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Mycorrhizal network

A mycorrhizal network (MN), also known as a common mycorrhizal network (CMN), is an underground web of fungal hyphae formed by mycorrhizal fungi that interconnects the roots of at least two plants, facilitating the exchange of nutrients, water, carbon compounds, and chemical signals between them.^[1] These networks arise from mutualistic symbioses where fungi colonize plant roots, extending their reach into soil pores inaccessible to roots alone, in exchange for carbohydrates derived from plant photosynthesis.^[2] Mycorrhizal associations, from which these networks derive, connect over 90% of terrestrial plant species across diverse ecosystems, including forests, grasslands, and agricultural fields.^[3] The primary types of mycorrhizal fungi capable of forming extensive networks are arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, which penetrate root cortical cells to form arbuscules for nutrient exchange, and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, which sheathe root tips externally while extending hyphae into the soil.^[4] AM networks predominate in herbaceous plants and crops, linking up to dozens of individuals in a single patch, whereas ECM networks are more common in woody plants like trees, creating vast, persistent structures that can span hectares and connect hundreds of trees over decades.^[5] These networks not only enhance individual plant nutrition—particularly with phosphorus and nitrogen—but also mediate interplant resource sharing, where larger "donor" plants subsidize smaller "receiver" ones, promoting community resilience to stressors like drought or herbivory.^[6] Beyond nutrient cycling, mycorrhizal networks function as information highways, transmitting defense signals such as hormones or other chemical compounds in response to pathogens, allowing connected plants to prime their immune responses preemptively.^[7] This interconnectedness influences ecosystem dynamics, including biodiversity patterns, soil carbon sequestration, and forest succession, with ECM-dominated systems often fostering more closed-canopy forests and AM systems supporting diverse understories.^[8] However, network efficacy depends on fungal identity, soil conditions, and plant kinship, with evidence indicating preferential resource flow toward kin or conspecifics in some cases.^[9] Ongoing research highlights their role as ancient adaptations, dating back over 400 million years, underscoring their foundational impact on terrestrial life.^[10]

Fundamentals

Definition and Formation

A mycorrhizal network is defined as a common mycelium formed by the hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi that links the roots of at least two plants, enabling the transfer of resources such as carbon, nutrients, and water across connected individuals. These networks arise from symbiotic associations between plants and mycorrhizal fungi, including arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (which penetrate root cortical cells) and ectomycorrhizal fungi (which sheath root tips). Such structures occur in all major terrestrial ecosystems and connect plants of the same or different species, enhancing ecosystem connectivity belowground. The term "mycorrhiza," meaning "fungus root," was coined in 1885 by German botanist Albert Bernhard Frank, who first described the symbiotic relationship between fungi and tree roots based on observations of nutrient dependencies in forest trees. Frank's work challenged prevailing views of fungi as solely parasitic, proposing instead a mutualistic partnership essential for plant nutrition. Early 20th-century research built on this foundation; for instance, A. B. Hatch's 1936 experiments demonstrated that pine seedlings failed to grow normally in phosphorus-poor prairie soils unless inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi, highlighting the symbiosis's critical role in seedling establishment and nutrient acquisition.^[11] Mycorrhizal network formation initiates with fungal colonization of plant roots, typically via germinating spores or direct hyphal contact with root surfaces, leading to the development of intracellular or extracellular fungal structures within the root. From these colonized roots, fungal hyphae extend outward into the soil as extraradical mycelium, exploring larger volumes than root hairs alone and increasing nutrient absorption efficiency. Hyphae from the same or compatible fungal genotypes then anastomose—fusing at contact points—to form interconnected networks, allowing resource sharing among plants and fungal persistence in heterogeneous soils. In this mutualistic symbiosis, plants supply fungi with carbohydrates, primarily glucose and other photosynthates, which comprise up to 20% of the plant's fixed carbon and support fungal growth and metabolism. In exchange, fungi enhance plant access to immobile soil nutrients like phosphorus (via solubilization and transport) and nitrogen (through organic matter decomposition and uptake), improving plant growth, survival, and stress tolerance in nutrient-limited environments.

Types of Mycorrhizal Networks

Mycorrhizal networks are broadly classified into endomycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal types based on the location of fungal-plant interfaces, with endomycorrhizae involving intracellular penetration and ectomycorrhizae featuring extracellular associations. Endomycorrhizal networks, which include arbuscular, ericoid, and orchid types, are characterized by fungal hyphae entering root cortical cells to form specialized structures such as arbuscules, coils, or pelotons, facilitating nutrient exchange within plant tissues.^[12] In contrast, ectomycorrhizal networks form a fungal mantle around roots and a Hartig net between root cells, remaining largely extracellular.^[13] This distinction influences network compatibility and prevalence across ecosystems, with endomycorrhizae dominating in diverse herbaceous and tropical environments, while ectomycorrhizae prevail in temperate and boreal forests.^[14] Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) networks, the most prevalent type, associate with approximately 72% of vascular plant species and are formed exclusively by fungi in the phylum Glomeromycota. These networks are highly non-specific, allowing extraradical hyphae to connect roots of diverse plant species, often forming diffuse, interconnected webs in soils that link both conspecific and heterospecific plants.^[15] AM networks are widespread in grasslands, agricultural fields, and tropical soils, where they support broad plant compatibility due to the ancient and conserved nature of the symbiosis.^[16] Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) networks, formed primarily by Basidiomycota and Ascomycota fungi, occur in about 2% of plant species but cover roughly 25% of global vegetation through associations with trees such as pines (Pinus spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.), and birches (Betula spp.).^[17] These networks are more host-specific, typically linking plants within the same genus or family, and create extensive subterranean structures in woodland ecosystems, including boreal and temperate forests, where they form dense hyphal mats.^[15] ECM associations are less common in tropical regions but dominate in nutrient-poor forest soils.^[14] Ericoid mycorrhizal networks are specialized for ericaceous plants (e.g., heaths, blueberries in the family Ericaceae), comprising about 1.5% of vascular plants and formed by fungi such as those in Helotiales and Chaetothyriales. These networks exhibit high host specificity, with hyphal coils inside root cells, limiting interplant connections primarily to within the Ericaceae family and resulting in more isolated rather than expansive networks, often in acidic, nutrient-impoverished soils like heathlands.^[18] Similarly, orchid mycorrhizal networks, unique to the Orchidaceae family (about 10% of vascular plants), involve pelotons formed by fungi such as Tulasnellaceae and Ceratobasidiaceae within root cells. Their extreme specificity restricts networking to orchid individuals or closely related species, with limited diffuse connections compared to AM or ECM types, and they are prevalent in diverse habitats from tropics to tundras.^[19] The distribution and compatibility of mycorrhizal network types are influenced by soil properties, plant phylogeny, and climate. For instance, AM networks thrive in warm, tropical soils with moderate fertility, while ECM networks favor cooler, nutrient-poor forest soils; ericoid types are adapted to acidic, organic-rich environments.^[20] Plant phylogenetic conservatism strongly determines association type, with shifts rare outside biodiversity hotspots, and climate gradients—such as latitude—affect prevalence, with AM dominant in low latitudes and ECM increasing toward poles.^[14]

Structure and Components

Hyphal Architecture

The hyphal architecture of mycorrhizal networks consists primarily of two main components: runner hyphae, which are thicker (10–15 μm in diameter) and facilitate rapid extension through soil, and finer absorptive hyphae, which branch extensively to maximize nutrient and water uptake surfaces.^[21] These structures interconnect via anastomoses, where hyphae from the same or compatible fungal individuals fuse, forming a cohesive web that enhances network stability and resource distribution potential.^[22] In arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, the hyphae are typically aseptate and coenocytic, allowing seamless cytoplasmic continuity across the network.^[23] Mycorrhizal networks exhibit impressive scales, often spanning from a few meters around individual plants to hundreds of hectares in forest ecosystems, as seen in ectomycorrhizal (ECM) associations in temperate woodlands.^[24] Hyphal density can reach up to several hundred kilometers of length per cubic meter of soil in densely colonized forest understories, enabling extensive exploration of the soil matrix.^[25] For instance, in ECM-dominated pine forests, networks connect multiple tree species over large areas, contributing to understory plant support.^[26] Topological variations distinguish network architectures between AM and ECM types; AM hyphae form diffuse, mesh-like structures that permeate soil micropores, while ECM hyphae often aggregate into cord-like rhizomorphs for directed exploration.^[27] Soil pore structure plays a critical role in shaping this architecture, as hyphae preferentially grow along pore channels, branch at obstacles, and even modify pore spaces through spore production or secretion.^[28] These adaptations allow networks to navigate heterogeneous soil environments efficiently. The formation of anastomoses and overall hyphal growth are governed by fungal genes regulating fusion compatibility, such as those involved in vegetative hyphal anastomosis in ECM species, alongside environmental factors like soil moisture that influence extension rates and branching patterns.^[29] Higher moisture levels promote hyphal elongation and network expansion, while drought restricts growth, altering architecture in water-limited forest understories.^[30] Visualization of hyphal architecture has evolved from early light microscopy observations in the 1880s, when Albert Bernhard Frank first described mycorrhizal associations, to contemporary techniques like confocal laser scanning microscopy and X-ray computed tomography that reveal intricate 3D network structures in situ.^[31] These modern methods highlight the dynamic, interconnected webs without disrupting soil integrity.^[32]

Plant-Fungus Interfaces

In arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) associations, the primary interface for nutrient exchange consists of arbuscules, which are highly branched fungal structures that develop intracellularly within the cortical cells of plant roots. These arbuscules maximize the contact area between the fungus and the host plant, facilitating bidirectional transfer of nutrients such as phosphorus and carbon. The lifespan of arbuscules is typically short, ranging from 5 to 10 days, after which they senesce and collapse, allowing for the formation of new structures to maintain symbiosis.^[33]^[34]^[35] In ectomycorrhizal (ECM) associations, the interface is extracellular, featuring the Hartig net, a network of fungal hyphae that penetrates between the epidermal and cortical root cells without invading the cells themselves. This net forms an intricate labyrinth that surrounds individual root cells, enabling efficient exchange across the apoplastic space. Complementing the Hartig net is the mantle, a dense sheath of fungal hyphae that envelops the root surface, providing structural protection and an additional exchange layer.^[36]^[37]^[38] A critical component of these interfaces is the plant-derived periarbuscular membrane in AM symbioses, which envelops the arbuscules and regulates selective transport of ions and metabolites between the symbiotic partners. This membrane, continuous with the plant plasma membrane, undergoes extensive remodeling to accommodate the fungal branches and expresses specific transporters for nutrient uptake. Concurrently, the fungal cell wall at the interface exhibits modifications, such as reduced chitin content and altered glycoprotein composition, to enhance permeability and compatibility with the host.^[39]^[40]^[41] The nutrient exchange sites within these interfaces provide a dramatically increased surface area for absorption, estimated to be up to 100 times greater than that of root hairs alone, due to the fine, extensive hyphal branching. Establishment of these interfaces begins with pre-symbiotic signaling, where plant roots exude molecules like strigolactones that stimulate fungal hyphal branching and metabolic activation toward the host.^[22]^[42]^[43] Specificity in forming these interfaces is mediated by molecular recognition cues, including plant-secreted flavonoids that elicit genus- or species-specific fungal responses, such as enhanced hyphal growth in compatible pairs. Lectins on plant and fungal surfaces further contribute to partner discrimination by binding carbohydrate motifs, promoting adhesion in symbiotic matches while triggering rejection pathways, like programmed cell death, in incompatible interactions.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Functions and Mechanisms

Resource Transfer Processes

In mycorrhizal networks, nutrient transfer primarily involves the movement of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) from fungi to plants through specialized transporters at the symbiotic interface. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi acquire inorganic phosphate from the soil and deliver it to host plants via high-affinity transporters of the PHT1 family, such as SbPT9 and SbPT11 in sorghum, which are upregulated in colonized roots to facilitate uptake across the periarbuscular membrane.^[47] Similarly, nitrogen transfer occurs via mycorrhiza-specific ammonium transporters like ZmAMT3;1 in maize, which mediate the release of ammonium from fungal hyphae into plant cells, enhancing plant nitrogen acquisition under low-soil conditions.^[48] These processes are bidirectional for carbon, where plants supply photosynthates—primarily sucrose—to fungi through plant-derived sucrose transporters (SUTs) and SWEET family proteins that export sugars into the apoplastic space between partners.^[49] In return, fungi receive up to 20% of the host plant's recently fixed carbon, supporting hyphal growth and soil exploration.^[50] Water transport through mycorrhizal networks relies on hyphal structures as efficient conduits, particularly during drought, where extraradical hyphae extend beyond root depletion zones to access soil moisture. These hyphae enable rapid water flow via apoplastic pathways and alleviating water stress in host plants.^[51] AM symbiosis maintains or enhances root hydraulic conductivity under drought by integrating fungal hyphae into the plant's water uptake system, as demonstrated in various herbaceous species.^[52] The directionality of resource transfers in mycorrhizal networks is governed by source-sink dynamics, with nutrients and water moving preferentially from resource-rich donors to deficient recipients based on plant sink strength—such as shading or nutrient limitation that increases demand.^[53] This gradient-driven flow facilitates interplant resource sharing, where 14C-labeling experiments have quantified carbon transfers of 5-10% from donor to recipient plants connected via common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) in forest understories.^[54] Recent field studies in 2025 on the grass Andropogon gerardii show that intact CMNs improve seedling survival under drought threefold through enhanced water and nutrient redistribution, underscoring the network's role in stress resilience.^[55]

Interplant Communication

Mycorrhizal networks enable interplant communication by facilitating the transfer of chemical and electrical signals between connected plants, allowing for coordinated responses that enhance community-level interactions. These signals travel through the hyphal structures of common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs), which act as conduits linking roots of multiple plants, often spanning distances of several centimeters to meters. This communication supports processes such as resource sharing and environmental adaptation, distinct from direct root-to-root interactions. Chemical signaling in mycorrhizal networks primarily involves the transport of hormones and volatile organic compounds via hyphae. For instance, jasmonic acid, a key plant hormone, can be translocated from one plant to another through CMNs, influencing physiological coordination between connected individuals. Volatile organics, such as strigolactones and other secondary metabolites, also move along hyphal pathways, potentially modulating growth and development in recipient plants. The speed of these chemical signal transfers is relatively slow, typically on the order of centimeters per hour, enabling gradual integration of information across the network.^[7]^[56] A prominent aspect of interplant communication is kin recognition, where plants preferentially allocate resources to genetically related individuals via CMNs. In studies with Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings connected by ectomycorrhizal fungi, full-sibling pairs exhibited up to threefold greater transfer of carbon-13-labeled photosynthates to recipients compared to non-sibling pairs, indicating kin-biased signaling mediated by root exudates. This preferential transfer, representing three- to fourfold higher allocation rates in some families, promotes cooperative growth among relatives without direct genetic cues. Similar patterns occur in other pairings, such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and Douglas-fir analogs in mixed ecto- and arbuscular mycorrhizal systems, where hyphal connections enhance signal fidelity for kinship detection.^[57]^[58] These signals elicit behavioral responses in recipient plants, including changes in root architecture and gene expression. For example, exposure to kin-derived signals via CMNs can stimulate increased root branching and upregulation of genes associated with nutrient uptake, such as those in the phosphate transporter family, leading to optimized foraging in connected tomato plants. In Douglas-fir pairings, recipients show altered mycorrhizal colonization patterns and enhanced photosynthate production, reflecting a feedback loop that strengthens network connectivity. Such responses underscore the role of CMNs in facilitating adaptive coordination, akin to resource transfer pathways but focused on informational exchange.^[59]^[5] Electrical signaling complements chemical pathways, with action potential-like impulses propagating through hyphae to convey rapid information between plants. These potentials, generated at hyphal tips in response to stimuli, travel at speeds of millimeters per second, mimicking neural transmission and enabling near-real-time coordination. In mycorrhizal contexts, such signals have been detected in networks connecting plant roots, potentially integrating with chemical cues for holistic interplant dialogue.^[60]^[61]^[62] Recent advances from 2023 to 2025 have illuminated dynamic aspects of this communication using innovative techniques. Robotic systems interfaced with mycelial electrophysiology have tracked signal propagation in real-time, revealing oscillatory patterns that suggest adaptive "negotiations" in resource and signal exchange within CMNs. A seminal 2025 study demonstrated that mycorrhizal fungi employ travelling-wave strategies—pulses of hyphal growth that regulate nutrient and signal flows—forming self-organizing supply chains that optimize interplant trade over network scales. These findings, leveraging high-resolution imaging and electrophysiological monitoring, highlight CMNs as emergent systems for cooperative decision-making among plants.^[63]^[10]^[64]

Defense and Stress Responses

Mycorrhizal networks play a crucial role in enhancing plant defenses against pathogens by facilitating the transfer of signaling molecules between connected plants. In cases of pathogen infection, donor plants release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that travel through the common mycorrhizal network (CMN) to receiver plants, priming them for systemic resistance. This process, known as mycorrhiza-induced systemic resistance (MIR), activates defense gene expression in uninfected receivers, reducing susceptibility to subsequent attacks. For instance, a study demonstrated that CMNs enable the transport of pathogen-induced VOCs, leading to heightened jasmonic acid and salicylic acid pathways in receivers, thereby boosting overall disease resistance across the network.^[65] Beyond direct pathogen protection, mycorrhizal networks mediate allelopathic interactions by extending the reach of inhibitory chemical signals to competing plants. Allelochemicals, such as phenolic compounds produced by one plant, can diffuse through fungal hyphae to suppress the growth of non-kin or invasive competitors connected via the CMN. This hypha-mediated transport amplifies the bioactive zone of these compounds, potentially reducing seedling establishment or biomass accumulation in rivals by up to 50% in controlled experiments. Such effects highlight the network's role in modulating competitive dynamics, where kin recognition may favor cooperative signaling while disadvantaging unrelated individuals.^[66]^[67] In response to abiotic stresses like drought, mycorrhizal networks alleviate impacts through interplant signaling that improves water retention and survival rates. Connected plants exchange hydraulic signals or stress-related metabolites via the CMN, enabling receivers to adjust stomatal conductance and osmotic balance preemptively. A recent investigation with Andropogon gerardii seedlings showed that intact CMNs increased survival under drought threefold compared to severed connections, facilitating facilitative interactions that enhance establishment in water-limited environments. This signaling often involves shifts in carbon allocation, where receiver plants redirect 10-15% of their photosynthate to bolster root defenses and mycorrhizal maintenance, incurring a metabolic cost but yielding net protective benefits.^[68] However, the defensive advantages of mycorrhizal networks are not universally beneficial and can vary in diverse plant communities. In mixed-species assemblages, competition for fungal resources may dilute signaling efficiency, leading to no net fitness gain or even reduced growth for some participants. Studies indicate that while CMNs confer protection in simple kin-based networks, complex biodiversity can introduce exploitative dynamics, where dominant plants drain resources without reciprocal defense signals, questioning the overall efficacy in heterogeneous ecosystems.^[69]^[70]

Research Approaches

Experimental Methods

Mesh bag assays utilize nylon barriers with specific pore sizes to isolate hyphal pathways and measure extraradical mycelial growth in mycorrhizal networks. These assays typically involve burying mesh bags filled with sterile substrate in soil, allowing fungal hyphae to ingress while excluding roots, thereby quantifying hyphal proliferation and nutrient uptake independent of direct root contact. For instance, experiments with varying pore sizes (e.g., 20-50 μm for hyphae-permeable bags) have demonstrated how ectomycorrhizal networks facilitate interplant carbon transfer in forest understories. Split-root designs divide the root system of a single plant into separate compartments, often connected through a common fungal inoculum in shared soil, to test resource transfer and signaling across mycorrhizal links. In these setups, one root half is exposed to a treatment (e.g., nutrient deficiency or stress), while the other serves as a control, enabling observation of systemic responses via the fungal network. Seminal studies using this method with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi have shown asymmetric carbon allocation from donor to receiver plants under certain conditions, such as herbivory stress, highlighting network-mediated resource sharing.^[71] However, these designs can introduce artifacts from compartmentalization. Genetic knockouts in fungal mutants, particularly those lacking hyphal fusion genes, provide insights into network connectivity by disrupting mycelial integration. In model filamentous fungi such as Neurospora crassa, mutants like Δso (lacking fusion) or ΔPrm1 (reduced fusion efficiency) exhibit impaired resource translocation across the network. These approaches, adaptable to ectomycorrhizal species with genetic tools, reveal the role of fusion in maintaining functional networks for nutrient sharing.^[72] Field manipulations, including trenching and fungicide applications, sever mycorrhizal networks to assess their impacts on plant performance in natural ecosystems. Trenching involves excavating narrow barriers around plant roots to block hyphal connections without disturbing soil structure, while targeted fungicide treatments (e.g., with phosphonate) selectively inhibit mycorrhizal growth. Such experiments in grasslands and forests have shown that network disruption reduces beneficiary plant biomass, underscoring the networks' role in stress tolerance, though effects can vary with site conditions. Recent innovations include robotic sensors for in-situ tracking of resource flows within mycorrhizal networks, as reported in 2025 studies. These devices, equipped with high-throughput imaging and microsensors, monitor over 500,000 fungal nodes and map nutrient trajectories in real-time.^[73] Global estimates indicate mycorrhizal networks cycle billions of tons of carbon annually. Isotopic labeling, such as with 13C or 15N, can be integrated briefly to trace flows in these setups.^[74]

Analytical Tools and Techniques

Isotopic labeling techniques employ stable and radioactive isotopes such as ^{13}C, ^{15}N, and ^{32}P to trace the movement of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus within mycorrhizal networks. These tracers are typically applied to a donor plant in pulse-chase experiments, where the isotope is introduced via foliar or root uptake, followed by monitoring its translocation to receiver plants connected through the fungal mycelium. Studies have demonstrated that carbon transfer via ^{13}C labeling can occur rapidly, with detectable amounts reaching receiver plants within 4 to 24 hours, highlighting the dynamic nature of resource exchange in common mycorrhizal networks. Molecular markers, including quantitative PCR (qPCR) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), enable precise quantification of fungal biomass and assessment of gene expression at plant-fungus interfaces. qPCR targets specific fungal genes, such as those encoding ribosomal DNA, to estimate extraradical hyphal biomass in soil, providing a non-destructive alternative to traditional microscopy-based counts. RNA-seq, applied to symbiotic interfaces, reveals upregulated genes involved in nutrient transport and signaling, such as those for phosphate transporters in arbuscular mycorrhizal associations. These methods have shown correlations between fungal biomass levels and network connectivity.^[75]^[76] Imaging techniques, particularly confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) with fluorescent dyes, allow visualization of hyphal structures and nutrient flows in real time. CLSM uses dyes like fluorescein or GFP-labeled fungi to highlight live hyphae and arbuscules within roots, enabling observation of dynamic processes such as hyphal branching and interface development. Complementary methods like X-ray microtomography provide non-invasive 3D reconstructions of entire network architectures, revealing hyphal connectivity and soil pore interactions at micrometer resolution. These approaches have mapped network topologies spanning centimeters to meters, with CLSM capturing hyphal diameters as fine as 2-5 μm.^[77]^[78]^[79] Stable isotope probing (SIP) integrates isotopic labeling with molecular analysis to link metabolic activity to specific fungal taxa within networks. By incorporating heavy isotopes into active mycelia, SIP followed by density gradient centrifugation and sequencing identifies fungi responsible for resource transfers, such as ectomycorrhizal species assimilating ^{13}C from host photosynthates. This technique has quantified interplant transfer rates, for example, around 4% of donor photosynthesis in Arctic tundra systems, distinguishing functional from dormant hyphae.^[80]^[81]^[82] Recent advancements from 2024-2025 incorporate AI-enhanced imaging and metabolomics for analyzing dynamic flows and signaling in mycorrhizal networks. AI algorithms applied to time-lapse confocal and robotic imaging systems automate the tracking of hyphal growth and nutrient pulses, processing terabytes of data to model flow rates in real time, as demonstrated in setups mapping half a million network nodes. Metabolomics, using mass spectrometry to profile small molecules, identifies signaling compounds like strigolactones and lipochitooligosaccharides at interfaces, revealing shifts in secondary metabolites that coordinate symbiosis establishment.^[74]^[73]^[83]

Challenges and Limitations

Methodological Constraints

One major methodological constraint in mycorrhizal network research is the difficulty in isolating hyphal pathways from alternative resource transfer routes, such as direct root connections or diffusion through the soil matrix. This confound arises because material transfers via roots or soil can mimic network-mediated effects, complicating attribution of observed nutrient or carbon fluxes to fungal hyphae specifically.^[84] Field studies exacerbate this issue through contamination risks, including interference from soil microbiota, non-mycorrhizal fungi, or indirect leakage of labeled tracers, which undermine efforts to verify functional hyphal continuity.^[85] For instance, while a majority of experiments (69%) use sterilized substrates to exclude non-mycorrhizal fungi, unsterilized field conditions often introduce extraneous microbial influences.^[86] Scale mismatches between laboratory setups and natural environments further limit the reliability of findings. Most studies rely on small-scale mesocosms (typically centimeters in diameter), which fail to capture the meter-scale complexity of field networks, leading to extrapolation errors when inferring ecosystem-level dynamics.^[86] Lab-based designs, comprising over 88% of published work, prioritize controlled conditions but overlook spatial heterogeneity in soil structure and plant density that characterizes real-world networks.^[86] Consequently, processes like hyphal foraging or interplant connectivity observed in vitro may not scale accurately to larger, heterogeneous field contexts. Temporal dynamics pose additional challenges, as many experiments focus on short-term effects (weeks to months) while neglecting long-term or seasonal variations in network function. Mycorrhizal associations exhibit fluctuating activity influenced by environmental cycles, such as nutrient availability or host phenology, yet studies often ignore these shifts, potentially overestimating stable resource transfers.^[87] This bias arises from logistical constraints in monitoring dynamic processes over extended periods, resulting in incomplete representations of how networks respond to temporal environmental gradients.^[88] Ethical and logistical limits in natural ecosystems compound these issues, particularly the challenge of non-destructive sampling to preserve intact networks. Destructive harvesting, common in root and hyphal assessments, disrupts field structures and introduces sampling biases, while non-invasive methods like imaging remain underdeveloped for subsurface monitoring.^[89] Research is disproportionately focused on temperate model species and ecosystems, with limited representation of diverse hosts beyond a few agronomic plants, skewing generalizations.^[90] Recent 2025 reviews underscore the understudy of tropical mycorrhizal networks, attributing this to access difficulties in remote, biodiverse regions and the predominance of temperate-focused methodologies.^[90] These critiques highlight how logistical barriers, including challenging terrain and permitting issues, result in geographical biases that undervalue tropical contributions to global network ecology.

Knowledge Gaps and Controversies

One significant debate in mycorrhizal network research concerns the universality of interplant nutrient transfer, with estimates of transfer amounts varying widely (e.g., from less than 5% to over 100% in some lab settings) depending on environmental conditions, fungal species, and plant types.^[91] This variability underscores the challenge in generalizing transfer rates across ecosystems, as many studies rely on short-term labeling experiments that may overestimate direct sharing.^[92] The "mother tree" hypothesis, which posits that mature trees preferentially support offspring or stressed seedlings via these networks, remains highly contested, with critics arguing that evidence for such targeted altruism is anecdotal and lacks robust empirical support in diverse forest settings.^[93] Recent analyses suggest that observed transfers often reflect opportunistic fungal foraging rather than kin-selected cooperation, prompting calls for longitudinal field studies to resolve these discrepancies.^[94] Distinguishing between net and gross nutrient flows represents another key controversy, as much of the documented transfer in mycorrhizal networks may constitute fungal-mediated cycling rather than direct plant-to-plant allocation.^[95] Gross flow measurements, which capture total movement including rapid fungal reabsorption, can inflate perceptions of interplant support, while net flows—accounting for reciprocal exchanges and fungal retention—are often minimal or bidirectional.^[96] This distinction implies that networks primarily facilitate fungal nutrient scavenging across soil patches, with plants benefiting indirectly through enhanced access rather than explicit sharing, though quantifying net dynamics remains technically challenging.^[97] The adaptive significance of signaling through mycorrhizal networks is also unresolved, with ongoing debate over whether chemical cues represent intentional communication or mere byproducts of metabolic processes.^[98] Studies from 2023 to 2025 have questioned the evidence for allelopathy via networks, finding that while allelochemicals can travel through common mycorrhizae, their role in suppressing competitors is inconsistent and often overshadowed by nutrient competition.^[84] For instance, meta-analyses indicate that network-mediated allelopathy enhances bioactive zones but rarely leads to measurable fitness costs in receivers, suggesting it may function more as a passive diffusion than an evolved strategy.^[9] Interactions between mycorrhizal networks and climate stressors reveal substantial knowledge gaps, particularly regarding drought and fire impacts, where pre-2025 views of inherent resilience have proven overly optimistic.^[99] Emerging research highlights that prolonged droughts disrupt network connectivity by reducing hyphal vitality, leading to uneven resource distribution and heightened plant vulnerability, yet the thresholds for network collapse remain poorly defined across biomes.^[100] Similarly, post-fire recovery of networks is hampered by altered soil chemistry, with severe burns favoring opportunistic fungi over beneficial ectomycorrhizae, but long-term studies on fire-drought synergies are scarce, limiting predictive models for ecosystem restoration.^[101] Recent 2025 findings on disease resistance underscore evolving insights, as common mycorrhizal networks have been shown to prime uninfected plants against pathogens by altering rhizosphere microbiomes and inducing systemic defenses, yet the mechanisms—such as signal molecule transfer—require further validation in natural settings.^[102] Innovations in robotics for mapping network flows, including automated imaging systems that track real-time nutrient traffic, have revealed efficient "travelling-wave" dynamics in symbiotic exchanges, but these tools are still nascent and untested in field-scale applications.^[10] Global research also underemphasizes biodiversity hotspots, where over 90% of high-richness areas for mycorrhizal fungi fall outside protected zones, exposing critical carbon-storing networks to habitat loss and climate threats without targeted conservation strategies.^[103]

Theoretical Frameworks

Source-Sink Model

The source-sink model serves as a foundational theoretical framework for understanding resource allocation in mycorrhizal networks, positing that nutrients and carbon move directionally from "source" plants—those with surplus resources due to high production or uptake—to "sink" plants with deficits arising from high demand or low supply. This unidirectional flow is primarily driven by diffusion along concentration gradients established between connected plants via fungal hyphae, supplemented by active transport mechanisms within the mycelium. For instance, mature, photosynthetically active trees often act as carbon sources, exporting fixed carbon derived from photosynthesis, while shaded seedlings function as carbon sinks, receiving transfers to support growth under light-limited conditions. Similarly, phosphorus-deficient young plants can serve as sinks drawing from phosphorus-rich sources, facilitating nutrient redistribution across the network.^[54]^[85] Mathematically, the model approximates hyphal resource flow using principles of diffusion, akin to Fick's first law, where flux J (rate of resource movement per unit area) is given by J = -D \frac{dC}{dx}, with D as the diffusion coefficient in the hyphal matrix and \frac{dC}{dx} as the concentration gradient along the hypha. This formulation captures passive movement from high- to low-concentration regions, though effective D values in fungal hyphae (e.g., around $0.31 \times 10^{-5} cm² s⁻¹ for vacuolar compartments) limit long-distance transport to scales of millimeters to centimeters without additional convective flows. Active fungal processes, such as cytoplasmic streaming, enhance this baseline diffusion to enable network-scale transfers.^[104] Empirical evidence strongly supports the model, with studies demonstrating that it accounts for directional transfers in a majority of experimental setups involving donor-receiver pairings; for example, shading receiver seedlings increases net carbon influx by up to 6% of donor-fixed carbon in ectomycorrhizal systems. The framework predicts and aligns with observations of elevated flows to stressed or kin-related plants, as kin recognition cues amplify transfers between siblings under herbivory pressure, enhancing survival without passive diffusion alone. Observed interplant transfers of carbon and nutrients, such as those traced via stable isotopes, further validate these dynamics in natural forest settings.^[54]^[84] Despite its explanatory power, the source-sink model has limitations, particularly its assumption of predominantly passive, gradient-driven movement, which overlooks active fungal regulation of flows through hyphal remodeling or selective allocation based on host compatibility. Fungi may impose their own source-sink dynamics, prioritizing partners that provide more carbon, thereby modulating plant-to-plant transfers independently of plant gradients. Additionally, the model struggles to predict bidirectional or reciprocal exchanges in balanced networks.^[85]^[105] In ecological applications, the source-sink model elucidates how mycorrhizal networks aid seedling establishment in dense forests by channeling carbon from canopy dominants to understory saplings, boosting recruitment rates and forest regeneration under competitive light conditions. This mechanism underscores the model's role in maintaining ecosystem productivity, particularly in nutrient-poor soils where phosphorus sinks benefit from redistributed supplies.^[54]

Network Connectivity Models

Mycorrhizal networks (MNs) are analyzed through graph theory, representing plants as nodes and fungal hyphae as edges to quantify connectivity and topology. This approach reveals how structural arrangements influence resource distribution and resilience, with seminal work applying network metrics to predict interaction patterns in soil communities.^[106]^[107] In ectomycorrhizal (ECM) forests, MNs often display small-world properties, characterized by high clustering coefficients and short average path lengths between nodes, facilitating efficient information and nutrient transfer. For instance, Rhizopogon spp. genets linking Douglas-fir trees form scale-free architectures where large trees serve as hubs with up to 47 connections, ensuring maximum path lengths of just three links and enhancing network robustness.^[108] Stochastic models of MNs contrast random graphs, which assume uniform connections, with scale-free networks featuring hubs that confer greater tolerance to random disconnections. Maximum entropy approaches, incorporating degree sequences, demonstrate that plant-arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) associations deviate from randomness toward scale-free structures, predicting higher stability under perturbations like habitat fragmentation. Agent-based simulations illustrate how network topology affects biodiversity; for example, models of mycorrhizal symbioses show that removing hub fungi leads to substantial declines in plant species diversity, underscoring the role of connectivity in maintaining community composition.^[109]^[110] Fungal control over connectivity is modeled through anastomosis rates, where hyphal fusions regulate network density and loop formation to optimize transport. Recent 2025 models depict AM fungal trade networks as market-like systems, with self-regulating traveling waves of growth at ~280 µm/h balancing exploration and nutrient exchange, while anastomosis occurs at ~2% per hour to maintain efficient topologies.^[10]^[111] Comparisons highlight topological differences: AM networks approximate random graphs with bipartite plant-fungus links and lower modularity, whereas ECM networks exhibit modular structures driven by persistent sheaths and genets, promoting localized clusters in forest ecosystems.^[107]^[85]

Ecological and Evolutionary Implications

Role in Ecosystem Dynamics

Mycorrhizal networks play a pivotal role in structuring plant communities by facilitating the recruitment of seedlings, particularly in resource-limited environments. These networks enable the transfer of nutrients and water from established plants to young seedlings via fungal hyphae, enhancing survival rates under stressful conditions such as drought. For instance, intact common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) have been shown to improve seedling survival in dry soils by mediating positive plant interactions and retaining soil moisture more effectively than non-mycorrhizal systems. In harsh, nutrient-poor soils, networks reduce interplant competition by providing equitable access to limiting resources like phosphorus and nitrogen, allowing subordinate species to persist alongside dominants and promoting overall community stability.^[68]^[5]^[112] These networks also influence plant diversity by acting as hubs that foster species coexistence, particularly in forests where fungal connectivity links diverse plant assemblages. Mycorrhizal associations drive community dynamics by altering competitive hierarchies, with hub plants connected to multiple fungal partners supporting higher species richness through resource sharing and reduced exclusion of rare taxa. Studies indicate that mycorrhizal symbiosis can enhance plant diversity, leading to more resilient communities compared to non-mycorrhizal systems, as seen in global forest patterns where fungal guilds correlate with elevated diversity levels. This hub-mediated connectivity helps maintain biodiversity hotspots, where mycorrhizal richness exceeds 45 species per 100 m² in tropical and boreal regions.^[69]^[113]^[103] In carbon cycling, mycorrhizal networks serve as major conduits for carbon allocation belowground, storing significant amounts in fungal biomass and influencing soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics. Fungal hyphae and associated necromass contribute to SOC pools, with networks allocating approximately 13.12 Gt CO₂e annually (equivalent to about 3.6 Gt C) through plant-fungi exchanges that promote stable carbon forms like mineral-associated organic matter. Ectomycorrhizal-dominated systems enhance particulate organic matter in topsoils, slowing decomposition rates, while arbuscular mycorrhizal networks boost deeper soil carbon storage via increased root biomass and plant diversity. Fungal dominance in these networks can suppress CO₂ fluxes by up to 17% in early-successional stages by altering microbial decomposition processes.^[114]^[113]^[115] Recent insights from 2025 highlight the synergy between mycorrhizal networks and carbon sequestration in multifunctional landscapes, where inoculating native fungi during restoration amplifies both biodiversity and carbon storage. In mixed arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal communities, these networks increase ecosystem productivity and support multifunctionality, mitigating degradation effects while sequestering carbon more efficiently than single-guild systems. Biodiversity hotspots driven by high mycorrhizal richness—often poorly protected, with only 9.5% in conserved areas—underscore their role in linking underground fungal diversity to aboveground plant communities and global biogeochemical cycles.^[99]^[103] Mycorrhizal networks interact extensively with soil microbial communities, influencing broader ecosystem processes like succession following disturbances such as wildfires. These interactions involve resource exchanges and feedbacks with bacteria and other microbes, where fungal hyphae shape microbial composition and enhance nutrient cycling, thereby accelerating plant recolonization in disturbed sites. Post-disturbance, networks promote succession by facilitating microbial shifts toward mycorrhizal dominance, which supports tree establishment and alters community assembly over decades.^[5]^[116]^[117]

Evolutionary Origins and Adaptations

Mycorrhizal networks originated approximately 450 million years ago (Mya), coinciding with the colonization of land by early plants during the Ordovician-Silurian transition.^[118] This symbiosis, particularly the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) type, is considered a key adaptation that facilitated terrestrialization by enabling plants to access nutrients in nutrient-scarce, rocky substrates.^[119] Fossil evidence from the Early Devonian Rhynie Chert in Scotland, dating to around 407 Mya, reveals hyphae and arbuscules within plant tissues, providing direct proof of ancient mycorrhizal associations in vascular plants like Aglaophyton major.^[120] These structures mirror those in modern AM symbioses, indicating that the core morphological features of the network have been conserved over hundreds of millions of years.^[121] The evolutionary trajectory of mycorrhizal symbioses likely involved the co-option of ancient genetic pathways, transitioning from potentially parasitic fungal interactions to mutualistic ones, with parallels to the legume-rhizobia nitrogen-fixing symbiosis.^[122] Symbiosis-related genes, such as those encoding Nod-factor perception (e.g., NFP/LYR3), were repurposed from ancestral AM signaling mechanisms to support more specialized mutualisms, enhancing nutrient exchange efficiency.^[123] This co-option allowed fungi to shift from opportunistic endophytes toward stable partners, promoting plant growth in harsh environments. Modern analogs in ancient plant lineages, such as liverworts and hornworts, retain these primitive symbiotic traits, underscoring the deep evolutionary roots of the network.^[124] Adaptations in mycorrhizal networks have enabled enhanced colonization and resource sharing, particularly in nutrient-poor soils where plants allocate more carbon to fungi to access phosphorus and nitrogen.^[125] Kin selection plays a role in this, as plants preferentially direct resources through networks to genetically related individuals, reducing exploitation by non-kin and stabilizing the mutualism under resource limitation.^[126] Co-evolution between plants and fungi has driven specificity in partner choice, with mechanisms like host sanctions—where plants withhold carbon from cheating fungi—enforcing cooperation and preventing parasitism.^[127] Recent biogeographical studies as of 2025 reveal latitudinal gradients in mycorrhizal network complexity, with higher diversity and connectivity in tropical regions compared to temperate zones, influenced by climate and soil factors.^[128] These patterns suggest adaptive radiations that have shaped network resilience across global ecosystems, with hotspots of fungal richness often misaligned with plant diversity peaks.^[103]

Conservation and Future Prospects

Mycorrhizal networks are increasingly threatened by human activities and environmental shifts that disrupt their delicate hyphal structures. Conventional soil tillage physically severs extraradical hyphae, breaking inter-plant connections and diminishing fungal biomass and spore viability, significantly reducing arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization under intensive plowing regimes.^[129]^[130] Climate change exacerbates these issues through extreme temperatures, droughts, and altered precipitation, which impair hyphal growth and nutrient exchange, potentially releasing stored carbon and undermining ecosystem resilience.^[131] Fungicide applications, particularly seed treatments like sulfentrazone, can reduce mycorrhizal colonization and associated biomass by approximately 50%, further compromising plant-fungal symbioses in agricultural settings.^[132] A 2025 study published in Nature has identified global hotspots of mycorrhizal fungal richness, revealing concentrations in tropical rainforests, temperate grasslands, and boreal forests where diversity supports critical ecosystem functions like carbon sequestration.^[103] However, only about 9.5% of these hotspots fall within existing protected areas, leaving over 90% vulnerable to land-use changes and habitat fragmentation, as mapped using high-resolution predictive models integrating soil, climate, and vegetation data.^[103] This underprotection highlights a major gap in biodiversity conservation, as mycorrhizal fungi underpin plant productivity and soil health across 80% of terrestrial ecosystems. Conservation strategies emphasize minimizing disturbances to preserve network integrity, such as integrating mycorrhizal inoculants into reforestation projects to enhance seedling survival and long-term forest restoration on degraded lands.^[133] In agriculture, no-till practices and cover cropping avoid hyphal disruption, boosting fungal abundance compared to conventional tillage and improving soil carbon storage.^[129]^[134] These approaches, when combined with reduced chemical inputs, align with sustainable land management to safeguard underground networks. Future research directions include refining climate models to predict network responses, with projections indicating approximately 21% global losses in belowground ecosystem multifunctionality by 2100 under high-emission scenarios due to warming and drying trends.^[135] Mycorrhizal networks contribute to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 (Life on Land) by enhancing biodiversity, soil fertility, and ecosystem restoration, yet policy frameworks lag, with calls for designating underground biodiversity reserves to protect these "hidden forests" amid outdated protections.^[136]^[137] Initiatives like the Society for the Protection of Underground Networks advocate for explicit inclusion in international agreements to address these gaps.^[138]

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Apr 30, 2025 · HT-SIP: a semi-automated stable isotope probing pipeline identifies cross-kingdom interactions in the hyphosphere of arbuscular mycorrhizal ...
[83]
Discovering the secret networks between plants and fungi - Inria
Apr 11, 2025 · “The high-throughput imaging system can track more than 500,000 fungal nodes simultaneously and measure 100,000 nutrient flow trajectories ...
[84]
Metabolomics analysis reveals crucial effects of arbuscular ...
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) promoted plant growth and reprogrammed the metabolism of Camellia sinensis, whose effect was more pronounced in the roots ...
[85]
Meta‐analysis of effects of common mycorrhizal networks formed by ...
Aug 20, 2025 · Meta-analysis of effects of common mycorrhizal networks formed by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on plant and fungal parameters. Anika Lehmann ...
[86]
Common Mycorrhizae Network: A Review of the Theories and ...
Mycorrhizae fungi are widely recognized to improve plant nutrition by being able to access soil spaces and nutrient sources inaccessible for roots (Smith and ...Mycorrhiza Network... · Inoculum Source And Carbon... · Mycorrhiza Network As...
[87]
Systematic mapping of experimental approaches to studying ...
Dec 19, 2024 · Common mycorrhizal networks (CMN) are a research area within mycorrhizal ecology, studying the effects of mycorrhizal fungi linking plant roots.2 Methods · 3 Results · 4 Discussion<|control11|><|separator|>
[88]
Mycorrhizae, invasions, and the temporal dynamics of mutualism ...
Oct 20, 2017 · Our systematic review suggests that invaders frequently decrease mycorrhizal abundance and alter fungal community composition while only ...
[89]
Temporal tracking of quantum-dot apatite across in vitro mycorrhizal ...
Sep 28, 2020 · Understanding temporal dynamics is important because fungal strategies are likely to be transient, such that trade with one host, in time, does ...
[90]
Fluid mechanics within mycorrhizal networks: exploring concepts ...
Aug 25, 2025 · Essentially, mycorrhizal networks comprise interconnected hyphae, forming a mycelium that functions as a living pipeline system, channeling ...
[91]
The biogeography and conservation of Earth's 'dark' ectomycorrhizal ...
Jun 9, 2025 · This is unsurprising considering that EcM fungal communities are vastly understudied in tropical systems compared to temperate regions. 41 ...
[92]
Mycorrhizas in tropical forests: A neglected research imperative
Aug 9, 2025 · However, current research on the ecophysiology of terrestrial orchids is biased towards temperate species. Thus, it is currently unknown ...
[93]
Re‐examining the evidence for the mother tree hypothesis ...
May 7, 2023 · Several highly recognized papers have suggested that trees may share common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) to allow redistribution of resources ...
[94]
Re-examining the evidence for the mother tree hypothesis - PubMed
May 7, 2023 · We review the current understanding of ectomycorrhizal C metabolism and observations on forest regeneration that make the mother tree narrative debatable.
[95]
The 'wood wide web' theory charmed us all – but now it's the subject ...
Jul 9, 2024 · Her 2021 book, Finding the Mother Tree, cemented the hypothesis as a global phenomenon. No one can blame an academic for framing their work ...
[96]
Mother Tree Hypothesis: The Power of a Mother's Love or Wishful ...
Jan 1, 2025 · Re‐examining the evidence for the mother tree hypothesis – resource sharing among trees via ectomycorrhizal networks. New Phytologist, 239(1) ...
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Chapter 3 Mycelial networks: Nutrient uptake, translocation and role ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... and that net nitrification rates greatly underestimate gross rates5. ... Gross rates revealed nutrient cycling characteristics that differ ...
[98]
Plant–soil synchrony in nutrient cycles - Wiley Online Library
Dec 12, 2023 · Assessment of gross and net mineralization rates of soil organic phosphorus—A review. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 89, 82–98. https://doi ...
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Nitrification, denitrification, and competition for soil N: Evaluation of ...
Jan 12, 2022 · The models predict similar global rates of gross primary productivity (GPP) but have approximately two-fold to three-fold differences in their ...
[100]
(PDF) Inter-plant communication through mycorrhizal networks ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Inter-plant communication through mycorrhizal networks mediates complex adaptive behaviour in plant communities. May 2015; AoB Plants 7(1). DOI ...
[101]
Mycorrhizal allies: synergizing forest carbon and multifunctional ...
Aug 13, 2025 · Plant–mycorrhizal associations enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, mitigating the negative impacts of forest degradation. AM ( ...Missing: signaling | Show results with:signaling
[102]
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal contribution towards plant resilience ...
We discuss how these fungi associate with plants and contribute to evading drought stress. We specifically focus on Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) mediated ...
[103]
[PDF] Fire severity drives shifts in ectomycorrhizal fungal communities and ...
Aug 19, 2025 · We investigated how fire history, associated changes in soil chemical properties, and a drought priming treatment using exogenous ABA influenced ...
[104]
Common mycorrhizal networks facilitate plant disease resistance by ...
Sep 16, 2025 · Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can interconnect the roots of individual plants by forming common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs).<|control11|><|separator|>
[105]
Global hotspots of mycorrhizal fungal richness are poorly protected
Jul 23, 2025 · Mycorrhizal fungi are ecosystem engineers that sustain plant life and help regulate Earth's biogeochemical cycles.
[106]
(PDF) Imaging complex nutrient dynamics in mycelial networks
Aug 6, 2025 · To function efficiently, the mycelial network must both transport nutrients between spatially separated source and sink regions and also ...
[107]
Modified source–sink dynamics govern resource exchange in ...
Sep 10, 2023 · At smaller scales, the carbon requirements of developing mycorrhizas also defy a simple source–sink model: New mycorrhizas demand much more ...Missing: networks | Show results with:networks
[108]
Application of network theory to potential mycorrhizal networks
Aug 7, 2025 · Network analysis has been used to describe the internet, social networks, cellular pathways, and insect-plant pollination systems (Bray 2003; ...
[109]
On the application of network theory to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi ...
Apr 26, 2012 · In this kind of network, plant and fungal taxa represent the nodes, and patterns of fungal occurrences are the links connecting the two sets ( ...
[110]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269298760_Agent-based_modelling_of_resource_flow_in_plant_networks
[111]
[PDF] Extending Models of Mycorrhizal Function across Scales
Box 2 illustrates an example of the output from a nonspatial agent-based model based on the ecological stoichiometry of three species of mycorrhizal fungi and a ...
[112]
Agent-based modelling of resource flow in plant networks | Request ...
This model is intended as a preliminary look at plant networks that will be extended to further address the mycorrhiza context specifically. The model, once ...
[113]
Network structure as a functional trait in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Jun 24, 2025 · 4 ORIGIN OF NETWORK CONNECTIVITY VARIATION IN AM FUNGI: ANASTOMOSIS RATES. Human-made transport networks are a new phenomenon in comparison to ...
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Do mycorrhizal network benefits to survival and growth of interior ...
Using these growth chambers, we conducted an experiment with a nested 3 × 3 × 2 × 2 factorial design, where mesh treatment (three levels) and soil moisture ...Materials And Methods · Experimental Design And... · ResultsMissing: assays | Show results with:assays
[115]
Mycorrhiza increases plant diversity and soil carbon storage ... - PNAS
Feb 12, 2025 · Mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis enhances SOC storage in the topsoil and subsoil through increasing plant diversity and elevating biomass allocation to belowground.
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https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14036
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Mycorrhizal effects on decomposition and soil CO2 flux depend on ...
Aug 21, 2021 · We found that the presence of mycorrhizal hyphae suppressed soil CO2 fluxes by 17% in early-successional forests, but enhanced CO2 losses by 20% ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[118]
Manipulating plant microbiomes in the field: Native mycorrhizae ...
Sep 24, 2021 · Our research shows that mycorrhizal fungi can accelerate plant succession and that the reintroduction of both whole soil and laboratory ...
[119]
Microbial Succession and Post-Fire Recovery
Aug 6, 2025 · The changes in mycorrhizal dominance likely reflect post-fire vegetation succession. They promote establishment and growth of trees by enhancing ...
[120]
What have we learnt from studying the evolution of the arbuscular ...
This led to the hypothesis that the AM symbiosis may have played a key role in the colonization of land by the last common ancestor of land plants 450 million ...
[121]
Algal ancestor of land plants was preadapted for symbiosis - PMC
Oct 5, 2015 · ... mycorrhizal symbiosis. The colonization of land by plants 450 Mya created a major transition on Earth, causing the burial of large amounts ...
[122]
(PDF) Fossil Arbuscular Mycorrhizae from the Early Devonian
Aug 6, 2025 · The discovery of arbuscules in Aglaophyton major, an Early Devonian land plant, provides unequivocal evidence that mycorrhizae were established ...
[123]
Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae.
VAM fungi originated between 462 and 353 million years ago, well within the approximate 400-million-year time frame of the Lower Devonian fossils. ... documented ...
[124]
Mycorrhizal Symbiosis: Ancient Signalling Mechanisms Co-opted
Dec 4, 2012 · Legumes are known for their symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing rhizobium bacteria. Rhizobia secrete specific lipochito-oligosaccharides ...
[125]
Editorial: Evolution of Signaling in Plant Symbioses - PMC
This finding further underscores the parallels between signaling between plant host and endosymbiont in the mycorrhizal symbiosis and the rhizobium-legume ...
[126]
Mutualistic mycorrhiza-like symbiosis in the most ancient group of ...
Nov 2, 2010 · The colonization of the land by terrestrial plants approximately 450 million years ago (Ma) was one of the most far-reaching chapters in Earth's ...<|separator|>
[127]
[PDF] CONCEPTS & SYNTHESIS - Web Hosting at UMass Amherst
Therefore under nutrient poor conditions, cost : benefit ratios of the mutualism are altered and it becomes advantageous for plants to allocate more ...
[128]
Plant Kin Recognition Enhances Abundance of Symbiotic Microbial ...
Sep 28, 2012 · Here we determine whether kin selection may favour plant investment in the mycorrhizal network, reducing the incentive to cheat when relatives ...
[129]
(PDF) Sanctions, Cooperation, and the Stability of Plant ...
Aug 6, 2025 · cheaters provided per rhizobium cell must have been much less. The most successful cheater provided less than half as much yield beneﬁt as ...
[130]
Global divergence in plant and mycorrhizal fungal diversity hotspots
Jul 31, 2025 · Only 8.8% of arbuscular mycorrhizal and 1.5% of ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity hotspots overlap with plant hotspots, indicating that ...Results · Methods · Alpha Diversity Data Layers
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Tillage Proves Most Damaging Factor to Beneficial Fungi in Soil
Mar 27, 2024 · Tilling is particularly disruptive to beneficial mycorrhizal fungal populations. Additionally, tilling can expose soils to issues such as loss ...
[132]
Plant and soil responses to tillage practices change arbuscular ...
Apr 8, 2024 · Among them, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), as important rhizosphere microorganisms, were affected by tillage practices (Balota et al., ...
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Threats to Mycorrhizal Fungal Biodiversity
Mycorrhizal fungi support life on earth, yet we are destroying them at an alarming rate. In doing so, we destabilize ecosystems and lose access to a vast ...Missing: non- | Show results with:non-
[134]
Effects of Pesticides on the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis - MDPI
Sulfentrazone was reported to have a strong negative effect (a reduction of about 50%) on mycorrhizal colonization of soybean (Glycine max) by Vieira et al.
[135]
Mycorrhizal fungi and trees - a successful reforestation alternative ...
Mycorrhizal fungi inoculated with tree seedlings and shrubs help revegetate disturbed mine sites by increasing water and nutrient absorption and reducing toxic ...Missing: networks till
[136]
Plant and soil responses to tillage practices change arbuscular ...
Apr 7, 2024 · Conservation tillage practices with minimal soil disturbance improve agricultural sustainability by reducing soil erosion and enhancing the ...
[137]
Climate change is predicted to reduce global belowground ... - Nature
Oct 22, 2025 · Importantly, we predict ongoing climate change to result in a 20.8% loss of global BEMF under SSP585 by 2100, particularly in temperate and ...Missing: network | Show results with:network
[138]
Advancing knowledge on the biogeography of arbuscular ...
Jun 19, 2025 · Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are fundamental to planetary health, enhancing plant nutrient uptake, stabilizing soils, and supporting biodiversity.
[139]
Mycorrhizas for a changing world: Sustainability, conservation, and ...
Jan 22, 2020 · This editorial provides an overview of the relevance and potential roles of mycorrhizal fungi toward achieving global goals in sustainability, conservation
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Society for the Protection of Underground Networks (SPUN)
SPUN is a pioneering nonprofit dedicated to safeguarding the planet's mycorrhizal fungal networks, which play a crucial role in climate regulation and ...