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Mastocytosis

Mastocytosis is a rare heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by the abnormal proliferation and accumulation of mast cells, a type of white blood cell involved in immune responses, in one or more tissues such as the skin, bone marrow, gastrointestinal tract, and liver.^[1] These mast cells release excessive amounts of chemical mediators like histamine and tryptase, leading to a wide range of symptoms from mild skin reactions to severe systemic effects including anaphylaxis.^[2] The condition is classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) into cutaneous mastocytosis, which is limited to the skin and often resolves in childhood, and systemic mastocytosis, which involves internal organs and predominates in adults.^[3] Cutaneous mastocytosis typically presents in infancy or early childhood with lesions such as urticaria pigmentosa, where stroking the skin causes hives and redness due to mast cell degranulation (Darier's sign).^[4] In contrast, systemic mastocytosis encompasses subtypes including indolent (most common, with mild symptoms), smoldering, aggressive, and mast cell leukemia, the latter being a rare and aggressive form with poor prognosis.^[2] Common symptoms across forms include flushing, intense itching, abdominal pain, diarrhea, bone and muscle pain, fatigue, and episodes of low blood pressure or anaphylaxis, often triggered by factors like heat, stress, alcohol, certain foods, insect stings, or medications.^[1] Complications may involve osteoporosis, peptic ulcers, splenomegaly, or progression to associated hematologic malignancies in some cases.^[3] The primary cause of mastocytosis is acquired somatic mutations in the KIT gene, particularly the D816V mutation, which leads to uncontrolled mast cell growth and survival; these mutations are not typically inherited but occur sporadically.^[4] Diagnosis relies on clinical evaluation, measurement of serum tryptase levels (often elevated above 20 ng/mL), bone marrow or skin biopsies showing multifocal mast cell clusters, and genetic testing for KIT mutations, following WHO criteria.^[2] Treatment focuses on symptom management with antihistamines (H1 and H2 blockers), mast cell stabilizers like cromolyn sodium, and epinephrine for anaphylactic episodes, while aggressive subtypes may require cytoreductive therapies such as cladribine, interferon-alpha, or targeted KIT inhibitors like midostaurin.^[3] Patients are advised to avoid known triggers and carry emergency medications, with regular monitoring essential due to the variable prognosis.^[5]

Clinical Presentation

Signs and Symptoms

Mastocytosis manifests through a variety of signs and symptoms primarily resulting from the accumulation and activation of mast cells in tissues, leading to the release of chemical mediators such as histamine. These symptoms can be localized to the skin in cutaneous forms or involve multiple organ systems in systemic disease, often presenting episodically.^[2]^[6] In cutaneous mastocytosis, the most common presentation is urticaria pigmentosa, characterized by multiple brownish-red macules or papules on the skin that typically appear in infancy or early childhood. These lesions urticate and become pruritic or edematous upon mechanical stroking or friction, a phenomenon known as Darier's sign, which reflects local mast cell degranulation.^[7]^[2]^[6] Systemic symptoms arise from widespread mast cell mediator release and include episodic flushing of the face and upper body, intense pruritus, and potentially life-threatening anaphylaxis featuring symptoms such as wheezing, throat swelling, and rapid progression to shock. Gastrointestinal involvement often presents with abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting due to increased gastric acid secretion and motility disturbances, while cardiovascular effects may include hypotension, tachycardia, and syncope.^[1]^[2]^[6] Organ-specific symptoms can include bone and musculoskeletal pain resembling that of osteoporosis or fractures in cases of skeletal involvement, as well as hepatosplenomegaly indicating visceral accumulation of mast cells in the liver and spleen.^[7]^[1]^[2] Symptom flares are frequently triggered by physical factors such as heat, friction, or exercise; emotional stress; certain foods like spicy items or alcohol; medications including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioids; and infections or insect stings, which provoke mast cell activation.^[7]^[1]^[6] The presentation differs notably between children and adults: in pediatric cases, symptoms are predominantly limited to cutaneous lesions like urticaria pigmentosa, which often resolve spontaneously by adolescence, whereas adults more commonly experience systemic involvement with persistent and multisystem symptoms.^[7]^[2]^[6]

Complications

Mastocytosis can lead to severe anaphylactic reactions, which pose a significant risk of fatal shock due to massive mast cell degranulation triggered by allergens, physical stimuli, or idiopathic factors. Up to 49% of adult patients with systemic mastocytosis experience anaphylaxis, with a lower incidence of about 9% in children, often presenting with hypotension, syncope, and multisystem involvement that can precipitate life-threatening complications if not managed promptly with epinephrine.^[8]^[9] Bone complications are prominent in systemic mastocytosis, where mast cell infiltration of the bone marrow releases mediators like histamine and cytokines that stimulate osteoclast activity, leading to osteoporosis and increased risk of pathologic fractures, particularly in vertebral and trabecular bones. Osteoporosis affects up to 50% of patients with systemic mastocytosis, often resulting in debilitating skeletal pain and fragility fractures that impair mobility and quality of life.^[10]^[11] In advanced systemic forms, organomegaly arises from extensive mast cell accumulation in the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes, contributing to portal hypertension, ascites, and hypersplenism through fibrosis and vascular obstruction. These manifestations, seen in aggressive subtypes, can cause gastrointestinal bleeding from varices, fluid accumulation leading to respiratory compromise, and cytopenias from splenic sequestration, exacerbating overall disease burden.^[12]^[13]^[14] Hematologic complications in aggressive mastocytosis subtypes include cytopenias such as anemia, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia, resulting from bone marrow infiltration that displaces normal hematopoiesis. In rare cases, the disease progresses to transformation into acute leukemia, including mast cell leukemia, which carries a poor prognosis with rapid deterioration and high mortality rates.^[15]^[16]^[17] Gastrointestinal infiltration by mast cells in systemic mastocytosis can lead to malabsorption syndromes, affecting 5-30% of patients and causing nutrient deficiencies, weight loss, and diarrhea due to mucosal damage and mediator-induced hypersecretion. Unlike primary mast cell activation syndrome, these mastocytosis-specific risks stem from clonal mast cell proliferation in the gut, potentially overlapping with but distinct from mediator-driven flares.^[18]^[19] The unpredictable nature of symptom flares in mastocytosis significantly impacts quality of life, with chronic fatigue reported as a pervasive issue from recurrent mediator release and sleep disruption, alongside psychological effects such as anxiety and depression linked to disease uncertainty and anaphylaxis fear. These factors contribute to reduced daily functioning and emotional distress, underscoring the need for holistic management beyond physical symptoms.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Pathophysiology

Mast Cell Role and Abnormalities

Mast cells are specialized granulocytes derived from bone marrow progenitors that reside primarily in tissues at interfaces with the environment, such as the skin, mucosa, and connective tissues. In normal physiology, they serve as sentinels in innate immunity by recognizing pathogens, particularly parasites, through pattern recognition receptors and releasing preformed mediators like histamine and heparin from cytoplasmic granules to promote inflammation and recruit other immune cells.^[23]^[24] Additionally, mast cells mediate type I hypersensitivity reactions in allergies by degranulating in response to IgE-antigen cross-linking on their surface, thereby initiating rapid vasodilation and smooth muscle contraction via histamine release.^[25] Beyond defense and allergy, they contribute to tissue remodeling and homeostasis by secreting proteases, cytokines, and growth factors that facilitate wound healing, angiogenesis, and extracellular matrix turnover.^[26] In mastocytosis, these functions become dysregulated due to abnormal clonal proliferation and accumulation of mast cells in one or more organ systems, distinguishing it from reactive mast cell hyperplasia observed in non-neoplastic inflammatory conditions.^[27] This neoplastic expansion leads to excessive and inappropriate release of mast cell mediators, including histamine, prostaglandins such as PGD2, and tryptase, which amplify inflammatory cascades far beyond normal physiological responses.^[28] The accumulated mast cells often display atypical morphology, such as spindle-shaped cytology, hypogranulation, and irregular nuclear borders, reflecting their neoplastic nature and aiding in histopathological identification.^[29] Tissue-specific accumulation drives localized pathology; for instance, in cutaneous mastocytosis, mast cells infiltrate the dermis, forming dense aggregates that alter skin architecture, while in systemic forms, they predominantly accumulate in the bone marrow, where they can form multifocal clusters and potentially disrupt normal hematopoiesis by crowding the microenvironment.^[30]^[6] Mast cell degranulation in mastocytosis is triggered by a broader array of stimuli—such as physical factors, certain drugs, or environmental cues—compared to healthy mast cells, resulting in heightened mediator release that perpetuates the disease process.^[28] These cellular and functional abnormalities are often underpinned by genetic alterations, which are explored in greater detail in the genetic and molecular basis of the disorder.

Genetic and Molecular Basis

Mastocytosis is primarily driven by activating mutations in the KIT proto-oncogene, which encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase essential for mast cell development and survival. The most common and hallmark mutation is the gain-of-function point mutation KIT D816V, located in exon 17 of the KIT gene, resulting in the substitution of aspartic acid to valine at codon 816. This mutation leads to ligand-independent constitutive activation of the KIT receptor, promoting uncontrolled mast cell proliferation and accumulation. It is detected in approximately 80-90% of adult cases of systemic mastocytosis (SM), with sensitive detection methods identifying it in up to 95% of cases.^[31]^[32] In addition to KIT D816V, other activating mutations in KIT have been identified, though less frequently, including variants at the same codon such as D816Y, D816H, D816F, and D816I, as well as mutations in other exons like 8, 9, 10, 11, and 17 (e.g., deletions or insertions in exon 11). These alternative KIT mutations are more prevalent in certain subtypes, such as extracellular domain mutations in pediatric cases, and occur in about 10-20% of SM patients overall. Beyond KIT, additional somatic mutations in genes like TET2 and ASXL1 are observed, particularly in advanced SM or cases associated with hematologic neoplasms, where they contribute to disease progression and poorer prognosis; TET2 mutations appear in up to 30% of cases, while ASXL1 alterations are found in around 15%.^[33]^[34]^[35] The KIT D816V mutation induces constitutive activation of downstream signaling pathways, including the PI3K/AKT, MAPK/ERK, and JAK/STAT5 pathways, which enhance mast cell survival, proliferation, and resistance to apoptosis. These pathways are hyperactivated independently of stem cell factor ligand binding, leading to the neoplastic transformation characteristic of mastocytosis. The clonal nature of the disease is evidenced by these somatic mutations originating in hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells, resulting in multilineage involvement and expansion of mutated mast cell lineages. Mutation prevalence varies significantly by age and subtype: KIT D816V is rare in pediatric cutaneous mastocytosis (detected in about 30-40% of cases), often resolving spontaneously, whereas it is nearly ubiquitous in adult systemic forms.^[31]^[35]^[36]

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

The diagnosis of mastocytosis relies on standardized criteria that distinguish cutaneous mastocytosis (CM) from systemic mastocytosis (SM), with confirmation requiring histological, immunophenotypic, molecular, and biochemical evidence.^[37]^[38] For CM, diagnosis is based on typical skin lesions—such as maculopapular eruptions, urticaria pigmentosa, or solitary mastocytomas—accompanied by histological demonstration of mast cell infiltrates in lesional skin biopsy without evidence of systemic involvement.^[38] In contrast, SM requires fulfillment of specific major and minor criteria to confirm multifocal mast cell accumulation in extracutaneous tissues.^[37] The major criterion for SM is the presence of multifocal dense infiltrates of mast cells (aggregates of ≥15 mast cells) in bone marrow or other extracutaneous organs, identified through immunohistochemistry using tryptase or CD117 staining.^[37]^[38] One major criterion plus at least one minor criterion, or at least three minor criteria, are required for diagnosis under the 2022 World Health Organization (WHO) classification; the International Consensus Classification (ICC) allows diagnosis with the major criterion alone or three minor criteria.^[37]^[38] The minor criteria include: (1) ≥25% of mast cells in bone marrow or extracutaneous organs showing atypical morphology (e.g., spindle-shaped or immature forms); (2) detection of KIT D816V mutation or other pathogenic KIT-activating variants in bone marrow, blood, or extracutaneous tissues; (3) aberrant expression of CD25 and/or CD2 (with CD30 now included in updates) on mast cells by flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry; and (4) persistently elevated basal serum tryptase level of ≥20 ng/mL (adjusted for hereditary alpha-tryptasemia if present).^[37]^[38] The 2022 WHO and ICC classifications have harmonized many aspects of SM diagnosis, introducing CD30 expression as a minor criterion and broadening recognition of non-D816V KIT mutations, while distinguishing nonadvanced SM (e.g., indolent SM with low burden and no organ dysfunction) from advanced SM (e.g., aggressive SM with cytopenias or organ damage).^[37]^[38] Recent harmonization proposals further align the systems toward the WHO framework, emphasizing the need for at least one minor criterion with the major to improve specificity.^[38] Diagnosis typically begins with clinical suspicion based on symptoms like recurrent anaphylaxis, flushing, or skin lesions, followed by targeted biopsy (skin for CM, bone marrow for suspected SM), genetic testing for KIT variants, and serum tryptase measurement.^[37]^[38] Post-diagnosis, cases are classified into subtypes such as indolent or aggressive SM to guide management.^[37] Challenges differ between pediatric and adult cases: in children, mastocytosis often presents as self-resolving CM with polymorphic lesions and rare KIT D816V mutations (favoring exons 8/9 variants like K509I), limiting systemic involvement; adults more commonly develop persistent SM with KIT D816V in over 90% of cases, complicating diagnosis in the absence of skin findings (e.g., bone marrow mastocytosis).^[37]^[38]

Testing Methods

Serum tryptase measurement serves as an initial screening tool for suspected mastocytosis, with levels persistently elevated above 20 ng/mL observed in approximately 80% of patients with systemic mastocytosis, reflecting the mast cell burden.^[39] This test is performed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay on baseline serum samples, ideally collected when the patient is asymptomatic to avoid acute elevations from mast cell degranulation.^[40] Bone marrow biopsy and aspirate represent the gold standard for confirming systemic involvement in mastocytosis, allowing histological examination for multifocal mast cell aggregates and clusters of at least 15 mast cells.^[41] Concurrent flow cytometry on the aspirate assesses immunophenotyping, identifying aberrant expression of CD25 on mast cells, which is a hallmark of neoplastic mast cell populations in over 90% of systemic cases.^[42] Immunohistochemistry with antibodies against tryptase, CD117 (c-KIT), and CD25 further characterizes these aggregates, ensuring distinction from reactive mast cell hyperplasia.^[43] For cutaneous mastocytosis, skin biopsy from lesional areas is essential, revealing perivascular or interstitial aggregates of mast cells typically exceeding 20 per high-power field, confirmed by Giemsa or toluidine blue staining or immunohistochemistry for tryptase and CD117.^[44] These aggregates often exhibit spindle-shaped morphology and may infiltrate the papillary dermis, aiding in the identification of subtypes like urticaria pigmentosa.^[45] Molecular testing for KIT mutations, particularly the D816V variant, is conducted using high-sensitivity polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or next-generation sequencing on peripheral blood, bone marrow aspirate, or lesional tissue, detecting the mutation in up to 95% of adult systemic mastocytosis cases.^[31] Allele-specific PCR offers sensitivity down to 0.001% mutant alleles, while next-generation sequencing identifies additional KIT exon mutations or associated genetic alterations in aggressive subtypes.^[46] Imaging modalities assess disease extent and complications, with skeletal X-rays screening for osteolytic or sclerotic lesions common in up to 70% of systemic cases, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) evaluating osteoporosis, which affects bone density in a significant proportion of patients.^[47] Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) delineates organomegaly, such as hepatosplenomegaly, with MRI particularly sensitive for bone marrow infiltration showing diffuse or focal signal abnormalities.^[48] In aggressive or advanced disease, positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) using 18F-FDG detects metabolically active lesions, guiding biopsy sites and monitoring progression.^[49] To minimize procedural risks, patients undergo testing under conditions that avoid known allergens, triggers, or stressors, as these can provoke mast cell degranulation and flares, potentially confounding results or causing anaphylaxis.^[50] Premedication with H1 and H2 antihistamines or corticosteroids may be employed for invasive procedures like bone marrow biopsy.^[49]

Classification

Cutaneous Forms

Cutaneous mastocytosis (CM) encompasses disorders characterized by the accumulation of mast cells exclusively in the skin, without evidence of extracutaneous organ involvement. This form predominates in pediatric populations, representing the majority of mastocytosis cases diagnosed in children under 2 years of age. Unlike systemic variants, CM typically follows a benign course with a high likelihood of spontaneous resolution.^[51] The main subtypes of CM include maculopapular cutaneous mastocytosis (MPCM), also referred to as urticaria pigmentosa (UP), which accounts for approximately 90% of pediatric cases and presents as reddish-brown macules or papules that urticate upon stroking (Darier's sign); diffuse cutaneous mastocytosis (DCM), a rarer form (1-13% of cases) marked by generalized erythroderma, thickening, and blistering due to widespread mast cell infiltration; and telangiectasia macularis eruptiva perstans (TMEP), an uncommon subtype featuring persistent, pruritic telangiectatic macules, more often seen in adults but occasionally in children.^[51] ^[52]^[51]^[53] Onset of CM occurs predominantly in infancy, with about 50% of cases manifesting before 2 years and many appearing congenitally or within the first 6 months of life. The condition often regresses spontaneously, with 50-90% of lesions fading by puberty, particularly in UP and mastocytoma subtypes, though DCM may persist longer without complete resolution.^[51]^[51] KIT mutations in CM are predominantly somatic, affecting the extracellular domain (e.g., exons 8 and 9) rather than the common D816V variant seen in systemic disease, and germline mutations are exceedingly rare. These genetic alterations contribute to localized mast cell proliferation but confer a low risk of progression to systemic mastocytosis, estimated at less than 10% in pediatric cases that persist beyond adolescence.^[51]^[52]^[51] The 2022 World Health Organization (WHO) fifth edition, International Consensus Classification (ICC), and subsequent 2024 harmonized criteria (H-2024) maintain CM as a separate entity from systemic mastocytosis, categorizing it into subtypes such as monomorphic or polymorphic MPCM (including UP and TMEP), DCM, and localized cutaneous mastocytoma, emphasizing histologic confirmation and exclusion of systemic involvement for diagnosis.^[54]^[38]

Systemic Forms

Systemic mastocytosis (SM) represents a clonal disorder characterized by the accumulation of neoplastic mast cells in extracutaneous organs, leading to multiorgan involvement and potential progression risks. According to the 2022 World Health Organization (WHO) and International Consensus Classification (ICC) criteria, with refinements in the 2024 harmonized proposal (H-2024), SM is subdivided into several subtypes based on clinical features, mast cell burden, and organ dysfunction. These classifications distinguish between nonadvanced SM (nonAdvSM), which includes indolent forms without significant organ damage, and advanced SM (AdvSM), which encompasses more aggressive variants with progressive disease.^[55]^[56]^[38] The most common subtype is indolent SM (ISM), accounting for the majority of adult cases and typically following a benign, indolent course with low mast cell burden and absence of organ damage. ISM often presents with mediator-related symptoms and may include cutaneous lesions, but lacks criteria for progression. Smoldering SM (SSM) represents an intermediate form with higher mast cell burden, evidenced by B-findings such as elevated serum tryptase levels above 200 ng/mL or multifocal bone marrow mast cell aggregates exceeding 30 mm², yet without organ dysfunction (C-findings). Bone marrow mastocytosis (BMM), a newly recognized subtype in the WHO classification and distinct variant in H-2024 (subvariant of ISM in ICC), features isolated bone marrow involvement without skin lesions or significant B-findings, and with tryptase levels below 125 ng/mL.^[55]^[56]^[38] In contrast, aggressive SM (ASM) is defined by C-findings indicating organ dysfunction, such as cytopenias, hepatosplenomegaly with impaired liver function, or skeletal involvement with large osteolytic lesions, necessitating cytoreductive therapy. SM with an associated hematologic neoplasm (SM-AHN in WHO/H-2024; SM-AMN in ICC, focusing on myeloid neoplasms) combines SM criteria with a concurrent myeloid or lymphoid neoplasm, such as myelodysplastic syndrome or chronic eosinophilic leukemia, where the associated component often drives morbidity. Mast cell leukemia (MCL), the rarest and most aggressive form, involves aleukemic or leukemic variants with bone marrow mast cell infiltration exceeding 20% atypical or immature mast cells in aspirate smears (leukemic variant with ≥10% circulating mast cells in peripheral blood per WHO criteria), consistent across WHO and ICC, frequently leading to rapid progression. The AdvSM category collectively includes ASM, SM-AHN/AMN, and MCL, unifying these high-risk entities under a framework for targeted therapies. Prognosis varies markedly by subtype, with nonAdvSM generally indolent and AdvSM associated with reduced survival.^[55]^[56]^[38] The activating KIT D816V mutation is detected in over 90% of SM cases across subtypes, serving as a key diagnostic driver, while higher variant allele frequencies (VAF ≥10%) correlate with increased disease aggression and progression risk from nonAdvSM to AdvSM. Organ involvement in SM is universal in the bone marrow, where multifocal mast cell clusters confirm the diagnosis, and commonly extends to the gastrointestinal tract (causing malabsorption or diarrhea), liver (leading to portal hypertension), and spleen (resulting in hypersplenism). The distinction between nonAdvSM and AdvSM hinges on B-findings (indicating burden without damage, such as organomegaly without dysfunction) versus C-findings (sustained organ damage requiring intervention), guiding risk stratification and management.^[55]^[57]^[18]

Rare Variants

Rare variants of mastocytosis encompass uncommon entities that deviate from the typical cutaneous and systemic forms, often presenting with aggressive or localized malignant features. These include extracutaneous mastocytoma, mast cell sarcoma, and mast cell leukemia, which together account for less than 1% of all mastocytosis cases. The 2024 harmonized criteria (H-2024) provisionally recognize extracutaneous mastocytoma while excluding it from core WHO/ICC due to rarity.^[37]^[38] Extracutaneous mastocytoma is a rare benign tumor composed of mature mast cells occurring in non-skin tissues, such as the colon, lung, or muscle, without systemic involvement. It manifests as a solitary nodule and lacks the destructive growth pattern seen in malignant counterparts. These lesions are typically indolent and may be incidentally discovered during evaluation for unrelated symptoms.^[58] Mast cell sarcoma represents a highly aggressive malignant neoplasm arising from atypical, immature mast cells, forming a unifocal destructive tumor mass. It commonly affects visceral sites including the gastrointestinal tract, bone, and uterus, though extracutaneous presentations like the pelvis or intracranial regions have been reported. Prognosis is poor, with frequent local recurrence and median survival often under one year, though some patients achieve longer remission with multimodal therapy. Unlike most systemic mastocytosis cases, mast cell sarcoma frequently lacks the KIT D816V mutation and may harbor alternative KIT alterations, such as exon 8 deletions, conferring potential sensitivity to tyrosine kinase inhibitors like imatinib.^[59] Mast cell leukemia (MCL) is the leukemic phase of advanced systemic mastocytosis, characterized by diffuse infiltration with more than 20% atypical, immature mast cells in bone marrow aspirates and significant peripheral blood involvement. It exhibits rapid progression, multilineage involvement, and a grave prognosis, with median overall survival ranging from 2 months to 2 years depending on additional mutations. The KIT D816V mutation is present in many cases, but MCL often features high-risk somatic mutations in genes like ASXL1, RUNX1, or SRSF2, which further impair outcomes; KIT exon 11 mutations occur in a subset, potentially influencing therapeutic responses.^[37]^[15] The 2022 World Health Organization (WHO) and International Consensus Classification (ICC) updates, refined in 2024 H-2024, retain these as distinct entities within mastocytosis, with MCL categorized under advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM) and mast cell sarcoma recognized as a separate aggressive subtype. These rare forms overlap with aggressive systemic mastocytosis in their multilineage potential but pose unique treatment challenges due to their rapid progression and variable KIT mutation profiles.^[54]^[38]

Treatment

Symptomatic and Anti-Mediator Therapies

Symptomatic and anti-mediator therapies form the cornerstone of management for mastocytosis, particularly in indolent and nonadvanced forms, by targeting the release and effects of mast cell mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes to alleviate symptoms like flushing, pruritus, gastrointestinal distress, and anaphylaxis risk without addressing the underlying mast cell proliferation.^[60]^[61] These approaches are recommended as first-line treatment for patients with nonadvanced systemic mastocytosis (SM), often combined with lifestyle modifications to avoid triggers such as certain foods, stress, or physical stimuli.^[60]^[62] H1 and H2 antihistamines are widely used to block histamine-mediated symptoms including flushing, itching (pruritus), and gastrointestinal issues like abdominal pain and diarrhea. Examples include H1 blockers such as cetirizine (10 mg daily) or loratadine (10 mg daily) for skin and systemic symptoms, and H2 blockers like famotidine (20-40 mg twice daily) to address gastric hypersecretion and related GI complaints.^[60]^[63]^[61] These agents are typically initiated at low doses and titrated based on symptom response, with combination H1/H2 therapy providing broader coverage than monotherapy.^[62]^[61] Mast cell stabilizers, such as cromolyn sodium, inhibit mediator release from mast cells and are particularly effective for gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and nausea. Oral cromolyn (200 mg four times daily) is commonly prescribed for systemic effects, while nasal or ophthalmic formulations address upper respiratory involvement; it may take weeks for full efficacy.^[60]^[63]^[61] Leukotriene antagonists like montelukast (10 mg daily) block leukotriene-mediated inflammation, helping to control respiratory symptoms, flushing, and gastrointestinal issues in patients with incomplete response to antihistamines.^[63]^[61] Aspirin, at low doses (81-325 mg daily), can inhibit prostaglandin production to reduce flushing and headache, but its use requires caution due to potential mast cell degranulation in sensitive individuals and should be initiated under medical supervision with desensitization if needed.^[63]^[61] For anaphylaxis prevention, all patients with mastocytosis are advised to carry two epinephrine auto-injectors (e.g., 0.3 mg intramuscular dose for adults), with immediate use recommended for severe mediator release episodes, followed by emergency medical care.^[60]^[63]^[62] In cutaneous mastocytosis, topical therapies target localized lesions; high-potency corticosteroids (e.g., clobetasol 0.05% ointment applied once or twice daily for 2-4 weeks) reduce mast cell numbers, histamine content, and symptoms like pruritus and urtication in mastocytomas or urticaria pigmentosa, though long-term use is avoided to prevent skin atrophy.^[64]^[62] The 2025 NCCN guidelines emphasize these anti-mediator therapies as initial management for nonadvanced SM, alongside patient education on trigger avoidance to improve quality of life and reduce symptom burden.^[60]^[62]

Disease-Modifying and Targeted Therapies

Disease-modifying therapies for mastocytosis aim to reduce the mast cell burden and target underlying molecular drivers, such as KIT mutations, particularly in advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM) or symptomatic indolent systemic mastocytosis (ISM). These interventions contrast with symptomatic management by addressing the clonal proliferation of mast cells, offering potential for durable responses in patients with organ dysfunction or high disease burden.^[65] Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeting the KIT D816V mutation represent the cornerstone of targeted therapy. Midostaurin (Rydapt), a multi-kinase inhibitor, was approved by the FDA in 2017 for adult patients with aggressive systemic mastocytosis (ASM), systemic mastocytosis with an associated hematological neoplasm (SM-AHN), or mast cell leukemia (MCL). Clinical trials demonstrated overall response rates of approximately 45-60% in these advanced subtypes, with improvements in mast cell burden and organ function.^[66] Avapritinib (Ayvakit), a more selective KIT inhibitor, received FDA approval in 2021 for AdvSM in adults with platelet counts ≥50 × 10^9/L, showing higher response rates of 75% in phase 2 studies, including complete responses in some cases, and reduced symptom burden. It was further approved in 2023 for symptomatic ISM with moderate-to-severe symptoms inadequately controlled by antihistamines.^[67]^[68]^[69] Emerging KIT-targeted agents are under investigation to improve selectivity and safety profiles. Bezuclastinib, a selective KIT D816V inhibitor, demonstrated significant symptom reduction in the phase 2 APEX trial, with a mean total symptom score improvement of -24.3 points at 24 weeks versus -15.4 for placebo, and 94% of patients achieving ≥50% serum tryptase reduction; an NDA submission is planned by late 2025 for AdvSM and non-advanced SM. Elenestinib (BLU-263), another potent KIT inhibitor, is in the ongoing phase 2/3 HARBOR trial for ISM and a phase 1/2 trial for AdvSM, showing preliminary efficacy in reducing anaphylaxis and mast cell burden with a favorable safety profile compared to less selective TKIs. BTK inhibitors, such as ibrutinib, have shown activity in KIT-independent cases or as adjuncts in phase 2 trials, with responses in 30-50% of advanced SM patients lacking KIT D816V mutations, though not FDA-approved for this indication.^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74] For aggressive SM unresponsive to TKIs, cytoreductive therapies may be employed to debulk mast cells. Cladribine, a purine analog, induces responses in 60-80% of patients with ASM or SM-AHN in retrospective studies, often used in 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine regimens every 4-8 weeks. Interferon-alpha has been reported to achieve partial responses in 40-60% of slowly progressing aggressive cases, though its use is limited by side effects like flu-like symptoms and cytopenias.^[75]^[76]^[77] Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is considered for eligible patients with AdvSM, particularly younger individuals with high-risk features or relapse after TKIs, offering potential cure through myeloablation. Registry data indicate 1-year overall survival rates of 62% and progression-free survival of 52%, with better outcomes in patients achieving complete remission pre-transplant.^[78] According to 2025 NCCN guidelines, avapritinib is preferred for symptomatic ISM with platelet counts ≥50 × 10^9/L, while midostaurin is recommended for ASM and SM-AHN. French guidelines similarly endorse avapritinib for ISM patients experiencing recurrent anaphylaxis, emphasizing multidisciplinary evaluation for advanced cases.^[60]^[79]^[80]

Prognosis

Prognostic Factors

Prognostic factors in mastocytosis encompass clinical, laboratory, and molecular features that help stratify patients into risk categories, guiding clinical management and predicting disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) classification provides a foundational framework for risk stratification, where indolent systemic mastocytosis (ISM) generally carries a favorable outlook, while advanced forms such as aggressive systemic mastocytosis (ASM), systemic mastocytosis with an associated hematological neoplasm (SM-AHN), and mast cell leukemia (MCL) indicate higher risk due to organ dysfunction or clonal evolution.^[54] Key clinical indicators of poor prognosis include elevated serum tryptase levels, organomegaly, and cytopenias. Serum tryptase exceeding 200 ng/mL often signals advanced disease and correlates with increased mast cell burden, while levels above 20 ng/mL serve as a diagnostic minor criterion but also reflect higher risk when persistently elevated. Hepatomegaly or splenomegaly, classified as B-findings in smoldering SM or C-findings in ASM, denote progressive organ involvement and adverse outcomes. Cytopenias, such as absolute neutrophil count below 1 × 10⁹/L, hemoglobin under 10 g/dL, or platelets less than 100 × 10⁹/L, represent C-findings indicative of bone marrow failure and are strongly associated with shortened survival in advanced subtypes.^[54]^[54]^[54] Molecular markers further refine prognostication, particularly in systemic mastocytosis. Mutations in ASXL1 and TET2 are linked to disease progression and inferior outcomes, often co-occurring with KIT D816V to promote multilineage involvement and aggressive phenotypes; ASXL1 alterations, for instance, are more frequent in ASM-AHN and MCL-AHN, worsening overall survival. The absence of KIT D816V, though rare in advanced cases, may occur in aggressive variants driven by alternative KIT mutations (e.g., D816Y) or other pathways, necessitating next-generation sequencing for detection and highlighting a subset with unpredictable progression. Additional high-risk mutations in SRSF2, RUNX1, or DNMT3A, when combined with ASXL1, form panels like the SRSF2/ASXL1/RUNX1 (S/A/R) set that independently predict poor survival in KIT D816V-positive advanced systemic mastocytosis. Higher KIT D816V allele burden correlates with poorer survival and increased risk of progression.^[81]^[81]^[82]^[82]^[83] Patient-specific factors also influence prognosis. Diagnosis in adulthood, particularly after age 60, is associated with worse outcomes compared to pediatric cases, where cutaneous forms often regress and systemic involvement is less aggressive. A history of anaphylaxis, more prevalent in adults (49% incidence versus 9% in children), signals higher mediator release and severe reactions, indirectly contributing to morbidity through recurrent episodes, especially in those with elevated basal tryptase.^[84]^[8]^[8] In advanced systemic mastocytosis, the risk of leukemic transformation is approximately 20% at 8 years.^[85]

Outcomes by Subtype

Cutaneous mastocytosis, primarily affecting children, is characterized by an excellent prognosis with regression of the disease by puberty in the majority (50–60%) of cases.^[51] Mortality is negligible, as the condition is limited to the skin and rarely progresses to systemic involvement.^[86] Indolent systemic mastocytosis (ISM) and non-advanced systemic mastocytosis (non-AdvSM) variants exhibit an excellent overall prognosis, with a 10-year survival rate of about 95% in low-risk patients.^[87] Progression to advanced forms is rare, occurring in fewer than 5% of cases over 10-20 years.^[87] Advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM), including aggressive systemic mastocytosis (ASM), systemic mastocytosis with an associated hematologic neoplasm (SM-AHN), and mast cell leukemia (MCL), historically carried a poor prognosis with median survival of 2-5 years prior to the advent of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs).^[88] Treatment with midostaurin or avapritinib has improved outcomes, extending median survival to 3-7 years, particularly in patients achieving deep responses.^[89] For instance, avapritinib demonstrates superior overall survival compared to midostaurin or best available therapy in both first- and later-line settings.^[89] As of 2025, United States trends indicate increasing prevalence of mastocytosis, likely due to enhanced diagnostic awareness, but mortality rates remain stable owing to the integration of targeted therapies like TKIs.^[90] Quality-of-life metrics in mastocytosis subtypes show significant symptom burden reduction following targeted treatments, with avapritinib leading to rapid decreases in mast cell burden and associated symptoms in refractory cases.^[91] Anaphylaxis recurrence rates are lowered with therapies such as omalizumab, which prevents episodes and mitigates overall disease burden in indolent and smoldering forms.^[92]

Epidemiology

Incidence and Prevalence

Mastocytosis is a rare disorder with an estimated global prevalence of approximately 1 in 10,000 to 15,000 individuals, though it is widely considered underdiagnosed owing to its variable clinical presentations and overlap with other conditions.^[93] The annual incidence ranges from 0.2 to 0.89 cases per 100,000 persons, reflecting data from population-based registries that highlight challenges in ascertainment. Recent studies indicate slightly higher rates in some regions, such as 1.21 per 100,000 in Denmark over 1997–2021, attributed to improved recognition.^[94] In the United States, systemic mastocytosis has shown an increasing incidence trend from 2000 to 2021, rising to an age-adjusted rate of 0.1 per 100,000 by the end of the period, likely driven by heightened awareness and diagnostic advancements.^[90] Overall prevalence in the US is estimated at 28.44 per 100,000, with indolent forms comprising the majority.^[6] Among children, approximately 80% of cases manifest as cutaneous mastocytosis, with a peak incidence of around 60% occurring in the first year of life; these often resolve or improve by adolescence.^[95] In contrast, adult-onset mastocytosis is predominantly systemic, with a median age of onset between 40 and 50 years and a more chronic course.^[96]^[97] Market analyses project continued growth in identified mastocytosis cases through 2025 and beyond, with the global market expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate of 3.3% from 2025 to 2035, fueled by enhanced diagnostics and awareness.^[98] Geographically, reporting is higher in Europe and North America, where prevalence reaches 1 in 7,700 to 10,400, compared to rarer documentation in Asia, possibly reflecting underascertainment in those regions.^[99]^[100]

Demographic Patterns

Mastocytosis displays a bimodal age distribution, with the first peak occurring in early childhood, particularly between birth and 2 years of age, where approximately 55% of cases present and are predominantly limited to cutaneous manifestations such as urticaria pigmentosa.^[101] A second peak emerges in adulthood, typically between 30 and 50 years, when systemic forms become more prevalent, though the median age at diagnosis for systemic mastocytosis is around 55 years.^[102]^[14] Pediatric cases often resolve spontaneously by adolescence, whereas adult-onset disease tends to persist and involves multi-organ infiltration.^[103] Regarding sex distribution, cutaneous mastocytosis affects males and females equally, reflecting balanced incidence across genders in pediatric populations.^[104] In contrast, systemic mastocytosis shows a slight male predominance, with a male-to-female ratio of approximately 1.5:1, particularly noted in advanced subtypes.^[105] The condition is predominantly reported among individuals of Caucasian ethnicity, comprising over 85% of documented cases in surveyed populations, while it remains understudied in other ethnic groups, potentially due to genetic predispositions involving KIT mutations that may vary by ancestry.^[93]^[106] Familial occurrences of mastocytosis are rare, accounting for less than 5% of cases and typically linked to germline KIT mutations, which are most commonly associated with aggressive variants such as mast cell leukemia.^[107]^[108] An important population characteristic is the association with comorbidities, particularly atopic disorders and allergies, with 30-50% of patients exhibiting overlap, including elevated rates of allergic rhinitis, asthma, and anaphylaxis triggers beyond typical mast cell degranulation.02423-7/fulltext)00378-4/fulltext)

History

Early Descriptions

The earliest recognition of mastocytosis occurred in 1869, when Edward Nettleship and William Tay described a two-year-old boy with multiple reddish-brown skin lesions that urticated upon mechanical irritation, marking the first reported case of what would later be known as urticaria pigmentosa, the cutaneous form of the disease characterized by mast cell accumulation in the skin.^[30] This description highlighted the lesions' pigmentary and urticarial features but did not yet connect them to mast cells. In 1878, Paul Ehrlich, while studying tissue cells, identified and named "mast cells" (Mastzellen) based on their affinity for basic dyes and metachromatic granules, laying the groundwork for understanding their role in such conditions, though the link to urticaria pigmentosa was not immediately made.^[30] In 1887, Paul Gerson Unna identified mast cells within the lesions of urticaria pigmentosa, providing the first histological evidence of mast cell involvement.^[109] Subsequent reports in the 1880s focused on pediatric cases, with Alfred Sangster coining the term "urticaria pigmentosa" in 1878 to describe the whealing response (Darier's sign) elicited by stroking the lesions, and early documentation including the first reported adult case by Robert Liveing in 1881.^[110] These cases underscored the predominantly childhood presentation of cutaneous mastocytosis, often benign and self-limited, but initial observations treated it as a rare dermatological anomaly without deeper systemic insight. Felix Sagher and Zvi Even-Paz advanced the understanding by recognizing extracutaneous involvement and coining the term "systemic mastocytosis" to describe cases where mast cell proliferation extended beyond the skin, as detailed in their seminal 1967 monograph that synthesized prior reports, including the first confirmed systemic case by Ellis in 1949 involving multiorgan infiltration.^[111]^[30] Early conceptions of mastocytosis viewed it primarily as a reactive hyperplastic disorder triggered by external factors, rather than a clonal neoplastic process, a misconception rooted in the lack of genetic insights available at the time.^[30] This perspective persisted until the 1990s, when molecular studies revealed activating mutations in the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase as the driver of mast cell expansion, reclassifying the disease as a myeloproliferative neoplasm.^[30]

Modern Developments

In the 1990s, significant progress was made in elucidating the molecular basis of mastocytosis, particularly through the identification of activating mutations in the KIT gene. In 1996, researchers led by B. Jack Longley demonstrated that a point mutation in the KIT proto-oncogene, specifically substituting aspartic acid for valine at codon 816 (D816V), resulted in constitutive activation of the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase in mast cells from patients with mastocytosis.^[112] This discovery established the clonal neoplastic nature of the disease, shifting the understanding from a reactive disorder to a myeloproliferative neoplasm driven by somatic mutations, and laid the foundation for targeted therapeutic strategies.^[112] The early 2000s brought formal standardization to the diagnosis and subclassification of mastocytosis. In 2001, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the first comprehensive classification system for mast cell disorders as part of its tumor classification framework, defining criteria for cutaneous mastocytosis (including subtypes like urticaria pigmentosa, diffuse cutaneous mastocytosis, and mastocytoma) and systemic mastocytosis (with variants such as indolent, aggressive, and systemic mastocytosis with associated hematologic neoplasm). This system emphasized the requirement for one major criterion (multifocal dense infiltrates of mast cells) and at least one minor criterion (e.g., >15% abnormal mast cells with KIT D816V mutation) for diagnosis, providing a structured approach that improved diagnostic consistency across clinical settings. Therapeutic advancements accelerated in the mid-2010s with the approval of the first targeted therapy. In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved midostaurin (Rydapt), a multi-kinase inhibitor, for the treatment of adults with aggressive systemic mastocytosis, systemic mastocytosis with associated hematologic neoplasm, and mast cell leukemia, marking the initial shift toward KIT-targeted interventions based on the molecular insights from the 1990s.^[113] This approval was supported by phase 2 trial data showing clinical improvements in organ dysfunction and symptom control in advanced cases harboring KIT mutations.^[114] By the early 2020s, classifications evolved to integrate molecular genetics more deeply. In 2022, the WHO's fifth edition and the International Consensus Classification (ICC) updated the mastocytosis framework, incorporating advanced molecular testing for KIT and other mutations (e.g., ASXL1, SRSF2, RUNX1) into diagnostic criteria and risk stratification.^[115] These revisions introduced the category of advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM) to encompass aggressive systemic mastocytosis, systemic mastocytosis with an associated myeloid neoplasm, and mast cell leukemia, emphasizing multilineage involvement and poorer prognosis for better prognostic grouping.^[54] From 2021 to 2025, further refinements in therapy and guidelines solidified targeted approaches. The FDA approved avapritinib (Ayvakit) in 2021 specifically for adults with advanced systemic mastocytosis, including those with KIT D816V mutations, as a highly selective KIT inhibitor demonstrating rapid reductions in mast cell burden and symptom relief in clinical trials.^[67] In 2024, a consensus paper in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice proposed harmonization of diagnostic criteria across WHO, ICC, and other expert groups (e.g., American Initiative in Mast Cell Diseases/European Competence Network on Mastocytosis), resolving discrepancies in subtype definitions like smoldering systemic mastocytosis and bone marrow mastocytosis to facilitate uniform clinical application.^[38] Complementing these, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines version 1.2025 prioritized tyrosine kinase inhibitors like midostaurin and avapritinib as first-line options for advanced disease, integrating molecular profiling and response criteria to guide personalized management.^[116]

Research

Current Advances

In 2024, experts proposed a harmonized classification system (H-2024) that integrates the World Health Organization (WHO), International Consensus Classification (ICC), and European Competence Network on Mastocytosis (ECNM)/American Initiative in Mast Cell Diseases (AIM) criteria for diagnosing mastocytosis. This unified framework standardizes the identification of cutaneous and systemic variants, including bone marrow mastocytosis (BMM) and smoldering systemic mastocytosis (SSM) as distinct entities, while incorporating updates such as CD30 expression as a minor criterion and recognition of KIT mutations beyond D816V. By aligning diagnostic requirements—such as needing one major and one minor criterion or three minor criteria for systemic mastocytosis—the harmonization facilitates consistent patient classification across studies and enhances enrollment in clinical trials through improved comparability and reduced diagnostic variability.^[38] Recent genomic studies have advanced understanding of mast cell biology in mastocytosis through next-generation sequencing (NGS), revealing the prognostic significance of non-KIT mutations. In a 2025 analysis of 910 patients, NGS identified TET2 mutations in 39% and ASXL1 in 17%, with these alterations contributing to risk stratification beyond KIT D816V status. Updated prognostic scores, such as refinements to the International Prognostic Scoring System for Mastocytosis (IPSM) and Global Prognostic Score for Systemic Mastocytosis (GPSS-M), now incorporate NGS data on ASXL1 and TET2 to better predict progression in advanced subtypes, outperforming earlier models in cohorts treated with targeted therapies. These tools enable more precise identification of high-risk patients based on mutation profiles and variant allele frequencies.^[117]^[118] Biomarker research has highlighted the role of tryptase in predicting treatment responses, particularly with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Tryptase genotyping, especially for hereditary alpha-tryptasemia (HαT) alleles, allows for context-adjusted interpretation of baseline serum tryptase levels, which correlate with mast cell burden and therapeutic outcomes in systemic mastocytosis. A 2025 study demonstrated that patients with specific tryptase genotypes and elevated baseline levels (>20 ng/mL) exhibit better responses to TKIs, with reductions in serum tryptase serving as a reliable surrogate marker for efficacy, observed in over 90% of responders. This approach refines patient selection for TKI therapy by linking genetic and biochemical profiles to response prediction.^[119] Epidemiologic insights from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database indicate a rising incidence of systemic mastocytosis, reflecting improved awareness and diagnostic practices. Analysis of SEER data from 2000 to 2021 shows an approximate two-fold increase in age-adjusted incidence, from around 0.05 per 100,000 to 0.1 per 100,000, with the trend attributed to enhanced recognition of indolent forms and molecular testing availability. This upward trajectory, most pronounced among non-Hispanic White adults, underscores the evolving epidemiology and supports targeted public health efforts for early detection.^[90]

Emerging Therapies

Emerging therapies for mastocytosis are primarily focused on targeted agents in clinical development, aiming to address unmet needs in symptom control, disease modification, and management of advanced subtypes. These investigational approaches build on the understanding of KIT D816V-driven pathogenesis, with several KIT inhibitors advancing through trials to offer more selective inhibition and reduced off-target effects compared to approved therapies. Bezuclastinib, a potent and selective KIT D816V inhibitor, has shown promising results in the phase 2 APEX trial for advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM). In 2024 interim data, treatment led to a 56% mean improvement in total symptom score at 24 weeks, with 76% of patients achieving at least a 50% reduction from baseline, alongside reductions in mast cell burden measured by serum tryptase levels. The trial demonstrated a favorable safety profile, with minimal central nervous system penetration mitigating risks like intracranial bleeding seen in some prior KIT inhibitors.^[120] Elenestinib (BLU-263), another next-generation KIT D816V inhibitor designed for low brain penetration, is under evaluation in the phase 3 portion of the HARBOR trial for indolent systemic mastocytosis (ISM). As of 2025 updates, the ongoing randomized, placebo-controlled study assesses symptom control via the Indolent Systemic Mastocytosis Symptom Assessment Form, with early phase 2 data indicating significant reductions in anaphylaxis frequency and overall symptom burden in KIT D816V-positive patients.^[72] This positions elenestinib as a potential first-line option for ISM, emphasizing long-term disease modification.^[121] BTK inhibitors, such as ibrutinib in combination regimens, are being explored for mastocytosis cases lacking the KIT D816V mutation (KIT-wildtype), where standard KIT inhibitors are less effective. These agents target downstream signaling pathways, offering an alternative for the approximately 5-20% of patients without the common mutation.^[122] Early preclinical investigations into mTOR inhibitors and immunotherapies are targeting refractory advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM). A 2024 French nationwide pilot study of mTOR inhibitors like everolimus demonstrated clinical responses in 17 monotherapy patients with AdvSM, including reduced organ infiltration and improved overall survival, particularly in KIT-mutated cases resistant to tyrosine kinase inhibitors.^[123] Gene therapy concepts, including CRISPR-Cas9 targeting of the KIT D816V mutation, remain in preclinical stages as of 2023. Studies using CRISPR-edited human mast cell lines (e.g., HMC-1.2 derivatives with isolated D816V) have validated targeted repair, leading to decreased proliferation and mediator release in vitro, paving the way for potential ex vivo applications in hematopoietic stem cells for AdvSM.^[124] These approaches aim at curative potential but require further safety validation before clinical translation.^[125] The trial landscape for mastocytosis therapies increasingly incorporates patient-reported outcomes (PROs) to capture symptom impact beyond objective measures. A 2025 PubMed review highlights the integration of tools like the Mastocytosis Symptom Severity Daily Diary in ongoing studies, emphasizing PROs for assessing quality-of-life improvements. Real-world data from avapritinib-treated patients, analyzed in 2025, confirm sustained symptom relief and reduced mast cell burden, with 75% response rates in AdvSM cohorts and high adherence to PRO monitoring in post-approval registries.^[126]^[127] This focus on real-world evidence supports adaptive trial designs for emerging agents.^[128]

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Midostaurin is the only U.S. Food and Drug Administration‐approved therapy for patients with systemic mastocytosis with associated hematological neoplasm and ...
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FDA approves avapritinib for advanced systemic mastocytosis
Jun 16, 2021 · On June 16, 2021, the Food and Drug Administration approved avapritinib (Ayvakit™, Blueprint Medicines Corp.)
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FDA Approves Avapritinib for the Treatment of Adult Patients with ...
May 24, 2023 · AYVAKIT® (avapritinib) is indicated for the treatment of adult patients with indolent systemic mastocytosis (ISM). Limitations of Use: AYVAKIT ...
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Role of Avapritinib in Managing Systemic Mastocytosis | Cureus
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Jul 7, 2025 · Patients treated with bezuclastinib showed a superior mean change in total symptom score at 24 weeks (-24.3 points vs. -15.4 points, -8.91 point placebo- ...
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(Apex) Bezuclastinib in Patients With Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis
This is an open-label, two-part Phase 2 study investigating CGT9486 for the treatment of patients with Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis (AdvSM), ...
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Elenestinib May Be Safer Than Traditional KIT Inhibitors in Indolent ...
Sep 10, 2025 · “Elenestinib is a novel KIT inhibitor that's still in clinical trials—specifically, the [phase 2/3] HARBOR trial [NCT04910685] that's ongoing ...
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Study of Elenestinib (BLU-263) in Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis ...
The goal of this clinical trial is to evaluate elenestinib (BLU-263) in participants with Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis (AdvSM), SM with an associated ...
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Clinical Trials of the BTK Inhibitors Ibrutinib and Acalabrutinib ... - NIH
Oct 28, 2021 · Ibrutinib also suppresses BTK phosphorylation, induces apoptosis and decreases proliferation in canine neoplastic mast cells (65). Although a ...
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Cytoreductive therapy in 108 adults with systemic mastocytosis
The respective overall response rates in indolent SM, aggressive SM and SM associated with another clonal hematological nonmast cell lineage disease (SM ...
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Jan 25, 2001 · Our experience supports the consideration of treatment with cladribine in an adult with systemic mast-cell disease that is aggressive and unresponsive to usual ...
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Mar 7, 2019 · All patients with aggressive mastocytosis showed a response and all other patients an improvement of signs and symptoms. All seven patients with ...
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Allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplantation in advanced systemic ...
Sep 22, 2025 · We investigated the outcomes of patients with advanced systemic mastocytosis (AdvSM) undergoing allogeneic haematopoietic cell therapy ...
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[PDF] Oncology – Rydapt Prior Authorization Policy
Mar 12, 2025 · Systemic Mastocytosis: NCCN guidelines (version 1.2025 – February 21, 2025) recommend Rydapt for the treatment of aggressive systemic ...
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French guidelines for the management of nonadvanced ...
Oct 2, 2025 · The present CNPD describes the management of nonadvanced mastocytosis cutaneous mastocytosis [CM], CM with primary MCAS, indolent systemic ...
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Jul 1, 2021 · Evidence in mice suggests that the cooperation between KIT D816V and the loss of function of TET2 induces a transformation to a more aggressive ...
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Additional mutations in SRSF2, ASXL1 and/or RUNX1 identify a high-risk group of patients with KIT D816V(+) advanced systemic mastocytosis. Leukemia. 2016 Jan ...
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Redefining Prognosis in Patients with KIT D816V Positive Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis on KIT Inhibitors
### 2024 Updates on KIT D816V Mutation Burden as a Prognostic Tool in Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis
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Aug 1, 2021 · Extracutaneous mastocytoma is an extremely rare MC tumor. To differentiate between CM and SM, a bone marrow biopsy is necessary. SM is diagnosed ...
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Feb 7, 2025 · Patients with systemic mastocytosis experienced superior OS and DOT outcomes with first- and later-line avapritinib vs midostaurin and BAT, respectively.
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May 28, 2025 · The objective of our study was to estimate prevalence and trends in systemic mastocytosis among adults in the United States between 2000-2021, ...
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Avapritinib reduces symptoms and mast cell burden in systemic ...
Sep 17, 2025 · In refractory cases, avapritinib is a promising therapeutic option that can reduce mast cell burden, alleviate symptoms, and enhance overall ...
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Long-Term Successful Treatment of Indolent Systemic Mastocytosis ...
This case study suggests that omalizumab may help prevent anaphylaxis and reduce disease burden associated with systemic mastocytosis.
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Systemic Mastocytosis Epidemiology - Rare Disease Advisor
May 12, 2025 · Globally, the estimated prevalence of all forms of mastocytosis is about 1 in 10,000 people, with the assumption of underdiagnosis.1,2. SM is a ...
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Jan 3, 2025 · The 10-year survival probability was 66.7% (95%CI: 37.9–100%) for patients with ASM, 29.8% (95%CI: 21.6–41.3%) for patients with SM-AHN and 0% ...
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Comparison of mastocytosis with onset in children and adults
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P105 Adult-onset mastocytosis: a retrospective review
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The mastocytosis market is expected to exhibit a CAGR of 3.30% during 2025-2035. This report provides a detailed analysis of the current mastocytosis ...
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Epidemiology. The prevalence in Europe is estimated between 1/7,700 and 1/10,400. Systemic mastocytosis (SM) preferentially affects Caucasians and there is ...Missing: geographic North America Asia
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The diagnostic workup for systemic mastocytosis differs from ...
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Pediatric mastocytosis is a rare disease, which affects the skin and multiple organs due to an increase in mast-cell load in the body.
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Mastocytosis occurs primarily in children, but there is a second peak in the incidence around age 30-50 years. In most cases, mastocytosis in children ...
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Mastocytosis associated with a rare germline KIT K509I mutation ...
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Systemic Mastocytosis in 910 Patients: Prognostic Contribution ... - NIH
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American Journal of Hematology - Wiley Online Library
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Utility of tryptase genotyping in the screening, diagnosis ... - Frontiers
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Clinical Trials of the BTK Inhibitors Ibrutinib and Acalabrutinib in ...
Ibrutinib also suppresses BTK phosphorylation, induces apoptosis and decreases proliferation in canine neoplastic mast cells (65). Although a Phase II clinical ...
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Systemic mastocytosis: current status and challenges in 2024 - PMC
OS and progression-free survival (PFS) varied across these risk groups; rates of 96%, 87%, and 61% for OS and PFS, respectively, were found.
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Efficacy and safety of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors in ...
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Potential role of immunotherapy and targeted therapy in the ...
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CRISPR/Cas9-engineering of HMC-1.2 cells renders a human mast ...
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Avapritinib reduces symptoms and mast cell burden in systemic ...
Sep 17, 2025 · In refractory cases, avapritinib is a promising therapeutic option that can reduce mast cell burden, alleviate symptoms, and enhance overall ...
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Avapritinib reduces symptoms and mast cell burden in systemic ...
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