · Major Prophets · Isaiah · Jeremiah · Baruch · Lamentations · Letter of Jeremiah · Ezekiel · Daniel (with additions) ...
[34]
Why are the books of the Protestant Bible in the order that they are in?
Jul 18, 2012 · The remainder of the Old Testament is made up of prophetic books, broken up into the Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, ...In what order should the books of the (Protestant) Bible be read?Why aren't the books of the Bible in chronological order?More results from christianity.stackexchange.com
[35]
Prophetic Books, THE PROPHETIC BOOKS - Daily Readings
... prophetic speech is often introduced with the form used in the delivery of a message: “thus says the Lord” or some similar formula. Sometimes the prophetic ...
[36]
Volume I - Doctrine and Scripture - Old Testament - Prophets
The books of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah from the apocrypha go together with this prophetic book in the Orthodox version of the Bible. ezekiel. The book ...
[37]
Prefaces to the Books of the Vulgate Version of the Old Testament.
The Preface declares Jerome's intention of devoting himself henceforward to the Commentaries on the Prophets, a work which took up the remainder of his life.
[38]
Library : The History of the Latin Vulgate | Catholic Culture
The following two-part essay provides an excellent overview of the history of the Latin Vulgate, beginning with the life of St. Jerome, revisions and ...
[39]
Who wrote the book of Isaiah? Who was the author of Isaiah?
Mar 12, 2024 · Some modern scholars challenge the traditional authorship of Isaiah, proposing a multi-authorship view. They divide the book into three sections ...
[40]
Top Ten Discoveries Related to the Book of Isaiah
Aug 25, 2023 · Many modern scholars tend to dismiss the idea that the book of Isaiah was written by a single person, preferring the theory that multiple ...
[41]
A Scientific Analysis of Isaiah Authorship - Religious Studies Center
The majority of biblical scholars divide the book of Isaiah into multiple authorship. The problem of identifying authorship for the book and parts of the book ...
[42]
An Overview of Isaiah - For the Gospel
Feb 11, 2021 · Two major sections make up all 66 chapters. Isaiah 1-39 constitutes the first part of the book and Isaiah 40-66 the second part.
[43]
Messianic Prophecy: Jesus as Isaiah 53's Suffering Servant
Apr 16, 2024 · Biblical scholars generally recognize that Isaiah contains four “servant songs” in which the servant spoken of is the Messiah (Isaiah 42:1–4; 49 ...
[44]
Book of Isaiah | Guide with Key Information and Resources
Mar 30, 2023 · The first 12 chapters of the book of Isaiah focus on the prophet's vision of judgment and hope for Jerusalem.
[45]
First Isaiah → Historical Context – Study Guide
The latest recorded episode in his career is at the time of the invasion of Judah by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 701 BCE (Isaiah 36-39). It appears, then, ...
[46]
The Messianic Prophecies in the Book of Isaiah - Modern Reformation
Dec 22, 2021 · Isaiah paints three distinct “portraits” of the Messiah: the King (1-37), the Servant (38-55), and the Anointed Conqueror (56-66).
[47]
Introduction to Jeremiah | ESV.org
Jeremiah and Baruch left a record of the difficult times in which they lived, God's message for those times, and God's message for the future of Israel and the ...Missing: scholarly structure symbolic acts
[48]
Book of Jeremiah: Guide with Key Information and Resources
Mar 30, 2023 · Jeremiah was an Israelite priest who lived and worked in Jerusalem during the final decades of the kingdom of southern Judah.Missing: symbolic | Show results with:symbolic
[49]
TGC Course | Introduction to Jeremiah - The Gospel Coalition
Author & Date. Determining the authorship of the book of Jeremiah is complicated by several factors: the variety of types of literature found in the book, the ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[50]
Why Was the Book of Lamentations Attributed to Jeremiah?
Jul 29, 2025 · Jason Kalman (Hebrew Union College) suggests that the attribution of the poem to Jeremiah was a means of dealing with its problematic theology.
[51]
Book of Lamentations | Guide with Key Information and Resources
Jul 5, 2023 · Lamentations is a unique book in the Old Testament. It contains five poems from an anonymous author, who survived and is reflecting back on Babylon's siege.About · Lament In The Larger Story... · Lamentations 2: The Fall Of...
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A Reflection on Lamentations during Tisha B'av - Garrett Milovich
Aug 5, 2022 · The first chapter of Lamentations consists of 22 triplets that follow a qinah meter. As the Hebrew alphabet has 22 verses, each triplet begins ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[53]
What Is the Background of Lamentations? - Bibles.net
Hope, not despair, is the central theme in Lamentations. 3. Purpose ... Lamentations points to the people's sins as a reason Jerusalem is falling (Lamentations ...The Background Of... · Key Themes · Universal Themes In...
[54]
Ezekiel's Historical Context - Daniel Block | Free Online Bible
Mar 29, 2024 · The chapter divisions are late, but with our chapter divisions in the book of Ezekiel, the first half, chapters 1 to 24, is matched in number ...
[55]
[PDF] Ezekiel - SonicLight.com
The book records the date of the beginning of Ezekiel's ministry as 593. B.C. (1:2-3). The last dated prophecy came to the prophet in 571 B.C.. (29:17). He ...
[56]
Ezekiel: A Jewish Priest and a Babylonian Intellectual - TheTorah.com
May 21, 2017 · Ezekiel, a priest born, raised, and educated in Judah, lived and prophesied much of his adult life in Babylonia in contact with cuneiform scholars and scribes.
[57]
Guide to the Book of Ezekiel: Key Information and Helpful Resources
Mar 30, 2023 · In chapters 4-5, we see how Ezekiel gets his message across with his words and by performing sign acts, a form of ancient street theater.
[58]
An Introduction to the Book of Ezekiel | Bible.org
Jun 14, 2004 · DATE: 593/2 to 562 B.C.. A. Ezekiel's prophecies seem to be dated around the exile of king Jehoiachin (597 B.C.) Thirteen of Ezekiel's message ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
[PDF] The Origins of Old Testament Apocalyptic Literature
In summary, the book of Ezekiel can be classified as proto-apocalyptic literature because, apart from pseudonymity, it shows all characteristics of ...
[60]
[PDF] The Book of Daniel and the "Maccabean Thesis"
'This article is based on a section of a paper presented in 1982 to the Daniel and Revelation Committee of the Biblical Research Institute (General Conference ...
[61]
The Languages of the Book of Daniel - Biola University
Hebrew and Aramaic. Chapters 1 to 2:4a are in Hebrew; 2:4b ...