Multan
Multan is a historic city in southern Punjab province, Pakistan, situated at approximately 30°12′N 71°28′E along the banks of the Chenab River and recognized as the "City of Saints" for hosting numerous Sufi shrines dedicated to medieval Islamic mystics.[1][2] The surrounding district, with its administrative headquarters in the city, encompasses an area of about 3,720 square kilometers and supports a population of over 5 million, predominantly engaged in agriculture that accounts for more than 80% of local livelihoods through crops like cotton, mangoes, and wheat.[3][4] As Pakistan's seventh-largest urban center, Multan functions as a key commercial and industrial node, with textile processing, fertilizer production, and fruit-based industries driving economic activity amid a hot, arid climate that influences its agricultural output.[2][1] Its strategic location has historically positioned it as a trade crossroads, with evidence of continuous habitation tracing back millennia, including conquest by Alexander the Great in 326 BCE, underscoring its role in regional power shifts from ancient Hindu kingdoms to Islamic sultanates.[1] The city's defining cultural landscape revolves around its Sufi heritage, where shrines such as those of Bahauddin Zakariya and Shah Rukn-e-Alam attract pilgrims and preserve architectural styles blending Persian and local influences, fostering a tradition of devotional practices that have shaped South Asian Islam.[1] Multan's economy relies heavily on cotton cultivation and ginning, supplying Pakistan's textile sector, though challenges like declining yields due to climate variability and pest issues have prompted calls for policy alignments to boost production and reduce import dependence.[4][5] Urban development initiatives, including infrastructure like the Multan Metro Bus and housing schemes, reflect efforts to accommodate population growth while leveraging its position in southern Punjab's fertile plains for agro-industrial expansion.[6]Etymology
Historical Derivations and Linguistic Roots
The name Multan derives primarily from the Sanskrit compound mūlasthāna (मूलस्थान), translating to "place of the root" or "original abode," a term linked to the ancient Sun Temple housing an idol of the solar deity Mūladeva (or Aditya/Sūrya). This etymology reflects the city's pre-Islamic religious significance as a pilgrimage center for sun worship, with mūla denoting "root," "origin," or "principal" and sthāna meaning "place" or "abode." Historical attestation appears in accounts by the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), who in 641 CE described the temple at Mulasthana as a wooden structure adorned with rare woods, precious stones, and banners, drawing devotees from afar who offered rice, flowers, and incense.[7] The 11th-century polymath Al-Biruni further corroborated this in his Indica, noting the idol's dedication to the sun god and the city's alternative ancient designations like Kasyapapura (after sage Kashyapa) and Prahladapuri, underscoring its Vedic-era roots tied to solar cults predating 500 BCE.[7] Linguistically, mūlasthāna evolved through Prakrit and regional vernaculars into Middle Persian and Arabic forms during Achaemenid and early Islamic contacts, with phonetic shifts yielding Mulastān or Mūltān by the 8th century CE following Muhammad bin Qasim's conquest in 712 CE, when Arab chroniclers adapted the name while referencing its Hindu templar prominence. An alternative derivation posits Old Persian mulastāna ("frontier land"), emphasizing Multan's strategic position as a border outpost between the Indus Valley and Iranian plateaus during Achaemenid rule circa 500 BCE, though this lacks direct epigraphic support and appears secondary to the Sanskrit temple association.[8] The name also connects to the ancient Malli tribe (Malloi in Greek sources), inhabitants of the region during Alexander the Great's campaign in 326 BCE, suggesting a possible tribal root as Malli-stān ("land of the Mallis"), a hydronymic or ethnonymic evolution from Indo-Aryan malla ("wrestler" or tribal identifier) that parallels the Sanskrit base but emphasizes demographic rather than sacral origins. Earlier attested names include Kashyapapura (city of Kashyapa) and Mehsan, potentially from pre-Vedic or Dravidian substrates, though these remain speculative without inscriptions; archaeological evidence from Multan Fort layers supports continuous occupation since the 3rd millennium BCE, aligning with linguistic persistence amid Indo-Aryan migrations around 1500 BCE.[9] These derivations highlight Multan's role as a cultural crossroads, where Indo-Aryan linguistic dominance integrated with Persian and later Islamic influences without supplanting core phonetic elements.History
Ancient Origins and Pre-Islamic Civilizations
The region surrounding Multan exhibits evidence of early human settlement linked to the Indus Valley Civilization, with archaeological sites such as Ganweriwala in the nearby Cholistan Desert representing a major urban center from approximately 2600 to 1900 BCE. This site, one of the largest known Indus cities alongside Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, featured sophisticated brick structures and artifacts indicative of advanced urban planning and trade networks, underscoring the area's role in Bronze Age South Asian civilizations.[10][11] By the Vedic period, Multan emerged as a significant cultural and religious hub, known anciently as Mūlasthāna, denoting "the place of origin" or associated with its central Sun Temple dedicated to the deity Surya. Traditional accounts, including those in Puranic literature, attribute the temple's founding to Samba, son of Krishna, around the late Vedic era, positioning Multan as a pilgrimage site for solar worship predating widespread temple architecture elsewhere in the subcontinent. Archaeological remnants and classical references confirm the site's antiquity, with accumulated debris layers suggesting continuous habitation through prehistoric phases.[12][13] In the classical era, Multan served as the capital of the Mallian tribe (Malava), a resilient Indo-Aryan group whose fortified city resisted Alexander the Great's invasion in 325 BCE, nearly inflicting a fatal wound on the conqueror during the siege. Greek historians like Arrian describe the encounter with a populous stronghold across the Ravi or Chenab River, highlighting Multan's strategic defenses and martial culture. Pre-Islamic religious life centered on Hindu temples, including the Prahladpuri shrine to Vishnu in his Narasimha form and the enduring Sun Temple, which drew devotees and symbolized the city's identity as a bastion of Vedic traditions amid shifting empires like the Mauryan and later Indo-Greek influences.[14]Classical Invasions and Hellenistic Influence
In the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great and later Darius I extended control over northwestern India, incorporating the Punjab region—including areas around Multan—into the satrapy of Hindush, as evidenced by Darius's Behistun Inscription listing tribute from Indian provinces yielding gold, ivory, and textiles.[15] This incorporation involved nominal suzerainty rather than direct administration, with local rulers paying tribute while maintaining autonomy, facilitating Persian administrative practices like Aramaic script and coinage that influenced regional governance.[15] The Macedonian invasion led by Alexander the Great reached the Punjab in 326 BCE, following his victory over King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum River). Advancing southward, Alexander's forces encountered fierce resistance from the Mallian confederacy (Malloi), whose territory encompassed the Ravi and Chenab river basins near modern Multan, known anciently as Mulasthana or part of the Oxydrakai-Malloi alliance.[16] In a brutal campaign, Macedonian troops stormed fortified cities, culminating in the siege of a major Mallian citadel—often identified by historians with Multan's ancient core—where Alexander personally scaled the walls and sustained a near-fatal arrow wound to the lung on approximately November 30, 326 BCE, as described in accounts by Arrian and Plutarch drawing from Ptolemy's eyewitness testimony. The Mallians were subdued after heavy casualties, with Alexander's army razing settlements and incorporating survivors as allies, marking the easternmost extent of his conquests before mutiny halted further advances.[16] Post-Alexander Hellenistic influence in the Multan region was transient and indirect, as his successors' control fragmented rapidly. After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, the Punjab fell under the satrapy of Philip and later Eudemus, but by 305 BCE, Seleucus I Nicator ceded the territories east of the Indus—including Multan—to Chandragupta Maurya in exchange for 500 elephants and a marital alliance, integrating the area into the Mauryan Empire.[17] Lingering Greek elements manifested through Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms (circa 180 BCE–10 CE) in northwestern Punjab, introducing Hellenistic coinage, urban planning with grid layouts, and sculptural motifs blending Greek realism with local iconography, though archaeological evidence specific to Multan remains sparse, limited to potential trade artifacts rather than sustained settlement or cultural dominance.[18] This period facilitated exchanges in astronomy and medicine, with Greek horoscopy influencing Indian astrological texts, but Multan's core identity as a center of indigenous sun worship persisted without profound Hellenization.[18]Early Islamic Conquests and Emirate Establishment
The Umayyad Caliphate's conquest of Multan formed part of the broader campaign against Sindh launched in 711 CE under Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, a 17-year-old general dispatched by viceroy Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf to retaliate against Raja Dahir's failure to protect Muslim shipping interests.[19] After defeating Dahir's forces at the Battle of Aror (also known as the Battle of the Indus) in early 712 CE, bin Qasim advanced northward along the Indus River, capturing key forts and securing tribute from local rulers en route to Multan, a fortified city renowned for its wealth and the adjacent Sun Temple (Mulasthana).[20] The city's governor, possibly a subordinate of Dahir or a semi-independent Hindu ruler, mounted resistance, but Multan fell after a brief siege in mid-712 CE, with Arab forces employing catapults (manjaniks) and exploiting internal divisions.[19] Upon capture, Multan yielded substantial spoils, including approximately 60,000 dirhams in gold from the temple's treasury, which bin Qasim melted down to finance his army and mint coins bearing Umayyad inscriptions, marking the first Islamic coinage in the region.[19] Bin Qasim reorganized local administration by appointing Arab governors and collectors, imposing the jizya poll tax on non-Muslims while exempting Muslims from certain levies, and integrating Multan's trade networks into the caliphal economy; this pragmatic fiscal system, documented in contemporary Arab chronicles like the Chachnama, allowed continuity of Hindu mercantile practices under Islamic oversight.[20] The conquest integrated Multan into the province of Sindh, governed from Mansura (near modern Hyderabad), with bin Qasim serving as overall amir until his recall to Damascus in 715 CE amid political intrigue, where he died under suspicious circumstances.[19] Successive Umayyad governors, such as Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi, maintained control over Multan through garrisons of Syrian and Iraqi troops, suppressing revolts and facilitating Arab settlement, though Abbasid overthrow in 750 CE shifted nominal authority eastward while local autonomy grew.[21] By the mid-9th century, amid Abbasid decline, Multan emerged as the capital of a semi-independent emirate under the Banu Munabbih, an Arab tribe that asserted control around 855 CE, leveraging the city's strategic position on caravan routes linking Central Asia to the Arabian Sea.[22] This emirate, encompassing parts of Punjab and Sindh, transitioned to Ismaili Shia rule under the Lodi (or Soomra-linked) dynasty by 959 CE, fostering trade in textiles, indigo, and slaves while maintaining fragile ties to Baghdad and later Fatimid Egypt, until its subjugation by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1010 CE.[21] The establishment reflected causal fragmentation of caliphal authority, enabling local emirs to balance tribal loyalties, religious proselytization, and economic extraction without full integration into imperial structures.Medieval Dynastic Rule and Trade Expansion
Mahmud of Ghazni conquered Multan in 1006 AD, integrating the city into the Ghaznavid Empire and suppressing the local Ismaili rulers, which marked the onset of more centralized Turkic dynastic control following earlier Arab emirates.[23] This conquest facilitated Ghaznavid raids into India but also positioned Multan as a frontier stronghold for military expeditions and tribute collection. In 1175 AD, Muhammad of Ghor, leading the Ghurid dynasty, captured Multan from lingering Ghaznavid holdouts, defeating the Ismaili governors and extending Ghurid influence eastward.[24][25] After Muhammad's death in 1206, his general Qutb ud-Din Aibak established the Delhi Sultanate, under which Multan became a vital province administered by Mamluk governors who fortified the city against Mongol incursions and managed irrigation for agricultural surplus.[26] Successive Delhi Sultanate dynasties—the Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis—maintained Multan's status as a semi-autonomous iqta, with governors like those under Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388) constructing enduring structures such as the Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam to patronize Sufi orders and consolidate loyalty. In 1445, the Langah tribe, led by Rai Bahar Khan (also known as Sultan Qutb ud-Din), declared independence, founding the Langah Sultanate with Multan as capital; this Baloch or Pashtun-origin dynasty ruled until approximately 1525, balancing tribute to Delhi with local autonomy amid declining central authority.[27][28] Multan's strategic position on caravan routes linking Kandahar to Delhi and extending to Persia and Central Asia via the Multan-Quetta path spurred trade expansion under these dynasties, transforming it into a trans-regional mercantile hub for overland commerce in horses, textiles, indigo, and grains.[29][30] Political stability from the Delhi Sultanate's silver tanka currency and protected highways, coupled with riverine access via the Indus and Chenab, attracted foreign merchants, yielding high revenues from transit duties and bustling bazaars that connected Islamic trade networks.[31][30] The Langah period sustained this prosperity, with Sufi shrines enhancing cultural exchange alongside economic flows until Arghun incursions disrupted the balance.[30]Mughal Era and Provincial Governance
The Mughal Empire incorporated Multan following Babur's defeat of the Langah dynasty and Afghan elements in the region during his early campaigns, securing control by the late 1520s as part of the empire's expansion into Punjab and Sindh territories.[32] Emperor Akbar formalized Multan's status as one of the original subas (provinces) in his administrative reforms around 1580, dividing the empire into 12-15 provinces for efficient revenue collection and military oversight, with Multan encompassing southern Punjab, parts of Sindh, and frontier areas up to the Indus River and beyond.[33] This suba served as a strategic buffer against Baloch and Afghan tribes, generating revenue through land taxes estimated at significant portions of the provincial income derived from irrigated agriculture along the Chenab and Ravi rivers.[34] Provincial governance centered on the subadar, appointed directly by the emperor for terms typically lasting 2-3 years, who combined executive, judicial, and military roles while coordinating with a diwan for finance and a bakshi for troops.[33] In Multan, subadars like Syed Hamid Bukhari (c. 1580s) and later figures such as Shah Husain (1649-1659) managed local sardars and collected zabt revenue based on crop yields, often facing resistance from semi-nomadic groups requiring military expeditions for compliance.[34] Aurangzeb, prior to his accession, served as subadar of Multan and adjacent Sindh from 1648, implementing stricter Islamic policies and fortifying outposts to curb tribal raids, which temporarily stabilized collections but strained resources amid ongoing frontier skirmishes.[35] The suba's economy hinged on pastoralism and overland caravan trade, with Baloch and Jat herders providing thousands of camels annually for transporting wool, grains, and textiles to markets in Persia and Central Asia, while importing horses vital for Mughal cavalry.[36] Governors facilitated this by maintaining sarais and roads, levying transit duties that contributed up to 20-30% of provincial revenue, though inefficiencies from tribal tolls and droughts periodically disrupted flows, as documented in imperial farmans ordering protection for merchants.[30] Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan, trade volumes grew, with Multan acting as a nexus for Afghan powinda caravans, underscoring its role in sustaining the empire's monetized economy despite administrative challenges from decentralized tribal power structures.[35]18th-19th Century Invasions and Sikh Dominion
Following the weakening of Mughal central authority in the early 18th century, Multan fell under Afghan dominance as Ahmad Shah Durrani launched eight invasions of the Punjab region between 1748 and 1767, establishing the Durrani Empire's suzerainty over the area through military campaigns that subjugated local rulers and imposed tribute systems.[37] Multan, as a key southern outpost, was governed by Afghan-appointed satraps and semi-autonomous nawabs from the Qureshi clan, who collected revenues and maintained defenses while remitting portions to Kabul; this arrangement persisted amid intermittent Afghan reinforcements, such as those under Timur Shah Durrani in the 1770s, which quelled local rebellions but strained resources through heavy taxation and requisitions.[38] By the early 19th century, as Durrani power waned due to internal Afghan strife, Nawab Muzaffar Khan (r. 1802–1818) consolidated control over Multan, fortifying the city and extracting tribute from surrounding territories while nominally acknowledging Afghan overlordship; however, his resistance to external demands invited aggression from the rising Sikh forces under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who viewed Multan as a strategic and economic prize.[39] Ranjit Singh dispatched multiple punitive expeditions to enforce submission, including raids in 1802, 1810 (which yielded 60 lakh rupees in tribute after a brief siege), and 1816, weakening Muzaffar Khan's position and disrupting trade routes.[40] The final Sikh conquest unfolded in 1818 amid the broader Afghan-Sikh Wars. In February, Ranjit Singh assembled a force of 20,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, and 56 artillery pieces under the command of Misr Dewan Chand, who advanced on Multan and initiated a siege in early March; the operation involved sustained bombardment from earthworks and mines, repelled Afghan reinforcements, and inflicted heavy casualties on defenders estimated at 6,000–10,000.[41] By June 2, breaches in the Multan Fort's walls allowed Sikh troops to storm the citadel, resulting in the death of Muzaffar Khan and the surrender of his son Kharak Bahadur; the city was looted for three days, yielding treasures including jewels and artillery, before order was restored.[42] Under Sikh dominion from 1818 onward, Multan was integrated into the Lahore Durbar's administrative framework as a jagir, initially governed by figures like Dewan Chand and later by efficient administrators such as Sawan Mal (governor 1821–1844), who enhanced irrigation via canals, boosted cotton and grain production, and amassed annual revenues exceeding 40 lakh rupees while maintaining a garrison to suppress unrest.[43] This period saw relative stability and economic recovery for Multan's Muslim-majority population, though non-Muslim rule imposed fiscal burdens like land taxes and occasional forced levies, fostering underlying tensions that simmered until the empire's fragmentation after Ranjit Singh's death in 1839.[44]British Colonial Administration and Economic Shifts
The British East India Company forces besieged Multan starting on 19 April 1848, following a rebellion led by Diwan Mulraj Chopra against the Sikh-appointed residency, which precipitated the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Mulraj surrendered on 22 January 1849 after British artillery breached the Multan Fort, enabling full occupation of the city. This victory facilitated the broader annexation of the Punjab region by the British on 29 March 1849 under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, incorporating Multan into the Punjab province as a key administrative district.[45] British colonial administration in Multan emphasized revenue collection, legal reforms, and infrastructural development to consolidate control and extract resources. Multan was designated a district headquarters, with the establishment of a deputy commissioner overseeing civil and criminal justice under the Punjab Land Revenue Act of 1871 and subsequent regulations.[45] The region was grouped into the Multan Division by the late 19th century, facilitating coordinated governance across southern Punjab districts including Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Muzaffargarh.[46] Administrative innovations included the introduction of canal irrigation management and the promotion of English-language education in select institutions, though primary focus remained on maintaining order among the diverse Muslim, Hindu, and Sikh populations.[47] Economic shifts under British rule pivoted Multan from feudal agrarian patterns toward commercialization, driven by extensive canal networks that irrigated over 3 million acres in Punjab by 1900, significantly boosting Multan's cultivable output.[45] Cotton cultivation expanded markedly, with Multan emerging as a primary exporter; by 1901, district exports included 1.2 million maunds of cotton alongside wheat and indigo, reflecting a transition to cash crops that increased land values from 5 to 15 rupees per acre in prime areas./3.%20Social%20and%20Economic%20change%20in%20Multan,%20FakharBilal.pdf) These changes spurred urbanization, with Multan's population growing from approximately 45,000 in 1849 to over 85,000 by 1901, accompanied by rising agricultural indebtedness and the proliferation of moneylenders, as traditional subsistence farming yielded to market-oriented production integrated into global trade networks.[46]Post-Partition Era and Modern Challenges
Following the partition of British India on August 14, 1947, Multan was incorporated into the Dominion of Pakistan as part of West Punjab, experiencing significant demographic upheaval amid the mass migrations that displaced approximately 17 million people across the subcontinent. In Multan specifically, the Hindu, Jain, and Sikh populations, which comprised about 42% of the city's residents prior to partition, largely fled to India due to communal violence and insecurity, while Muslim refugees from eastern Punjab and other Indian regions settled in the city, rapidly altering its religious composition to overwhelmingly Muslim. This influx strained local resources but bolstered the urban workforce for agriculture and trade, with Multan retaining its role as a regional commercial center focused on cotton, mangoes, and textiles. By the 1950s, the city had stabilized under Pakistan's administrative framework, with the establishment of Multan Division in 1954 to oversee governance and development in southern Punjab.[48] In the decades after independence, Multan underwent infrastructural modernization, including the expansion of irrigation networks under the Indus Basin system following the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty, which allocated eastern rivers to India and emphasized storage dams like Tarbela for Pakistan's share. The city's economy grew through state-led initiatives, such as the development of textile mills and the Sui gas pipeline extensions in the 1960s, enhancing energy access for industries; however, political instability, including the 1971 separation of East Pakistan and subsequent military coups, diverted national focus from regional projects. Population growth accelerated, rising from around 200,000 in 1951 to over 1 million by the 1981 census, driven by rural-urban migration and natural increase, which pressured housing and services. Sectarian tensions occasionally flared, as seen in the killing of eight Shi'ite Muslims in Multan amid broader political violence in March 1998.[49] Contemporary Multan faces intertwined economic, environmental, and urban challenges amid Pakistan's broader developmental constraints. Agriculture, which employs much of the workforce and centers on water-intensive crops like cotton and mangoes, suffers from acute water shortages exacerbated by over-reliance on the Chenab River canal system, inefficient irrigation, and upstream damming disputes; farmers report crop failures and reduced yields due to extreme heatwaves, with temperatures exceeding 45°C in summer contributing to soil degradation and migration to cities. Urban expansion has led to the conversion of mango orchards—integral to Multan's economic identity—into housing settlements, diminishing green cover and exacerbating air pollution from vehicular traffic and brick kilns. Economic vulnerabilities persist, including energy shortages and limited industrial diversification, while security issues, such as sporadic militant attacks on Sufi shrines (e.g., the 2010 bombing at the Shrine of Shah Rukn-e-Alam), underscore risks from regional extremism. Governance weaknesses, including corruption and inadequate municipal planning, hinder sustainable growth, though initiatives like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) aim to improve connectivity via road upgrades since 2015.[50][51]Geography
Topography and Urban Layout
Multan is situated on the flat alluvial plains of southern Punjab, Pakistan, at an average elevation of 122 meters above sea level.[52] The city's coordinates are approximately 30.2°N latitude and 71.43°E longitude, placing it within the Indus River basin's semi-arid landscape, characterized by level terrain formed by sediment deposits from rivers including the Chenab, which flows along its eastern bank.[53] This topography supports extensive irrigation via canals from the Sutlej and Chenab rivers but exposes the area to seasonal flooding risks, with elevation varying slightly between 91 and 146 meters across the urban zone.[54] The urban layout of Multan centers on a historic Walled City core spanning roughly 1.2 square kilometers, featuring a dense network of narrow lanes, mohallas (traditional neighborhoods), and remnants of ancient defensive fortifications dating back over a millennium.[55] This compact inner area, once enclosed by walls with up to 12 major gates serving as entry points, reflects layered settlement patterns from pre-Islamic and Islamic eras, with radial expansion outward along trade routes and riverbanks.[56] Modern development has transformed the city into a sprawling metropolis, with built-up areas expanding from 47.4 square kilometers in 2008 to 70.3 square kilometers in 2018, driven by linear growth corridors tied to highways, canals, and industrial zones while preserving the old city's organic morphology amid encroachments.[57] The Multan City Tehsil dominates urban density, encompassing key administrative and commercial hubs within the broader district of 3,720 square kilometers.[58]Climate Patterns and Environmental Risks
Multan experiences a hot desert climate classified under Köppen BWh, marked by scorching summers, mild winters, and minimal precipitation concentrated in the monsoon season. Average annual temperatures hover around 25°C, with June recording the highest monthly mean of approximately 35°C and January the lowest at about 13°C. Daily highs in summer routinely exceed 40°C, peaking at an all-time record of 51°C on June 8, 1983, at Multan International Airport. Winters feature daytime highs of 20-25°C and nighttime lows dipping to 5-10°C, rarely below freezing.[59][60] Precipitation averages 120-150 mm annually, with over 70% falling during the July-September monsoon, when monthly totals can reach 50-100 mm, though variability leads to erratic downpours. The pre-monsoon period (April-June) brings dust storms and occasional thunderstorms, while post-monsoon months see drier conditions with sporadic winter rains of 5-10 mm. Long-term data from 1981-2010 indicate rising minimum temperatures in Punjab's semi-arid zones, including Multan, exacerbating diurnal ranges and urban heat islands.[61][60]| Month | Avg High (°C) | Avg Low (°C) | Avg Rainfall (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 21 | 7 | 6 |
| Feb | 23 | 9 | 6 |
| Mar | 29 | 14 | 11 |
| Apr | 36 | 21 | 10 |
| May | 40 | 25 | 13 |
| Jun | 42 | 28 | 12 |
| Jul | 39 | 27 | 40 |
| Aug | 37 | 26 | 50 |
| Sep | 36 | 24 | 15 |
| Oct | 34 | 18 | 1 |
| Nov | 28 | 12 | 1 |
| Dec | 23 | 8 | 3 |