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Myna

Mynas are medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the starling family Sturnidae, with around 25-30 species commonly referred to as mynas primarily native to southern and southeastern Asia, where they inhabit open woodlands, grasslands, and urban areas. These adaptable, gregarious birds are renowned for their complex vocalizations, including impressive mimicry of environmental sounds and, in some cases, human speech, which has made certain species popular as pets. With strong, direct flight and omnivorous diets consisting of insects, fruits, and scraps, mynas often thrive near human settlements, though several have become invasive in introduced regions like Australia, the Pacific islands, and parts of North America.^[1] Physically, mynas exhibit varied but typically stocky builds, ranging from 20 to 36 cm in length, with robust yellow bills and legs adapted for foraging on the ground or in trees. Many species display iridescent plumage, such as the glossy black feathers of the Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa), which features prominent yellow wattles around the head and a white wing patch, enabling it to mimic human speech with remarkable clarity in the forested hills of South and Southeast Asia.^[2] In contrast, the Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis), one of the most widespread species, has a rich brown body, black hood, brilliant orange-yellow facial skin, and striking white tail tip and wing patches that flash during flight; this species measures about 23-26 cm and weighs 82-143 g.^[3] Behaviorally, mynas are bold and social, often forming noisy flocks and aggressively defending territories, which contributes to their success as urban dwellers but also their status as pests that compete with native birds for nest sites and food. They are cavity nesters, typically laying 2-6 pale blue eggs with dark spots in tree holes or buildings, and both parents share incubation duties for about 14-18 days. While most mynas forage opportunistically on insects, nectar, and grains, their invasive tendencies—particularly of the Common Myna—pose threats to biodiversity in non-native habitats by displacing local species and spreading diseases.^[4]^[5]

Taxonomy

Etymology and nomenclature

The term "myna" (also spelled "mynah") originates from the Hindi word mainā, which refers to starling-like birds noted for their vocal abilities, and ultimately derives from the Sanskrit madana-, meaning "delightful" or "joyful."^[6] This name entered English usage in 1769 to describe various passerine birds from India and the East, reflecting their lively, imitative calls that evoke joy.^[6] In scientific nomenclature, mynas are classified within the family Sturnidae, with key genera bearing etymologies rooted in classical languages. The genus Gracula, encompassing hill mynas such as the common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), stems from the Latin graculus, denoting a jackdaw—a small, chatty corvid—highlighting similarities in vocalization and appearance.^[7] Similarly, the genus Acridotheres, which includes the common myna (Acridotheres tristis), combines Greek elements: akris (locust) and theras (hunter), alluding to the birds' insectivorous habits, particularly their predation on grasshoppers and locusts.^[8] Common names like "myna" vary regionally and orthographically; in British English, "myna" predominates, while American English often favors "mynah" to approximate the Hindi pronunciation.^[9] In South Asia, local terms such as mainā persist, emphasizing cultural ties to the birds' mimicry and presence in folklore.^[6] These variations underscore the transition from indigenous descriptors to standardized binomial nomenclature under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

Phylogenetic relationships

Mynas are classified within the family Sturnidae, the starlings, as part of the order Passeriformes, with their placement supported by both morphological traits and molecular data. Post-2000 molecular phylogenies, utilizing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences, have delineated the major lineages within Sturnidae, emphasizing the prominence of Asian and Australasian clades. These studies confirm that mynas do not form a single monophyletic group but are distributed across several well-supported subclades, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Australasia.^[10] A key analysis of nuclear (myoglobin intron 2, RAG-1) and mitochondrial (ND2) genes recovered major lineages in Sturnidae, including a basal Philippine Rhabdornis clade, an Oriental-Australasian clade (including Gracula and Aplonis glossy starlings), and an Afrotropical-Palaearctic clade (including Sturnus and Acridotheres). Within this framework, genera such as Gracula and Acridotheres represent distinct evolutionary divergences driven by geographic isolation and ecological adaptations in Asian habitats, highlighting the polyphyletic nature of mynas.^[10] Notable divergences include the jungle and hill mynas of Gracula, which constitute a distinct early-branching lineage within the Oriental-Australasian clade, characterized by genetic distances suggesting ancient separation from other starlings. In contrast, the true mynas of Acridotheres form a more recent, rapidly diversifying group nested within the Palearctic-Oriental radiation of the Afrotropical-Palaearctic clade. The Gracupica group, comprising pied starlings, represents a separate subclade closely allied with Acridotheres and Sturnus, supported by shared mitochondrial and nuclear markers indicating paraphyly in traditional groupings.^[10]^[11]^[12] Historically, taxonomic revisions in the 19th century, initiated by naturalists like Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot who established the genus Acridotheres in 1816, separated "true" mynas from broader starlings based on plumage, bill structure, and vocal traits. These morphological distinctions have been largely corroborated by modern DNA-based phylogenies, which refine relationships while resolving prior uncertainties, such as the polyphyletic nature of some genera.^[11]

Description

Physical morphology

Mynas, members of the starling family Sturnidae, are medium-sized passerine birds typically measuring 23 to 30 cm in total length and weighing 80 to 270 g across genera, with common mynas (Acridotheres spp.) averaging 23–26 cm and 82–143 g, and hill mynas (Gracula spp.) reaching 27–30 cm and 142–269 g.^[13]^[14]^[15] These birds feature strong, sturdy legs and feet that enable efficient ground-walking and foraging, distinguishing them from more arboreal starlings.^[16] Bill morphology varies by genus to suit dietary preferences: true mynas possess a straight, pointed, and stout bill ideal for probing soil and extracting insects, whereas hill mynas have a heavier, slightly decurved bill with a hooked tip for grasping and manipulating fruits.^[13]^[17] Skeletal features include a robust syrinx at the trachea's base, comprising paired labia and muscles that facilitate complex sound production and mimicry through independent control of medial and lateral vibration sources. Their wings exhibit a rounded morphology with pointed primaries, optimized for short, agile flights and maneuverability in cluttered environments rather than sustained soaring.^[18]

Plumage variations

Mynas exhibit a range of plumage colors and patterns that distinguish major groups within the family Sturnidae, often featuring glossy or iridescent elements adapted to their environments. Hill mynas (Gracula spp.) display striking glossy black plumage with a green gloss overall and purple tinges on the head and neck, complemented by prominent yellow wattles and an orange-yellow bill; large white wing patches are visible in flight but concealed at rest.^[17]^[19] In contrast, true mynas such as the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) have a brown body with a black head, neck, and upper breast, accented by iridescent sheens on the head feathers and yellow bare skin around the eyes, bill, and legs; the tail shows white tips, creating a white undertail appearance when folded.^[20]^[21] Juveniles of this species possess lighter, brownish plumage on the head and upper breast compared to the darker adult tones.^[21] Jungle mynas (Acridotheres fuscus) feature uniform grey plumage that is darker on the head and wings, with conspicuous white wing patches and a white tail tip; juveniles are notably browner overall, with a paler throat and midline on the underparts.^[22]^[23] Gracupica mynas, including the Indian pied myna (Gracupica contra), showcase bold black-and-white patterns, with a black head, a white nuchal collar and underparts, black wings and tail, and a yellowish bill with a reddish base; the skin around the eye is reddish.^[24]^[25] Young birds in this group have darker brown replacing the black elements of adult plumage.^[24] Sexual dimorphism is minimal or absent in myna plumage across species, with males and females typically indistinguishable by feather coloration or patterns.^[16]^[26] Some mynas undergo molts that subtly alter feather gloss or intensity, though pronounced seasonal color shifts are uncommon in these mostly tropical birds.^[17]

Distribution and habitat

Global range

Mynas, belonging to several genera within the family Sturnidae, are predominantly native to South and Southeast Asia, with their core distributions spanning from the Indian subcontinent eastward to Indonesia and the Philippines. Jungle mynas (Acridotheres fuscus) occupy regions from Pakistan and India eastward through Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand to peninsular Malaysia, while hill mynas (Gracula religiosa) range from northeast India and southern China southward through Southeast Asia to Borneo, Sumatra, and Palawan in the Philippines.^[27]^[28]^[29] True mynas of the genus Acridotheres, such as the common myna (A. tristis), extend their native range westward to southeastern Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, covering much of the Indian subcontinent and reaching into southern China, Myanmar, and Indochina. Gracupica mynas, including the Indian pied myna (G. contra), are distributed across the Indian subcontinent including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, with the Javan pied starling (G. jalla) restricted to Java and nearby islands. Their Australasian presence is limited, primarily confined to Indonesian islands within the Greater Sundas, though some species approach Wallacea.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33] Introduced populations have significantly expanded the global footprint of certain myna species, particularly the common myna, which was deliberately released in Australia starting in the 1860s for pest control and has since become established along the eastern and southeastern coasts, often classified as invasive due to competition with native birds. The common myna has been introduced to South Africa, various Pacific islands including Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii, and New Zealand, while the jungle myna has been introduced to some Pacific islands such as Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, and Tokelau; where they thrive in urban and agricultural settings and pose threats to local avifauna. These introductions, often via the pet trade or acclimatization efforts, have led to self-sustaining populations outside Asia, with the common myna listed among the world's worst invasive alien species.^[20]^[34]^[35] Most myna species are sedentary, maintaining year-round residency within their ranges, though some exhibit local movements between foraging areas and roosts or minor altitudinal shifts in response to seasonal changes. For instance, hill mynas may undertake short vertical migrations between lowland and montane forests, while common mynas show occasional altitudinal adjustments in parts of their range. These patterns reflect their adaptation to stable tropical environments rather than long-distance migration.^[36]^[15]

Habitat preferences

Mynas, belonging to the starling family Sturnidae, exhibit a broad range of habitat preferences that span open woodlands, grasslands, and human-modified landscapes across tropical and subtropical regions. These birds generally favor environments with access to scattered trees for nesting and perching, as well as proximity to water sources, which supports their opportunistic lifestyles. Their adaptability to varied ecosystems, from natural forests to urban settings, has facilitated range expansions, including in introduced areas.^[37] Jungle mynas (Acridotheres fuscus) and hill mynas (Gracula religiosa) show a particular affinity for forested habitats in humid, tropical lowlands and foothills. Jungle mynas inhabit open deciduous woodlands, forest edges, agricultural fields, and cultivation areas up to elevations of 2,000 meters, often near open water.^[38]^[22] Hill mynas prefer moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, including montane areas from 300 to 2,000 meters, with high rainfall and humidity essential for their habitat selection.^[39]^[14] Both groups thrive in these humid environments but can extend into adjacent disturbed sites. True mynas, such as the common myna (Acridotheres tristis), excel in anthropogenic landscapes, dominating agricultural fields, pastures, and urban areas like cities and suburbs. They select open, low-vegetation habitats with human structures for roosting and nesting, tolerating a wide subtropical to tropical climate range.^[37]^[16] This proximity to human activity underscores their success in altered ecosystems, where they outcompete natives in resource-rich settings.^[40] Gracupica mynas, including the pied myna (Gracupica contra), occupy scrublands, open grasslands, and cultivated plains with scattered trees, often in lowlands up to 700 meters and near water bodies. These species also frequent mangroves and semi-arid edges, adapting well to human-altered scrub and urban fringes in tropical zones.^[41]^[24] Their ecological flexibility in these drier, open niches highlights a tolerance for seasonal variations in subtropical climates.

Behavior and ecology

Vocalizations and mimicry

Mynas exhibit a diverse and complex vocal repertoire that includes a variety of sounds such as whistles, chips, gurgles, and harsh screeches, enabling effective communication within their environments.^[42] The common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), in particular, is renowned for its exceptional mimicry abilities, capable of imitating other bird calls, environmental noises, and even human speech with remarkable clarity and versatility.^[42] Each individual hill myna typically possesses a repertoire of 3 to 13 distinct call types, which can be shared among nearby conspecifics of the same sex through learned vocal traditions.^[43] The mimicry prowess of hill mynas is facilitated by the specialized structure of their syrinx, the avian vocal organ located at the base of the trachea, which features paired external labia that vibrate to produce voicing energy analogous to human vocal cords.^[44] This anatomical adaptation allows for precise control over pitch, timbre, and formants.^[44] Vocal mimicry in these birds is a learned behavior, with juveniles developing adult call types over 1 to 5 months post-fledging, and competency highest when training begins in early life, such as from 4 to 8 weeks of age, before declining in older individuals.^[45]^[42] These vocalizations serve multiple ecological functions, including territorial defense and mate attraction during the breeding season, where males produce elaborate songs to repel rivals and court females.^[46] Alarm calls, often sharp and alerting, prompt conspecifics to adopt anti-predator behaviors such as fleeing or emerging from cover, enhancing group survival.^[42] In social contexts, mimicry may further reinforce individual recognition and coordination among flock members.^[46] Mynas exhibit a highly social lifestyle, typically forming monogamous pairs that remain together year-round outside the breeding season, while engaging in loose foraging flocks of 3 to 20 individuals composed of pairs, families, or unpaired birds.^[47]^[16] These flocks facilitate reduced individual vigilance, allowing members to increase foraging efficiency in urban and open habitats, though competition for food can lead to aggressive interactions within groups.^[48] In some true myna species, such as the jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus), cooperative breeding occurs, where non-breeding helpers assist pairs in territory defense and offspring care, enhancing survival in resource-variable environments.^[49] Juveniles often form small post-fledging flocks before integrating into adult groups, promoting social learning of foraging sites.^[16] Foraging behaviors reflect the opportunistic and omnivorous nature of mynas, with a diet comprising insects, earthworms, fruits, grains, nectar, and human food scraps, enabling adaptation to diverse habitats from forests to cities.^[16] They primarily forage on the ground, using a probing technique with their strong bills to extract prey from soil or litter, and occasionally hop or walk to pursue mobile insects; peck rates increase in larger groups to boost intake without compromising anti-predator scans.^[48] Daily food consumption supports high metabolic demands in small-bodied passerines, though exact amounts vary with food availability and season.^[50] Vocal signals briefly coordinate group movements to profitable patches during these activities. Daily routines of mynas are structured around environmental cues, beginning with dawn choruses of loud calls from roost sites to reaffirm social bonds and territories, followed by morning foraging peaks when insect activity is high.^[51] Midday often involves resting or preening in shaded trees to avoid heat, resuming activity in late afternoon before converging on communal roosts in tall trees or structures at dusk, where flocks can number in the thousands for safety and information sharing on food sources.^[16]

Reproduction

Mynas in their native Asian ranges typically breed from March to August, with pairs often producing two to three clutches per season, each containing three to six eggs.^[37]^[52] This timing aligns with the onset of the monsoon season, providing ample food resources for raising young. Courtship involves monogamous pair bonding, where mates perform synchronized calls and displays to strengthen their partnership before nesting.^[16] Nesting habits vary by species but generally involve cavities for protection. Hill mynas (Gracula spp.) prefer natural tree hollows, often high in tall forest trees, lining them with twigs, leaves, and feathers.^[52]^[14] In contrast, true mynas (Acridotheres spp.) are highly adaptable, utilizing tree cavities, building crevices, or even abandoned nests in urban and suburban settings, incorporating a mix of organic and anthropogenic materials like straw, paper, and cloth.^[37]^[16] Both sexes collaborate in nest construction, which can take several days to a week. Parental care is biparental, with both male and female sharing incubation duties for 12 to 18 days until hatching.^[37]^[16] The altricial chicks remain in the nest for three to four weeks, during which parents alternate feeding and brooding to ensure development.^[37] Fledglings continue to receive provisioning from adults for up to three additional weeks, and survival rates are notably higher in social flocks where group members may assist in vigilance against predators.^[53]

Species diversity

Jungle and hill mynas

Jungle and hill mynas refer to a group of arboreal starlings in the genera Gracula and Acridotheres, characterized by their adaptations to tropical and subtropical forest canopies across Asia, where they exhibit specialized behaviors for exploiting fruit resources and engaging in complex vocal interactions. These birds thrive in humid, forested environments, often foraging in the upper layers of trees, which supports their role in seed dispersal and pollination through consumption of fruits and nectar. Their distinct yellow wattles, glossy black plumage, and robust bills are morphological features aiding in fruit manipulation and social signaling within dense vegetation. The genus Gracula includes several species of hill mynas, such as the common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), the Sri Lanka hill myna (G. ptilogenys), the southern hill myna (G. indica, southwest India), the Tenggara hill myna (G. venerata, Indonesia), and the Nias hill myna (G. robusta, off Sumatra); the Simeulue hill myna (G. miotera) is possibly extinct in the wild.^[54]^[28] The hill myna (Gracula religiosa) stands out for its exceptional vocal mimicry, replicating sounds from other birds, mammals, and even human speech with remarkable clarity and variety, a trait that has made it a favored subject for studies on avian vocal learning. Native to hill forests from the eastern Himalayas through southern China, Indochina, and the Sunda Islands of Southeast Asia, this species prefers tall, closed-canopy woodlands at elevations up to 2,000 meters, though it can tolerate selectively logged areas with sufficient fruiting trees. Its diet is predominantly frugivorous, focusing on figs and other wild fruits supplemented by nectar, insects, and small vertebrates like lizards, often feeding in noisy flocks of up to 20 individuals during peak fruit seasons.^[14] Closely related, the Sri Lanka hill myna (Gracula ptilogenys), endemic to Sri Lanka's wet zone forests, shares similar arboreal habits and vocal prowess, inhabiting lowlands and hills up to 1,800 meters in natural woodlands, gardens, and plantations. This species maintains a fruit-heavy diet akin to its northern counterpart, foraging in canopy layers while contributing to forest regeneration through seed distribution. In contrast, the jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus) occupies a broader range across the Indian subcontinent from Pakistan to northeastern India, extending into Myanmar and the Malay Peninsula, favoring forest edges, open woodlands, and cultivated areas rather than deep interiors. It exhibits less pronounced mimicry but vocalizes with varied calls during foraging, consuming a mix of insects, fruits, and nectar in small groups.^[55]^[27]^[56] Conservation challenges for jungle and hill mynas are pronounced, particularly for Gracula species, due to intense pressure from the international pet trade targeting their mimicry abilities; wild-caught hill mynas have experienced rapid population declines and local extinctions, especially on Indonesian islands, prompting listings under CITES Appendix II to regulate trade. Habitat degradation from logging and agriculture further exacerbates vulnerabilities, though jungle mynas appear more resilient in human-modified landscapes. Efforts to mitigate these impacts include enforcement of trade quotas and promotion of captive breeding programs in regions like Thailand.^[39]

True mynas

The true mynas encompass the genus Acridotheres, a group of 11 species within the starling family Sturnidae, primarily native to tropical southern Asia from India to Southeast Asia. These birds are characterized by their stocky builds, dark plumage often with glossy black heads, yellow bills and legs, and adaptations to open, human-modified landscapes such as grasslands, farmlands, and urban edges. Unlike more forest-oriented mynas, true mynas thrive in disturbed habitats, exhibiting high adaptability that facilitates their spread.^[57] Prominent species include the common myna (Acridotheres tristis), a widespread omnivorous scavenger measuring 23–26 cm in length with chocolate-brown body plumage and white tail-tip patches, and the bank myna (A. ginginianus), a slightly smaller (20–23 cm) greyish bird distinguished by brick-red skin behind the eyes and a short frontal crest.^[58]^[59] Both display aggressive territoriality, vigorously defending nesting cavities in trees, buildings, or riverbanks against native birds, often evicting competitors through physical confrontations. Their diet is broadly omnivorous, encompassing insects, small vertebrates, fruits, seeds, and anthropogenic refuse, which supports their scavenging lifestyle in diverse environments.^[60]^[61] Several Acridotheres species, notably the common myna, were intentionally introduced to regions like Australia and New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as biocontrol agents against agricultural pests such as locusts and ticks.^[34] However, their rapid proliferation has transformed them into significant ecological pests, where they outcompete native cavity-nesters, spread diseases, and damage crops through foraging. In Australia, common mynas have established populations across eastern states, while in New Zealand, they occupy much of the North Island, prompting ongoing eradication efforts.^[35]^[61] Population trends for true mynas in introduced urban settings demonstrate explosive growth, driven by abundant food and nesting opportunities; for instance, common myna densities in Australian suburbs like Canberra have reached up to 100 birds per km² within decades of establishment.^[62] This adaptability underscores their invasive potential, with ongoing monitoring highlighting risks to biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes. While true mynas possess vocal mimicry capabilities for alarm calls and songs, these are less sophisticated compared to those of hill mynas.^[63]

Gracupica mynas

The Gracupica mynas represent a distinct clade within the starling family Sturnidae, characterized by their bold black-and-white plumage and adaptation to open, often wetland-associated habitats across Asia. This genus was established following phylogenetic analyses that separated it from the polyphyletic Sturnus, with the split formalized in the late 2000s based on molecular evidence revealing deep divergences among Oriental starling lineages. The group encompasses four recognized species, though they remain somewhat understudied compared to more widespread mynas due to ongoing taxonomic refinements and their regional distributions. Prominent among them is the pied myna (Gracupica contra), a medium-sized starling measuring about 20 cm in length, featuring glossy black upperparts, a white belly, and a yellow bill with an orange-red base.^[64] Another key species is the black-collared starling (G. nigricollis), distinguished by a prominent black collar against its otherwise similar pied patterning, and the Siamese pied starling (G. floweri), which shares the black-and-white contrast but with a more restricted range.^[65] The Javan pied starling (G. jalla) rounds out the genus, notable for its Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct in the Wild) status per IUCN (2024), with no confirmed wild population despite millions in captivity, primarily confined historically to Java.^[32] These species exhibit subtle morphological variations, such as differences in collar presence or forehead streaking, that underscore their endemism and evolutionary divergence.^[66] Morphologically, Gracupica mynas are adapted for ground foraging, with slender, pointed bills suited for probing soil and mud, setting them apart from the bulkier bills of related genera.^[67] Their diet primarily consists of insects, such as beetles and earthworms, supplemented by fruits, nectar, and occasionally seeds or human food waste, reflecting opportunistic feeding in altered landscapes.^[67] Socially, they form loose flocks of 5–20 individuals, often commuting between foraging sites in wetlands and roosting trees, with pairs engaging in year-round duetting and display behaviors that reinforce pair bonds.^[64] Distributionally, the genus is centered in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with G. contra ranging from Pakistan and India eastward through Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar to southern China and Indochina.^[68] G. nigricollis occupies southern China and much of mainland Southeast Asia, including Thailand and Vietnam, while G. floweri is endemic to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, favoring riverine lowlands.^[65] G. jalla's hyper-endemic status highlights the genus's vulnerability to habitat fragmentation in insular settings.^[32] Preferred habitats include open grasslands, agricultural fields, and wetland edges with scattered trees, often near human settlements but less urban-tolerant than congeners, contributing to their relative obscurity post-taxonomic reclassification.

Conservation

Major threats

Myna populations, particularly those in forested regions, face significant pressure from habitat loss driven by deforestation and urbanization. For the jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus), tree cover within its mapped range has declined by approximately 10% over the past 10 years, reflecting broader trends in habitat fragmentation across South and Southeast Asia.^[27] Similarly, the common hill myna (Gracula religiosa) has experienced a 14% loss of tree cover over the same period, exacerbating vulnerability for species dependent on mature forests for nesting and foraging.^[28] The international and domestic pet trade represents a primary anthropogenic threat, especially to hill mynas prized for their vocal mimicry abilities. Between 1994 and 2003, over 170,000 wild-caught common hill mynas were exported from range countries, contributing to substantial local population declines in areas like India, Indonesia, and Thailand; domestic trade volumes are believed to be even higher, with ongoing captures estimated in the thousands annually across Asia.^[28]^[39] This overexploitation, often targeting breeding adults and juveniles, disrupts population dynamics and genetic diversity in affected subpopulations. In regions where mynas have been introduced, such as Australia, common mynas (Acridotheres tristis) pose competitive pressures on native avifauna by aggressively dominating nesting cavities and food resources, leading to declines in species like the sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) and crimson rosella (Platycercus elegans). Specific vulnerabilities vary by species, as noted in assessments of jungle and hill mynas.^[69]

Protection measures

The hill myna (Gracula religiosa) has been listed under CITES Appendix II since 1997, following its initial inclusion in Appendix III in 1992 at Thailand's request; this regulates international trade to prevent overexploitation due to demand in the pet trade.^[28] Several myna species benefit from inclusion in protected areas across their ranges. In India, the common hill myna, designated as the state bird of Chhattisgarh, is safeguarded within Kanger Valley National Park, where habitat conservation and anti-poaching patrols aim to counter threats from tree felling and illegal trapping.^[70] In Indonesia, the critically endangered Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) inhabits West Bali National Park, protected under national law since 1970, with ongoing habitat restoration to support its persistence.^[71] Reintroduction programs form a key component of conservation for threatened mynas. For the endangered black-winged myna (Acridotheres melanopterus), captive breeding at centers like Cikananga in Java supports potential releases into protected sites such as Baluran National Park, with multiple reintroduction attempts conducted since 2012, addressing population declines from trade.^[72]^[73] Similarly, the Bali myna has seen multiple reintroductions since 1983 through the Bali Starling Project, releasing captive-bred individuals into West Bali National Park to bolster wild numbers, which had fallen to fewer than 50 mature individuals in 2009 but reached around 420 as of 2021.^[71]^[74] Efforts to manage invasive mynas focus on population control in non-native regions. In Australia, community-led trapping programs target the common myna (Acridotheres tristis), an invasive species competing with native birds for nest sites; in Canberra, the Canberra Indian Myna Action Group's initiative since 2006 has reduced myna abundance from the third to the 17th most common bird in garden surveys, demonstrating local-scale effectiveness through humane traps and euthanasia protocols.^[75]

References

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Gracula religiosa. Population size. Unknown. Life Span. 25 years. Weight. 142-269. 5-9.5. goz. g oz. Length. 29. 11. cminch. cm inch. The Common hill myna ( ...<|separator|>
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The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage. A large white wing patches ... Juveniles are browner with a pale throat and along the median of the underside.
[22]
https://www.thainationalparks.com/species/jungle-myna
[23]
Asian pied myna (Gracupica contra) - Thai National Parks
The Asian pied myna is a starling found in Southeast Asia, with black and white plumage, a yellowish bill, and reddish skin around the eye. They are found in ...
[24]
Indian Pied Myna (Gracupica contra) identification - Birda
It boasts a contrasting plumage of black and white, with a yellowish bill tipped with a reddish base. The skin around its eye is a distinctive reddish color.
[25]
Common myna | Maina | New Zealand Birds Online
Weight: 125 g ... A stocky brown songbird with a glossy black head and shoulders, yellow bill and facial skin, white-tipped tail feathers, primaries and upper and ...
[26]
Jungle Myna Acridotheres Fuscus Species Factsheet | BirdLife ...
Country/territory distribution ; Pakistan, Extant, Native ; Samoa, Extant, Introduced ; Thailand, Extant, Native ; Tokelau (to New Zealand), Extant, Introduced ...
[27]
Jungle Myna - Acridotheres fuscus - Birds of the World
May 15, 2024 · Jungle Myna (Blue-eyed) Acridotheres fuscus mahrattensis W India from Rajasthan S to Kerala, E to W Tamil Nadu.
[28]
Common Myna Acridotheres Tristis Species Factsheet
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion.
[29]
Distribution - Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis - Birds of the World
Native range covers a large swath of s. and central Asia, from Turkmenistan (part of former USSR), south to se. Iran and Afghanistan, eastward through ...Missing: true | Show results with:true
[30]
Javan Pied Starling Gracupica Jalla Species Factsheet
Taxonomy. Order. Passeriformes. Family. Sturnidae. Authority. (Horsfield, 1821). Taxonomic notes. Gracupica contra and G. jalla (del Hoyo and Collar 2016) were ...
[31]
Acridotheres tristis - Global Invasive Species Database
Jul 4, 2011 · Mynas are nest site competitors and can displace active breeding pairs of the Endangered (EN) Mauritius parakeet (Psittacula eques).
[32]
The introduction and distribution history of the common myna ...
The common myna (Acridotheres tristis; also termed Indian myna) is a medium-sized passerine bird in the Sturnidae (starling) family. It is native to southern ...
[33]
Movements and Migration - Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis
Migratory movement reported from Chokpak Pass, Kazakhstan as seasonal east-west movement: westward throughout autumn (Sep-Oct) and eastward in spring (Mar-Apr; ...
[34]
Common Myna Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Common Mynas are bold birds with flashy looks: a rich reddish-brown body, black hood, brilliant orange facial patch, and striking white wing patches.
[35]
Acridotheres fuscus (jungle myna) | CABI Compendium
Nov 19, 2009 · Acridotheres fuscus is native to India and south-east Asia and is now established in many Pacific islands. Acridotherea can be translated as ...
[36]
[PDF] Gracula religiosa - CITES
The species' preferred habitat is moist hill forest at ca.300-2,000 m altitude, but it is found down to sea level. Although typically inhabiting dense moist or ...
[37]
Range expansion and habitat preferences of an introduced bird in ...
Common mynas are found in urban, suburban, and agricultural areas, with urban areas being more common. They have expanded across human-modified habitats.
[38]
Habitat - Indian Pied Starling - Gracupica contra - Birds of the World
Found in a wide variety of open areas with scattered trees, grasslands, cultivated and urban areas (46 Tiwary, N. K., and A. J. Urfi (2016).
[39]
Sounds and Vocal Behavior - Common Hill Myna - Gracula religiosa
Oct 25, 2022 · It is very vocal and is considered an excellent mimic of other bird calls as well as other vocalizations including human voices (9 ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[40]
Songs of the Hill Mynas - Bird Ecology Study Group
Feb 12, 2011 · Each individual has a repertoire between 3 and 13 such call types, which may be shared with some near neighbours of the same sex, being learned ...
[41]
How does a mynah bird imitate human speech? - AIP Publishing
Apr 1, 1974 · A trained Indian Hill mynah bird and its tutor each saying seven English sentences composed of four to 12 phonetic segments.
[42]
Vocal Imitation in Hill Mynahs Gracula religiosa: Factors Affecting ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Moreover, captive-bred birds are tame, easily imprint on humans and are able to express more vocal mimicry of any sound (Archawaranon 2005) .
[43]
Vocal Imitation in Hill Mynahs Gracula religiosa: Factors Affecting ...
ABSTRACT. To study speech mimicry in hill mynahs Gracula religiosa is one of the channels to understand vocal learning in birds.
[44]
Breeding - Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis - Birds of the World
Pair Formation. On O'ahu I., pairs stay together year-round (Telecky 1989 Telecky, T. (1989). The breeding biology and mating system of the Common Myna ...
[45]
Foraging behaviour of the Common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis ) in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The results showed that Mynas generally increased their food intake by increasing foraging effort, rather than decreasing vigilance behaviour.
[46]
Cooperative breeding and Jungle Myna - Bird Ecology Study Group
Sep 7, 2009 · Cooperative breeding refers to cases where the two adult parents are assisted by helpers to care for a single brood of offspring. The helpers ...
[47]
Social learning in Indian mynahs, Acridotheres tristis: the role of ...
Indian mynas were significantly more neophobic than noisy miners. Yet, when tested on a range of innovative foraging tasks, Indian mynas consistently ...Missing: structure | Show results with:structure
[48]
Behavior - Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis - Birds of the World
In native range, pairs aggressively defend territory against heterospecifics in breeding season, especially crows, which are mobbed and chased away; chases ...
[49]
Foraging tolerance of the Indian myna towards the house sparrow
Oct 15, 2025 · It was observed that the Indian myna displayed a certain level of tolerance towards the house sparrow even when the food source was similar or reduced in ...
[50]
Breeding - Common Hill Myna - Gracula religiosa - Birds of the World
Oct 25, 2022 · Overall, breeding takes place mainly during April–July (with first young fledged in May–June and peak fledging period in July) in India.
[51]
The Breeding Ecology of the Crested Myna Acridotheres cristatellus ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Island colonizers showed mostly bi-parental care, but there was a significant increase in cooperative breeding on islands. Additionally, I ...
[52]
Sri Lanka Hill Myna Gracula Ptilogenys Species Factsheet | BirdLife DataZone
### Summary of Sri Lanka Hill Myna (Gracula ptilogenys)
[53]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350342741_The_Breeding_Ecology_of_the_Crested_Myna_Acridotheres_cristatellus_on_Tropical_Hainan_Island
[54]
Systematics - Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis - Birds of the World
Six or 7 species have typically been recognized in the genus Acridotheres (Amadon 1962 ...
[55]
Typical Mynas (Genus Acridotheres) - iNaturalist
Acridotheres is a genus of starlings, the "typical" mynas, which are tropical members of the family Sturnidae. This genus has representatives in tropical ...
[56]
Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis - Birds of the World
The Common Myna, a native of southern Asia, was widely introduced (mainly for pest control) in the late 1800s in many far-flung areas of the world. Since these ...
[57]
Bank Myna - Acridotheres ginginianus - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · The Bank Myna is a smallish myna with a short frontal crest, found in the N Indian Subcontinent, and is associated with man-modified habitats.Identification · Distribution · Diet And Foraging
[58]
Acridotheres tristis (common myna) | CABI Compendium
The generic name Acridotheres is from the Greek akridothera, loosely meaning 'locust hunter'. The genus Acridotheres comprises nine other species (Feare and ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[59]
Overview of the common (Indian) myna (Acridotheres tristis or ...
Common mynas, native to India, have a brown body, black head, and white wing patches. They are invasive, threatening native birds, and carry diseases.
[60]
[PDF] MITIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF MYNAS ON BIODIVERSITY AND ...
In 1994 densities of around 100 birds per square kilometre were reported in two Canberra suburbs, with marked spillover effects into adjoining woodland areas ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Common Myna Sounds, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Apr 3, 2025 · Other songs are much longer, sometimes going on for 20 seconds or more, and consist of an incredibly varied array of whistles, clicks, gruff ...Missing: repertoire | Show results with:repertoire
[62]
Indian Pied Starling - Gracupica contra - Birds of the World
Oct 25, 2022 · This species is known for its loud and rich melodious vocalizations, and pairs are seen duetting and performing bowing displays year-round. When ...Missing: traits | Show results with:traits
[63]
Black-collared Starling x Great Myna (hybrid) - Avibase
... about 10000 species and 22000 subspecies of birds, including distribution information for 20000 regions, taxonomy, synonyms in several languages and more.<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
Systematics - Javan Pied Starling - Gracupica jalla - Birds of the World
Gracupica jalla has traditionally been considered conspecific with both Siamese Pied Starling (Gracupica floweri) and Indian Pied Starling (Gracupica ...
[65]
Diet and Foraging - Indian Pied Starling - Gracupica contra
Oct 25, 2022 · It feeds largely by using its long, pointed bill to probe in mud and soil photo in marshy grasslands, on lawns and fields, mainly for ...
[66]
Indian Pied Starling Gracupica contra - eBird
Easternmost birds have a white, streaked forehead. Seen in loose flocks close to human habitation feeding on human refuse. Garbage dumps, damp grazing lands, ...
[67]
Is It Benign or Is It a Pariah? Empirical Evidence for the Impact of the ...
We found a negative relationship between the establishment of the Common Myna and the long-term abundance of three cavity-nesting species.
[68]
Saving Chattisgarh's state bird, the Bastar hill mynah, from extinction
Feb 26, 2021 · The Bastar hill mynah is endemic to the Kanger Valley National Park, where the felling of several dry trees for cultivation and developmental activities has ...
[69]
Bali Myna Leucopsar Rothschildi Species Factsheet
The species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1970 and occurs within Bali Barat National Park. Since 1983, the Bali Starling Project has helped ...
[70]
Cikananga Conservation Breeding Centre - Silent Forest
Despite the limited capacity, in the past year CCBC has successfully bred, the Javan Green Magpie, Rufous-fronted Laughingthrush and Black-winged Myna. Javan ...
[71]
[PDF] Canberra Indian Myna Action Group Inc
Over the ten year period, mynas have been reduced from the 3rd most common bird in Canberra to the 18th. The change has been remarkable.