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No first use

No first use (NFU) is a declaratory nuclear policy in which a state possessing nuclear weapons commits to employing them only in retaliation to a prior nuclear attack, forgoing their initiation in any conflict regardless of the nature of the adversary's aggression.^[1]^[2] China pioneered the policy with its first public pledge in 1964, reiterated unconditionally in official statements as a solemn undertaking never to initiate nuclear weapons use under any circumstances or against any target.^[3]^[1] India formalized NFU in its 2003 doctrine, stipulating nuclear retaliation solely against attacks on its territory or forces, while maintaining a posture of credible minimum deterrence.^[4]^[5] Among the nine nuclear-armed states, only China and India adhere to NFU, while others—including the United States, Russia, France, the United Kingdom, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea—eschew it in favor of calculated ambiguity or explicit first-use options to counter potential overwhelming conventional assaults or to extend deterrence to allies.^[1]^[6] The United States has repeatedly rejected NFU proposals, as articulated in defense assessments warning that such a stance could embolden adversaries to pursue non-nuclear coercion without fear of nuclear response, thereby eroding deterrence credibility against regional powers exhibiting conventional superiority.^[6]^[7] Proponents argue NFU diminishes inadvertent escalation by narrowing nuclear employment scenarios, yet critics contend it constrains responses to existential non-nuclear threats, such as massive armored invasions, where nuclear signaling has historically buttressed alliance commitments absent robust conventional alternatives.^[8]^[6] Legislative efforts in the United States to mandate NFU, such as the 2021 Restricting First Use of Nuclear Weapons Act, have failed to advance, reflecting entrenched strategic reservations over its compatibility with extended deterrence obligations.^[9]^[10]

Definition and Core Principles

Definition of No First Use

No first use (NFU) is a nuclear doctrine adopted by certain nuclear-armed states, committing them to refrain from initiating the employment of nuclear weapons in any conflict and to reserve their use solely for retaliation against a prior nuclear attack on themselves or their allies.^[1] This policy contrasts with doctrines permitting first use in response to conventional aggression or other existential threats, emphasizing nuclear weapons' role strictly as retaliatory deterrents rather than offensive or warfighting instruments.^[11] Formally articulated pledges date back to China's public declaration in 1964, positioning NFU as a restraint mechanism to lower escalation risks in crises.^[1] NFU policies are typically declaratory rather than treaty-bound, allowing flexibility in interpretation during crises, such as responses to massive conventional assaults threatening national survival.^[12] Proponents argue it enhances global stability by reducing incentives for preemptive strikes, while critics contend it could erode deterrence credibility against non-nuclear threats, potentially inviting conventional overmatch.^[13] As of 2023, only China and India uphold unconditional NFU commitments among the nine nuclear-armed states, with others like the United States maintaining ambiguous postures to preserve strategic options.^[11] Distinct from "sole purpose" policies—which limit nuclear roles to deterring nuclear attacks but may still permit first use in dire non-nuclear scenarios—NFU explicitly bars initiation under any circumstances short of nuclear employment by an adversary.^[13] It also differs from negative security assurances, which vow non-use against non-nuclear weapon states, as NFU applies universally regardless of an opponent's arsenal.^[11] Implementation relies on verifiable command-and-control systems to ensure second-strike capability, underscoring NFU's dependence on survivable arsenals for credibility.^[12] No first use (NFU) pledges represent a categorical restraint on initiating nuclear employment, limiting nuclear weapons to retaliatory roles following an adversary's nuclear attack.^[12] This distinguishes NFU from first use doctrines, which authorize preemptive or responsive nuclear strikes against non-nuclear threats, such as overwhelming conventional invasions or chemical/biological attacks that endanger national survival.^[1] For instance, doctrines permitting first use aim to extend nuclear deterrence to cover regional contingencies or alliance commitments, arguing that ambiguity enhances dissuasion against limited wars escalating beyond conventional means.^[6] In contrast to calculated ambiguity—a U.S. approach that deliberately maintains uncertainty about nuclear initiation to maximize deterrence against diverse threats—NFU eliminates such options by committing to non-initiation under any circumstances.^[14] Calculated ambiguity, as articulated in U.S. Nuclear Posture Reviews, reserves nuclear use for "extreme circumstances" threatening vital interests, potentially including non-nuclear scenarios, thereby preserving operational flexibility absent in NFU frameworks.^[15] This ambiguity is critiqued by NFU proponents as fostering miscalculation risks, while opponents view NFU as potentially eroding deterrence credibility against conventionally superior foes.^[16] NFU further diverges from sole purpose policies, which constrain nuclear roles to deterring or countering nuclear threats but do not explicitly bar first use in extremis; sole purpose emphasizes mission limitation over absolute sequencing prohibitions.^[13] Whereas NFU imposes an ex ante ban on initiation regardless of attack type, sole purpose permits nuclear response to non-nuclear strategic assaults if they imperil nuclear deterrence efficacy, reflecting a narrower but less rigid doctrinal boundary.^[17] These distinctions underscore NFU's emphasis on de-escalatory signaling, though empirical assessments question its impact on adversary behavior amid ongoing arsenal modernizations.^[18]

Historical Origins and Evolution

Cold War Era Developments

China became the first nuclear-armed state to publicly pledge no first use (NFU) of nuclear weapons on October 16, 1964, the day of its inaugural atomic test at Lop Nur, declaring that it "will never at any time or under any circumstances be the first to use nuclear weapons" and committing to their use solely for retaliation against nuclear aggression.^[19] ^[1] This stance aligned with China's strategic posture as a weaker nuclear power relative to the United States and Soviet Union, emphasizing minimal deterrence and opposition to nuclear hegemony, though it faced skepticism from Western observers regarding enforcement amid China's ongoing conventional conflicts, such as the Sino-Indian War.^[20] In the United States, nuclear doctrine throughout the Cold War explicitly retained the option of first use to deter massive conventional assaults, particularly from Soviet forces in Europe, where numerical superiority in tanks and troops—estimated at over 2 million Warsaw Pact soldiers by the 1970s—posed an existential threat to NATO allies.^[21] President Dwight D. Eisenhower's 1953 "New Look" policy of massive retaliation positioned nuclear weapons as compensators for conventional imbalances, a framework that evolved under John F. Kennedy's 1961 flexible response strategy but preserved first-use ambiguity to maintain credibility against non-nuclear threats.^[22] Internal debates, including a 1974 State Department study under Henry Kissinger, explored NFU but concluded it would erode deterrence by signaling restraint, leading to consistent presidential rejections through administrations from Truman to Reagan.^[15] The Soviet Union maintained a doctrine permitting first use against conventional invasions until the early 1980s, justified by vulnerabilities in its European theater where NATO's forward defense strategy could exploit Warsaw Pact overextension.^[23] On June 15, 1982, at the United Nations Special Session on Disarmament, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev announced a unilateral NFU pledge, stating the USSR "will never use nuclear weapons first against any country or group of countries," amid escalating tensions over intermediate-range missiles and U.S. deployments in Europe.^[24] U.S. officials dismissed the commitment as unverifiable and inconsistent with Soviet military exercises simulating nuclear escalation, reflecting broader distrust of unilateral Soviet initiatives during the late Cold War arms buildup, which saw the USSR amass approximately 40,000 warheads by 1986.^[25] ^[1] Other nuclear states, including the United Kingdom and France, aligned with NATO's rejection of NFU, viewing it as incompatible with extended deterrence obligations; France's 1960 force de frappe doctrine under Charles de Gaulle emphasized strict retaliation only, but without a binding NFU pledge, while Britain's Polaris submarine program from 1968 retained flexible options to support alliance cohesion.^[16] These positions underscored a causal divide: NFU appeals held limited traction where conventional asymmetries demanded nuclear ambiguity for deterrence, contrasting with China's declaratory restraint as a diplomatic tool against perceived superpowers.^[26]

Post-Cold War Shifts and International Efforts

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, nuclear doctrines among major powers shifted to address asymmetric threats, regional proliferation, and reduced bipolar confrontation, yet few states moved toward formal no-first-use (NFU) commitments. Russia, inheriting the Soviet arsenal, explicitly abandoned the USSR's 1982 NFU pledge in its 1993 military doctrine, permitting first use of nuclear weapons against conventional aggression posing an existential threat to the state or in response to attacks involving weapons of mass destruction.^[1] This change reflected concerns over NATO's conventional superiority and internal instability, diverging from Cold War-era restraint. Similarly, NATO retained its "flexible response" strategy under the 1967 MC 14/3 guidelines, which allowed first use; its 1991 Strategic Concept described nuclear employment as "remote" amid force reductions to approximately 400 sub-strategic warheads by 1999, but rejected NFU to preserve deterrence against non-nuclear threats.^[16] The United States, in its 1994 Nuclear Posture Review and subsequent reviews, maintained the first-use option to counter potential chemical, biological, or overwhelming conventional attacks, with the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review explicitly declining to adopt NFU or "sole purpose" (nuclear use only in retaliation to nuclear attack) due to uncertainties in verifying adversary compliance and risks to extended deterrence allies.^[1] India marked a notable exception by adopting NFU shortly after its May 1998 nuclear tests (Pokhran-II), with Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announcing on August 4, 1998, that India would not initiate nuclear use against nuclear-armed states or non-nuclear states, formalized in the 1999 draft doctrine and the 2003 Nuclear Doctrine, which included retaliation to chemical or biological attacks as a trigger for massive response.^[5]^[27] China, consistent with its 1964 pledge, reaffirmed unconditional NFU in post-Cold War statements, emphasizing it as a cornerstone of its "defensive nuclear strategy" amid arsenal modernization, though without altering conditions for retaliation.^[1] Pakistan, however, entrenched a first-use posture in its doctrine to offset India's conventional forces, rejecting NFU despite occasional diplomatic overtures, such as President Asif Ali Zardari's 2008 suggestion.^[1] These developments highlighted a broader trend: while force reductions occurred—such as U.S. de-alerting of bombers and withdrawal of tactical weapons—strategic uncertainties, including North Korea's 2006 tests and Iran's program, reinforced first-use rationales over NFU adoption. International efforts to promote NFU remained largely declaratory and non-binding, centered on United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions urging a multilateral treaty. The UNGA's A/RES/56/24 of November 2001, for instance, called for a "binding instrument" on mutual NFU among nuclear states, reaffirming prior appeals but garnering support primarily from non-aligned nations without endorsement from the five recognized nuclear powers.^[28] China repeatedly proposed a Treaty on Mutual No-First-Use of Nuclear Weapons in NPT review conferences and bilateral talks, yet received no reciprocal commitments, as Western states cited verification challenges and deterrence needs against non-nuclear threats.^[1] Advocacy groups and think tanks, such as the Arms Control Association, pushed for NATO NFU pledges to align with NPT negative security assurances (promising non-use against non-nuclear NPT parties), but these stalled amid alliance debates over extended deterrence for Eastern Europe.^[16] No binding multilateral NFU agreement emerged, with efforts overshadowed by proliferation concerns and bilateral arms control like the 2010 New START treaty, which focused on warhead limits rather than use policies.^[1]

National Adoption and Policies

Countries with Formal NFU Commitments

China and India maintain the most explicit formal commitments to a no-first-use (NFU) policy among nuclear-armed states, with China adopting an unconditional pledge and India incorporating NFU into its broader nuclear doctrine. These policies reflect strategic choices emphasizing retaliation over initiation, though interpretations and caveats differ between the two. No other nuclear powers have equivalent formal, enduring NFU declarations, despite occasional pledges or doctrinal shifts elsewhere.^[1]^[29]

China

China formalized its NFU policy on October 16, 1964, the day of its first successful nuclear test at Lop Nur, declaring it would "not be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time or under any circumstances." This unconditional commitment has remained a cornerstone of Chinese nuclear strategy, reiterated in official statements, including at United Nations conferences. China also pledges not to use or threaten nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free zones, framing NFU as aligned with its defensive posture and opposition to nuclear hegemony.^[3]^[30]^[31] The policy supports China's emphasis on a minimum deterrent force, with an estimated 500 nuclear warheads as of 2024, focused on survivable second-strike capabilities via silos, submarines, and mobile launchers. Chinese officials have upheld NFU amid expanding arsenals and tensions, such as in the Taiwan Strait, arguing it reduces escalation risks while deterring aggression. Critics, including some Western analysts, question its firmness given opaque command structures and conventional force modernizations, but Beijing consistently reaffirms it in diplomatic forums.^[32]^[33]^[18]

India

India adopted NFU as part of its nuclear doctrine formalized in a January 4, 2003, cabinet committee statement following the 1998 Pokhran-II tests, committing to "not be the first to initiate nuclear striking" while maintaining "credible minimum deterrence" with massive retaliation against nuclear attacks. The policy extends to responding with nuclear weapons to biological or chemical attacks, distinguishing it from China's unconditional stance, and is underpinned by a triad of land-, sea-, and air-based delivery systems. India estimates its arsenal at around 160 warheads as of 2024, with ongoing developments like Agni-V missiles and Arihant-class submarines enhancing second-strike assurance.^[29]^[34]^[35] Debates within India have periodically challenged NFU's rigidity, including a 2019 statement by then-Defence Minister Rajnath Singh suggesting potential future revisions amid threats from China and Pakistan, though no formal change occurred. Proponents argue NFU bolsters India's image as a responsible power, while skeptics cite survivability concerns against preemptive strikes. The policy remains official, integrated into national security reviews, and has not been invoked in conflicts like the 1999 Kargil War or 2019 Balakot crisis, where conventional responses prevailed.^[36]^[37]^[38]

China

China formally adopted a no-first-use (NFU) policy for nuclear weapons on October 16, 1964, coinciding with its first successful atomic bomb test at Lop Nur.^[39] The policy pledges that China will never initiate nuclear attacks under any circumstances and unconditionally refrains from using or threatening nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free zones.^[40] This commitment has been reaffirmed consistently by Chinese leaders and officials, including in statements at United Nations forums emphasizing its role in promoting global nuclear disarmament.^[41] The NFU doctrine aligns with China's strategy of minimum nuclear deterrence, focused on maintaining a credible second-strike capability rather than offensive superiority or arms racing.^[33] Beijing has proposed that the five recognized nuclear-weapon states negotiate a multilateral treaty on mutual NFU commitments, submitting a draft in 1994 and reiterating the call in subsequent diplomatic initiatives.^[40] Official statements, such as those from the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, underscore that the policy remains unchanged amid nuclear modernization efforts, including expansion of its arsenal estimated at around 500 warheads as of 2024.^[42] While some analysts question the policy's rigidity in scenarios involving existential threats to sovereignty, such as potential conflicts over Taiwan, Chinese government declarations maintain its unconditional nature without enumerated exceptions.^[39] This stance contrasts with doctrines permitting first use in response to conventional threats to nuclear forces, positioning China's approach as a cornerstone of its responsible nuclear power narrative in international arms control discourse.^[30]

India

India adopted a formal nuclear doctrine on January 4, 2003, following its 1998 nuclear tests, which explicitly incorporates a no first use (NFU) policy stating that nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation against a nuclear attack on Indian territory or Indian forces anywhere.^[4] This commitment was first announced by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 shortly after Operation Shakti, the series of five nuclear tests conducted on May 11 and 13, 1998, marking India's emergence as an overt nuclear power with an estimated arsenal of 160-170 warheads as of 2024.^[43] The doctrine emphasizes credible minimum deterrence, supported by a triad of land-, sea-, and air-based delivery systems, including Agni-series ballistic missiles, submarine-launched ballistic missiles like K-15 Sagarika, and aircraft such as Mirage 2000 and Rafale.^[43] Under the NFU pledge, India's response to any nuclear first strike is mandated to be one of massive retaliation designed to inflict unacceptable damage on the aggressor, ensuring second-strike capability through survivable assets like road-mobile launchers and nuclear submarines such as INS Arihant, commissioned in 2016.^[4]^[44] The policy also prohibits first use against non-nuclear weapon states, aligning with India's voluntary moratorium on further testing post-1998 and its advocacy for global disarmament, as reiterated by Indian Ambassador Pankaj Sharma at the UN Conference on Disarmament in 2020.^[45] India's Nuclear Command Authority, chaired by the Prime Minister, maintains centralized control to authorize any retaliatory launch, underscoring the doctrine's restraint-oriented framework amid regional threats from Pakistan and China.^[4] Despite occasional domestic debates, such as Defense Minister Rajnath Singh's 2019 statement hinting at potential future adaptations to evolving security challenges, India has consistently reaffirmed its NFU stance, including in official remarks at the UN First Committee on October 3, 2025, where it urged credible minimum deterrence without altering the core policy.^[5]^[46] Chief of Defence Staff Anil Chauhan in June 2024 described the NFU and massive retaliation as foundational to India's "strategic restraint," rejecting shifts toward first-use postures that could escalate arms races with neighbors.^[47] This position differentiates India from Pakistan's ambiguous full-spectrum deterrence, which lacks NFU and incorporates tactical nuclear weapons to counter conventional imbalances.^[36]

Countries Explicitly Rejecting or Lacking NFU

Several nuclear-armed states maintain doctrines that explicitly reject or omit a no-first-use (NFU) commitment, permitting the initiation of nuclear strikes in scenarios such as existential conventional threats, biological or chemical attacks, or attacks on critical infrastructure. This contrasts with NFU adherents by broadening nuclear deterrence to encompass non-nuclear contingencies, often rationalized as essential for countering asymmetric risks or ensuring regime survival. As of 2025, the United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, Pakistan, and North Korea fall into this category, with policies rooted in post-Cold War strategic adaptations or regional insecurities.^[48]^[12]^[1] These nations' rejections stem from doctrinal evolutions prioritizing flexibility over restraint. For instance, Russia's 2024 nuclear doctrine update, signed by President Vladimir Putin on November 19, lowers the threshold for nuclear response to include conventional strikes by non-nuclear states backed by nuclear powers if they threaten sovereignty. Similarly, Pakistan's posture, shaped by rivalry with India, emphasizes tactical nuclear options against conventional incursions without an NFU pledge, as articulated in strategic analyses from 2023. North Korea's approach integrates preemptive nuclear doctrine, viewing first use as viable against perceived imminent threats, per state media and doctrinal statements from 2024.^[49]^[50]^[51] Western powers like the United States, United Kingdom, and France align their policies within NATO frameworks, reserving nuclear first use to deter overwhelming non-nuclear aggression, as reaffirmed in U.S. guidance from 2022 and French strategic reviews emphasizing a "final warning" strike capability. The U.K. echoes this in its integrated reviews, lacking any NFU declaration. Such stances have persisted despite international advocacy for NFU treaties, with proponents arguing they enhance escalation risks, though rejecting states counter that rigid NFU could undermine deterrence credibility against numerically superior conventional forces.^[52]^[53]^[54]

United States

The United States maintains a nuclear declaratory policy that explicitly reserves the option to initiate the use of nuclear weapons in extreme circumstances to defend its vital interests or those of its allies and partners, thereby rejecting a formal no-first-use (NFU) commitment.^[55] This stance, reaffirmed in the Biden administration's 2022 Nuclear Posture Review (NPR), followed a comprehensive evaluation of alternatives including NFU and a "sole purpose" policy limiting nuclear use solely to deterring or responding to nuclear attacks; both were deemed incompatible with current threats from adversaries like China, Russia, North Korea, and Iran, which possess advanced conventional forces, chemical and biological weapons, or cyber capabilities that could imperil U.S. security without crossing the nuclear threshold.^[56]^[52] Historically, U.S. nuclear policy has consistently eschewed NFU since the development of its arsenal, rooted in deterrence strategies that prioritize flexibility against diverse threats rather than categorical restraints. During the Cold War, administrations from Truman onward viewed nuclear weapons as integral to extended deterrence for NATO allies against potential Soviet conventional superiority in Europe, a rationale that precluded first-use pledges to avoid signaling weakness.^[57] Efforts to adopt NFU, such as President Carter's 1979 exploration of "negative security assurances" (promising non-use against non-nuclear states), faltered amid allied concerns over undermining deterrence credibility.^[58] Subsequent reviews, including the 1994 NPR under Clinton and the 2010 NPR under Obama—which considered but ultimately rejected a sole-purpose shift—reinforced this position, citing risks from non-nuclear strategic attacks that could necessitate nuclear response to prevent catastrophic losses.^[59] The U.S. rejection of NFU is justified by strategic analysts within the defense establishment as essential for maintaining deterrence against revisionist powers whose growing arsenals and asymmetric capabilities (e.g., Russia's tactical nuclear deployments or China's hypersonic missiles) demand ambiguity to preserve escalation dominance and protect non-nuclear assets like forward-deployed forces in Asia and Europe.^[13] Proponents of the policy argue that codifying NFU could encourage adversaries to pursue limited conventional or WMD aggressions, confident in U.S. restraint, potentially eroding alliance cohesion—particularly with nations like Japan and South Korea that rely on the U.S. "nuclear umbrella" for security against regional threats.^[7] Critics, including some arms control advocates, contend this flexibility is outdated post-Cold War and risks inadvertent escalation, but official assessments prioritize empirical threat assessments over doctrinal simplification.^[60] As of 2025, no administration has shifted to NFU, with policy documents emphasizing adaptive postures amid ongoing modernization of the U.S. triad (submarines, bombers, and ICBMs) to underpin this reserved-rights approach.^[55]

Russia

Russia maintains a nuclear doctrine that explicitly permits the first use of nuclear weapons in response to existential threats, rejecting a no-first-use commitment. The "Basic Principles of State Policy of the Russian Federation on Nuclear Deterrence," updated and signed by President Vladimir Putin on November 19, 2024, authorizes nuclear employment against aggression by non-nuclear states if it endangers Russia's sovereignty or territorial integrity, as well as in retaliation for nuclear attacks or reliable detection of ballistic missile launches targeting Russia or its allies.^[61]^[49] This policy evolved from the Soviet Union's 1982 no-first-use pledge under Leonid Brezhnev, which Russia formally abandoned in November 1993 by incorporating nuclear weapons into its military doctrine without prohibiting preemptive or first strikes against conventional threats posing mortal danger to the state.^[23] The 2020 iteration of the doctrine already allowed first use if conventional warfare threatened the state's survival, a threshold retained and broadened in 2024 to encompass scenarios like attacks on Russian territory using long-range conventional weapons supplied by nuclear powers, as demonstrated by responses to Ukrainian strikes enabled by Western aid.^[62]^[63] The doctrinal shift underscores Russia's emphasis on nuclear weapons as a counterweight to perceived NATO conventional superiority, enabling "escalate to de-escalate" tactics where limited nuclear use could compel adversaries to halt aggression.^[64] Critics from Western security analyses argue this lowers the nuclear threshold amid the Ukraine conflict, increasing risks of miscalculation, though Russian officials frame it as a defensive clarification rather than an aggressive pivot.^[65] As of early 2025, Russia's arsenal includes approximately 4,309 warheads, with ongoing modernization of delivery systems like the Sarmat ICBM reinforcing the credibility of its first-use posture.^[66]

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom possesses an independent nuclear deterrent centered on the Trident D5 ballistic missile system deployed via Vanguard-class submarines, ensuring continuous at-sea deterrence since 1994. The arsenal is estimated at approximately 225 warheads, with up to 120 operationally available, though exact figures remain classified.^[67] This capability forms a core element of NATO's collective defense, with the UK declaring its forces available for alliance contingencies.^[68] The UK explicitly lacks a no-first-use (NFU) commitment and maintains a doctrine permitting the first employment of nuclear weapons under extreme circumstances threatening national survival.^[67] This policy aligns with NATO's strategic posture, which does not preclude initial nuclear use against non-nuclear aggression if it risks overwhelming conventional defeat or employs weapons of mass destruction.^[69] Official statements emphasize deterrence against "the most extreme threats," including state or non-state actors posing existential risks, without categorical restrictions on sequencing.^[70] Post-Cold War adjustments in the 1990s reduced alert levels and stockpile size from around 300 to under 250 warheads by 2010, reflecting perceived lower threats, yet preserved first-use options.^[67] The 2021 Integrated Review and subsequent updates raised the warhead ceiling to 260, citing proliferation risks from actors like Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea, while rejecting NFU to maintain ambiguity and credibility against diverse threats.^[67] Negative security assurances apply to compliant non-nuclear NPT states, barring first use against them absent alliance obligations, but this does not extend to nuclear-armed adversaries or severe conventional assaults. This rejection of NFU underscores a deterrence logic prioritizing flexibility over self-imposed limits, arguing that rigid pledges could invite conventional or hybrid aggression by eroding escalation dominance.^[69] Parliamentary briefings confirm no doctrinal shift toward NFU as of 2025, despite advocacy from disarmament groups.^[67] The policy sustains operational independence, though reliant on U.S. technological cooperation for missiles and warhead components.^[71]

France

France maintains a nuclear doctrine that explicitly rejects a no-first-use (NFU) commitment, reserving the right to employ nuclear weapons first if the nation's vital interests—encompassing its territory, population, and critical assets—are gravely threatened by any means, including conventional, chemical, biological, or nuclear aggression.^[72]^[73] This stance, rooted in the principle of strict sufficiency, emphasizes a minimum credible deterrent tailored to France's independent force de frappe, comprising approximately 290 operational warheads as of 2025, deployed on submarines, aircraft, and air-launched cruise missiles.^[72]^[74] The policy embodies calculated ambiguity to enhance deterrence, allowing for scenarios such as a preemptive "final warning" limited nuclear strike to halt an existential threat before it escalates fully.^[53] French authorities, including Chief of the Defense Staff General Thierry Burkhard in 2024, have reaffirmed this position, arguing that adopting NFU or a sole-purpose doctrine (limiting use to nuclear retaliation only) would undermine credibility against hybrid or overwhelming conventional assaults, particularly in Europe's volatile security environment amid Russian aggression in Ukraine.^[75] Successive governments, from Charles de Gaulle's establishment of the force in the 1960s to Emmanuel Macron's administration, have consistently opposed NFU, viewing it as incompatible with flexible, autonomous defense needs outside strict NATO frameworks.^[54] As of October 2025, President Macron has signaled ongoing reviews of the doctrine, with announcements planned for early 2026, but no shift toward NFU has occurred, preserving the emphasis on adaptability to evolving threats like hypersonic missiles or massed conventional forces.^[74] This rejection aligns France with NATO allies in prioritizing robust deterrence over unilateral restraints, though it draws criticism from arms control advocates for potentially lowering the nuclear threshold.^[73]

Pakistan

Pakistan's nuclear doctrine explicitly rejects a no-first-use (NFU) commitment, preserving the option to employ nuclear weapons first against military threats that imperil its sovereignty or territorial integrity, particularly large-scale conventional incursions from India. This approach stems from Pakistan's assessment of conventional military asymmetry with India, where nuclear capabilities serve as a deterrent to prevent rapid territorial losses that could lead to national capitulation.^[76]^[50] Since the inception of its nuclear program in the 1980s, Pakistani officials have consistently declined to adopt NFU, viewing it as a constraint on flexible deterrence tailored to regional threats. In a 2013 statement, Lt. Gen. Khalid Ahmed Kidwai, then head of the Strategic Plans Division, articulated that Pakistan would not "tie its hands" with NFU, emphasizing full-spectrum deterrence encompassing tactical responses to conventional aggression. This policy has been reaffirmed in subsequent years; in May 2024, Kidwai reiterated that Pakistan does not follow NFU and maintains capabilities to counter threats across conventional, strategic, and sub-conventional domains.^[76]^[77]^[78] To operationalize this doctrine, Pakistan has prioritized developing shorter-range, lower-yield systems such as the Nasr (Hatf-IX) missile, with a range of 60 kilometers, intended for battlefield use against advancing armored formations, thereby lowering the threshold for nuclear employment in limited conflicts. Pakistan has pledged NFU against non-nuclear states but retains ambiguity on first use against nuclear-armed adversaries like India, underscoring a strategy of credible minimum deterrence without self-imposed restraints. This rejection of NFU contrasts with India's declared policy and reflects Pakistan's prioritization of survivable second-strike forces alongside preemptive options, amid an estimated arsenal of 170 warheads as of 2024.^[79]^[80]^[81]

North Korea

North Korea maintains a nuclear doctrine that explicitly permits first use of nuclear weapons, rejecting any no-first-use commitment. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) views its arsenal as essential for regime survival against perceived existential threats from the United States and South Korea, authorizing preemptive strikes under certain conditions.^[82]^[83] On September 9, 2022, the DPRK's Supreme People's Assembly enacted a comprehensive law on nuclear forces policy, codifying the right to launch preemptive nuclear attacks to counter imminent dangers to state sovereignty or leadership. This legislation specifies that nuclear weapons may be used first if an enemy demonstrates intent to employ nuclear or other weapons of mass destruction, or if there is a direct threat to the DPRK's command structure, including attempts to overthrow Kim Jong-un.^[84]^[82] The law mandates that nuclear forces remain in perpetual combat readiness, with automatic authorization for use in the event of lost communication with central command, further embedding a first-strike posture.^[83]^[85] Prior to this formalization, DPRK statements and actions indicated a willingness to employ nuclear weapons preemptively. For instance, in response to joint U.S.-South Korean military exercises, North Korean officials have threatened "preemptive nuclear strikes" to neutralize threats before they materialize, as articulated in state media and official declarations.^[86] This approach contrasts with no-first-use policies by prioritizing offensive deterrence, where nuclear escalation could occur in conventional conflicts if Pyongyang perceives survival at risk.^[87]^[88] The policy reflects North Korea's estimated possession of 20-60 nuclear warheads as of 2023, with ongoing expansion through plutonium and uranium enrichment programs, enabling delivery via short- and medium-range missiles targeting regional adversaries.^[89] This doctrine has drawn international condemnation for heightening proliferation risks and undermining stability on the Korean Peninsula, though DPRK leaders assert it as a necessary counter to U.S. extended deterrence commitments.^[82]^[85]

Ambiguous or Undeclared Stances

Israel maintains a policy of nuclear opacity, neither confirming nor denying possession of nuclear weapons nor articulating a formal doctrine on their employment, including any commitment to no-first-use (NFU).^[90] This deliberate ambiguity, in place since the 1960s, avoids explicit declarations that could invite preemptive attacks or international pressure while preserving deterrence against existential threats.^[91] Israeli officials have consistently reiterated that the country "will not be the first to introduce nuclear weapons into the Middle East," a phrase originating in agreements with the United States dating to at least 1968, but this formulation pertains to acquisition and deployment rather than operational use in conflict.^[92] The absence of an acknowledged arsenal precludes any official NFU pledge, as such policies typically require transparency about capabilities to credibly bind a state's actions.^[11] Analysts interpret this opacity as compatible with a range of potential strategies, from assured second-strike retaliation to preemptive or preventive options in scenarios of severe conventional inferiority, though no declassified Israeli documents confirm specifics.^[93] For instance, during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel reportedly readied nuclear alerts amid battlefield setbacks, signaling a threshold for possible first employment absent ambiguity's veil, but no weapons were used.^[94] Critics of Israel's approach, including arms control advocates, argue that the undeclared stance undermines regional stability by fueling an arms race, as adversaries like Iran perceive an unchecked nuclear shadow.^[95] Proponents counter that opacity has prevented proliferation incentives in the region for decades, with no Arab state achieving nuclear status despite conflicts.^[96] Israel has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and rejects binding assurances against first use, prioritizing survival amid hostile neighbors.^[97] As of 2025, no policy shift toward declaration or NFU has emerged, with recent tensions reinforcing the status quo.^[98]

Israel

Israel maintains a policy of deliberate nuclear ambiguity, officially neither confirming nor denying possession of nuclear weapons while pledging that it "will not be the first country to introduce nuclear weapons to the Middle East."^[92] This stance, formalized since the 1960s, emerged amid Israel's development of a covert nuclear program initiated in the 1950s at the Dimona reactor, with operational capability estimated by 1967.^[99] The ambiguity serves to deter existential threats from regional adversaries without provoking an arms race or international sanctions, allowing Israel to project uncertainty about its capabilities and intentions.^[96] Regarding no-first-use (NFU), Israel has issued no formal declaration, as its undeclared arsenal precludes any explicit doctrinal commitment on nuclear employment.^[92] Analysts interpret the "not first to introduce" formulation as implicitly discouraging preemptive nuclear action by avoiding open acknowledgment of weapons, yet it does not bind Israel to forgo first use in scenarios of national survival, such as overwhelming conventional invasion or non-conventional attack.^[100] This opacity contrasts with NFU-adopting states like India or China, enabling flexible deterrence tailored to Israel's perceived vulnerabilities, including hostile neighbors and non-state actors.^[101] Unofficial leaks and strategic analyses suggest a threshold-based posture, reserving nuclear response for last-resort defense against threats endangering the state's existence, rather than a blanket NFU prohibition.^[102] The policy's endurance relies on U.S. acquiescence, regional dynamics lacking another nuclear power until Iran's potential advancement, and domestic consensus against disclosure.^[96] Occasional rhetorical shifts, such as a 2023 ministerial remark invoking nuclear options against Hamas (prompting immediate rebuke and suspension), underscore the ambiguity's role in quelling internal debate while signaling resolve externally, without altering the undeclared framework.^[103] As of 2025, no policy evolution toward explicit NFU has occurred, preserving strategic leverage amid escalating tensions with Iran and proxies.^[92]

Strategic Rationale and Theoretical Foundations

Arguments in Favor of NFU

A no-first-use (NFU) policy pledges that nuclear weapons will not be employed unless in retaliation to a nuclear attack, thereby clarifying declaratory intent and potentially stabilizing deterrence dynamics. Proponents argue that such a policy reduces the likelihood of inadvertent escalation during crises, as adversaries would perceive a lower threshold for U.S. or allied nuclear initiation, discouraging preemptive actions based on fear of first strikes.^[1]^[104] This assurance can mitigate miscalculations, particularly in conventional conflicts where nuclear signaling might otherwise spiral, as evidenced by analyses of historical close calls like the 1983 Soviet false alarm incident, where unambiguous NFU commitments could have lowered tensions.^[105]^[106] NFU enhances global non-proliferation efforts by signaling a diminished reliance on nuclear weapons for broader security roles, thereby weakening rationales for other states to pursue arsenals. For instance, a U.S. NFU declaration would bolster credibility in opposing proliferation, as it demonstrates restraint and aligns with international norms against nuclear adventurism, potentially influencing threshold states like Iran or North Korea.^[58] Countries like China and India, which maintain NFU doctrines, have experienced relative border stability without nuclear coercion, suggesting that the policy supports credible minimum deterrence without inviting arms races—India's arsenal remains focused on retaliation, avoiding escalation in skirmishes with Pakistan.^[107]^[108] From a strategic standpoint, NFU preserves effective deterrence against nuclear threats while redirecting resources to superior conventional forces, which are deemed more reliable against non-nuclear aggression. Nuclear weapons' limited utility in countering conventional or asymmetric attacks—due to issues like collateral damage and escalation control—means retaining a first-use option offers illusory benefits, whereas NFU bolsters alliance cohesion by reassuring partners like Japan and South Korea that U.S. extended deterrence relies on non-nuclear means primarily.^[60]^[15] Empirical assessments indicate no erosion of deterrence in NFU-adopting states; China's policy since 1964 has deterred nuclear challenges without first-use temptations, maintaining parity through assured retaliation rather than ambiguity.^[109] Critics of first-use retention highlight how it perpetuates a hair-trigger posture, increasing accidents amid aging command systems, whereas NFU facilitates de-alerting measures and arms control progress, as seen in U.S.-Russia reductions post-Cold War.^[60] By framing nuclear arsenals solely for second-strike purposes, the policy reinforces causal deterrence logic: mutual assured destruction suffices without proactive threats, aligning with first-principles of reciprocity in strategic interactions.^[58]

Arguments Against NFU from Deterrence Perspectives

Critics argue that a No First Use (NFU) policy undermines nuclear deterrence by restricting the credible threat of nuclear employment to retaliation only, thereby inviting non-nuclear aggression from adversaries who perceive reduced risks in launching conventional, chemical, biological, or cyber attacks.^[7]^[6] This limitation erodes the escalatory leverage that nuclear weapons provide against overwhelming conventional threats, as potential aggressors could calculate that their initial strikes—short of nuclear—would not provoke a nuclear response, potentially leading to scenarios where nuclear-armed states like Russia or China test boundaries in regions such as Eastern Europe or the Taiwan Strait.^[110] For instance, during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the absence of an explicit NFU commitment from NATO has been credited with maintaining deterrence ambiguity, discouraging further escalation by implying possible nuclear options against existential conventional threats.^[7] A core deterrence concern is the weakening of extended deterrence commitments to allies, where NFU signals to partners like Japan, South Korea, and NATO members that U.S. nuclear forces would not counter a massive conventional assault, such as a North Korean invasion of the South or a Chinese amphibious operation against Taiwan.^[6]^[7] This could prompt allies to pursue independent nuclear arsenals, destabilizing regional balances; historical analysis post-World War II shows that U.S. ambiguity on first use has sustained alliance cohesion by preserving the credibility of the nuclear umbrella against numerically superior conventional forces.^[13] Proponents of non-NFU doctrines, including U.S. strategic reviews since the 2018 Nuclear Posture Review, emphasize that retaining first-use options deters "gray zone" aggressions and hybrid warfare, where adversaries blend conventional and unconventional means to exploit perceived restraint.^[6] Furthermore, NFU reduces operational flexibility for leaders in crises, potentially forcing reliance on conventional forces alone against superior foes, which empirical modeling indicates could fail to deter in high-stakes contingencies like a Sino-Russian coordinated pressure on U.S. interests.^[110] Deliberate ambiguity in declaratory policy, as maintained by the United States and Russia, enhances deterrence by keeping adversaries uncertain about red lines, a principle rooted in Cold War-era game theory where clear NFU pledges were rejected to avoid signaling vulnerability.^[13] In multipolar environments with actors like North Korea possessing asymmetric capabilities, analysts from institutions assessing great-power competition argue that NFU invites miscalculation, as it decouples nuclear threats from broader conflict prevention, evidenced by simulations showing heightened aggression risks under restrictive policies.^[7]^[6]

Critiques, Risks, and Empirical Assessments

Potential Deterrence Weaknesses

Critics argue that a no-first-use (NFU) policy could erode deterrence by limiting nuclear weapons' role to retaliation against nuclear attacks, thereby emboldening adversaries to pursue aggressive conventional actions without fear of nuclear escalation.^[111]^[6] This restraint might signal to opponents, such as Russia or China, that they can exploit conventional superiority—evident in Russia's numerical advantages in tanks and artillery or China's anti-access/area-denial capabilities in the Western Pacific—without risking nuclear reprisal, potentially leading to miscalculated escalations in crises like those over Taiwan or the South China Sea.^[110]^[112] In scenarios of conventional inferiority, NFU could constrain responses to overwhelming non-nuclear threats, such as a massive armored invasion or cyber-physical attacks on critical infrastructure, where the threat of first use has historically deterred escalation by compensating for disparities in conventional forces.^[22] For instance, U.S. doctrine has relied on nuclear options to offset Soviet conventional advantages during the Cold War, a flexibility that NFU would forfeit, potentially inviting probes of resolve in regional conflicts where nuclear powers hold quantitative edges, as seen in simulations of Indo-Pacific contingencies.^[22]^[112] NFU may also undermine extended deterrence commitments to allies, reducing the credibility of the U.S. nuclear umbrella by implying nuclear weapons serve only post-nuclear purposes, which could prompt allies like Japan or South Korea to pursue independent arsenals amid doubts over American willingness to risk escalation in their defense.^[113] This dynamic risks proliferation cascades, as evidenced by debates in allied capitals following U.S. policy reviews, where NFU signals might encourage hedging against perceived abandonment in the face of Chinese or North Korean coercion.^[112]^[6] Furthermore, the policy's reliance on assured retaliation assumes perfect attribution and second-strike capability, yet adversaries might test its resolve through ambiguous or deniable attacks, exploiting gaps in verification—as in potential North Korean covert operations or Russian hybrid warfare—potentially unraveling deterrence if perceived as bluffing.^[111] In India's case, strategic analysts have questioned NFU's credibility, noting it requires absorbing a nuclear strike before response, which could invite preemptive aggression from Pakistan, highlighting how doctrinal rigidity might fail against revisionist actors prioritizing surprise.^[114] These weaknesses stem from NFU's categorical prohibition, contrasting with flexible response strategies that preserve ambiguity to maximize deterrence across threat spectra.^[22]

Responses to Non-Nuclear Threats

Under a no-first-use (NFU) nuclear policy, states commit to employing nuclear weapons solely in retaliation to a nuclear attack, thereby restricting responses to non-nuclear threats—such as conventional military invasions, large-scale aggression, or other non-nuclear escalations—to conventional forces, non-nuclear strategic assets, and diplomatic measures.^[1] This approach assumes sufficient conventional capabilities to deter or defeat such threats without nuclear involvement, as articulated in policies like China's longstanding NFU pledge, which emphasizes resolving conflicts through non-nuclear means unless nuclear weapons are used against it.^[3] Proponents argue that modern conventional technologies, including precision-guided munitions and cyber operations, render nuclear first use unnecessary for addressing non-nuclear challenges, potentially reducing escalation risks in regional conflicts.^[15] Critics contend that NFU constrains deterrence against adversaries with conventional superiority, potentially inviting probing attacks or invasions by signaling that nuclear thresholds remain uncrossed until a nuclear strike occurs.^[115] For instance, in scenarios involving territorial disputes, an NFU-adherent state facing overwhelming conventional forces—such as a hypothetical large-scale invasion—might endure significant territorial losses or regime-threatening defeats before any nuclear retaliation becomes permissible, undermining overall deterrence credibility.^[116] Empirical assessments highlight this vulnerability: India's 1998 adoption of NFU followed conventional setbacks against Pakistan and China, yet ongoing border tensions with China in 2020–2022 demonstrated reliance on infantry and artillery responses without nuclear signaling, exposing limitations when conventional forces are stretched.^[117] In the context of China's NFU policy, responses to potential non-nuclear threats like a Taiwan Strait crisis would prioritize amphibious and air superiority operations backed by hypersonic missiles and anti-access/area-denial systems, eschewing nuclear options unless directly attacked with them.^[118] However, analyses of a Chinese invasion of Taiwan suggest that even under NFU, implicit nuclear signaling or "blackmail"—threatening escalation to deter U.S. intervention—could emerge if conventional campaigns falter, as seen in Russia's 2022 Ukraine doctrine adjustments lowering nuclear thresholds for existential conventional threats.^[119]^[120] Such dynamics reveal NFU's potential brittleness: while no NFU state has deviated from the policy in practice, simulations indicate that conventional inferiority could pressure doctrinal shifts, as Chinese strategists have debated exceptions for "large-scale foreign invasions" threatening sovereignty.^[121]^[117] Historical precedents reinforce these concerns without direct NFU violations; during the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War, China—despite lacking operational nuclear forces at scale—relied on conventional ground offensives to punish Vietnam's Cambodia incursion, achieving limited objectives before withdrawal amid high casualties, illustrating the policy's alignment with non-nuclear retaliation but also the costs of forgoing nuclear deterrence signals.^[122] In contrast, non-NFU states like Pakistan have integrated tactical nuclear weapons into conventional defense plans against Indian armored advances, explicitly linking them to battlefield reverses, which NFU frameworks prohibit.^[1] This disparity may incentivize adversaries to pursue non-nuclear aggression against NFU declarants, confident in avoiding immediate nuclear riposte, though no empirical invasion has tested the policy to collapse as of 2025.^[115]

Historical and Hypothetical Case Analyses

China's adoption of a no-first-use (NFU) policy immediately following its first nuclear test on October 16, 1964, represented the initial formal commitment by a nuclear-armed state to forgo initiating nuclear employment, rooted in Mao Zedong-era strategic culture emphasizing retaliation against existential threats rather than preemption.^[123] This stance has endured through doctrinal reaffirmations, including in China's 2019 defense white paper, despite expansions in its arsenal to over 500 warheads by 2024, with analysts attributing its persistence to signaling restraint amid conventional superiority over regional adversaries like India and Taiwan.^[20] Empirical assessments note no instances of Chinese nuclear first use, but critics argue the policy's credibility hinges on unverifiable command-and-control practices, potentially masking ambiguities in responses to non-nuclear attacks on nuclear assets.^[124] India formalized NFU in its 2003 nuclear doctrine, pledging retaliation only against nuclear attacks on its territory or forces, adopted post-1998 tests amid tensions with Pakistan and China, where conventional asymmetries favor New Delhi.^[125] Historical analysis of the 1999 Kargil conflict reveals Indian restraint despite Pakistani incursions, avoiding nuclear escalation under NFU constraints, though post-2019 Balakot airstrikes prompted debates on doctrinal flexibility, with Defense Minister Rajnath Singh's 2019 statement suggesting potential adaptations to emerging threats like tactical nuclear weapons.^[5] Critiques highlight diminishing credibility, as India's canisterized missiles and proactive force postures imply readiness for lower-threshold responses to "massive" attacks, undermining pure NFU as a predictor of behavior in Pakistan's full-spectrum deterrence environment.^[126] The Soviet Union's 1982 Brezhnev pledge for NFU eroded by 1993 under Russian doctrine, amid post-Cold War conventional inferiority to NATO, illustrating how NFU commitments falter when non-nuclear forces weaken, as Russia's updated policy permitted first use against conventional threats to sovereignty.^[1] This shift followed empirical failures in Afghanistan and Eastern Europe, where nuclear ambiguity preserved deterrence without formal restraint, contrasting with U.S. rejections of NFU in 1994 and 2018 posture reviews, citing needs for extended deterrence against non-nuclear coercion in Europe and Asia.^[58] Hypothetical analyses posit NFU's vulnerability in conventional invasions, such as a Chinese amphibious assault on Taiwan, where U.S. adherence might deter nuclear but not gray-zone or conventional escalation, emboldening Beijing if retaliation thresholds appear uncertain amid anti-access/area-denial capabilities.^[107] In RAND simulations of India-Pakistan crises, NFU limits de-escalatory options, potentially prolonging conflicts if adversaries perceive nuclear weapons as solely retaliatory, reducing incentives for restraint in tactical exchanges.^[127] Deterrence theorists argue NFU erodes ambiguity's coercive value, as in Korean Peninsula scenarios where North Korean conventional advances could test resolve without triggering assured nuclear response, though proponents counter that historical non-use since 1945 demonstrates sufficiency of retaliatory postures absent first-use incentives.^[15] Empirical data from false alarms, like the 1983 Soviet Petropavlovsk incident, underscore risks of miscalculation under any doctrine, but NFU's rigidity may amplify escalation ladders in multi-domain wars involving cyber or hypersonic threats.^[60]

Contemporary Debates and Developments

Recent Policy Reviews and Proposals

In the Biden administration's 2022 Nuclear Posture Review, released on October 27, 2022, U.S. officials conducted an assessment of nuclear declaratory policies, explicitly considering no-first-use (NFU) and sole-purpose options but ultimately retaining the existing framework that preserves the potential for first use in "extreme circumstances" to deter significant non-nuclear strategic attacks.^[55] This decision emphasized maintaining credible deterrence amid threats from Russia and China, with the review concluding that NFU could undermine flexibility against conventional or biological threats that might escalate to nuclear levels.^[59] Legislative efforts to constrain first use emerged in the 119th Congress with S.192, the Restricting First Use of Nuclear Weapons Act of 2025, introduced to prohibit federal funding for any first-use nuclear strike absent explicit congressional authorization via a declaration of war.^[128] Proponents argued this would reduce risks of unauthorized presidential action, aligning with broader calls to limit sole executive authority over nuclear launches, though critics from deterrence-focused perspectives contended it could signal weakness to adversaries like North Korea or Iran.^[129] Conservative policy recommendations for a post-2024 administration, such as the Heritage Foundation's July 30, 2024, draft Nuclear Posture Review, advocated rejecting NFU outright to bolster extended deterrence commitments to allies like Japan and NATO members, emphasizing arsenal modernization over restrictive pledges amid China's nuclear expansion.^[130] Similarly, a October 14, 2024, analysis urged unambiguous opposition to NFU, citing empirical risks from historical crises where first-use ambiguity deterred conventional aggression.^[131] Internationally, advocacy groups proposed a verifiable NFU treaty in June 2024, banning first strikes and related weapons like nuclear landmines to foster mutual restraint, though skeptics highlighted enforcement challenges given non-signatories like the U.S. and Russia.^[132] China's longstanding NFU pledge faced renewed scrutiny in April 2025 analyses, which assessed it as a diplomatic tool rather than a doctrinal absolute, potentially eroding amid its arsenal growth to over 500 warheads by 2024 estimates.^[26]

Implications in Ongoing Geopolitical Tensions

Israel's maintenance of nuclear ambiguity, without a formal no-first-use (NFU) commitment, has shaped its responses to escalating threats from Iran and its proxies, reinforcing deterrence amid heightened confrontations as of 2025. In October 2024, following Israeli operations eliminating key Hamas and Hezbollah figures, Iran launched approximately 180 ballistic missiles targeting Israel, prompting limited Israeli retaliation but no further nuclear escalation, attributable in part to the implicit credibility of Israel's undeclared arsenal as a backstop against existential risks.^[133] This posture contrasts with an NFU pledge, which could signal restraint but potentially erode the psychological barrier preventing Iran from accelerating its nuclear program or coordinating proxy offensives, given Tehran's repeated vows to erase Israel and its enrichment of uranium to near-weapons-grade levels by mid-2025.^[134] The "Samson Option"—Israel's strategy of massive nuclear retaliation as a last resort against threats to national survival—amplifies deterrence in proxy conflicts, such as Hezbollah's barrage of over 300 rockets into northern Israel in late August 2024, which tested but did not breach Israel's red lines for unconventional response.^[135] Without NFU, this doctrine allows Israel to maintain opacity, avoiding the need to articulate limitations that adversaries like Hezbollah or Hamas might exploit in asymmetric warfare, as evidenced by the October 7, 2023, Hamas incursion that killed over 1,200 Israelis yet did not trigger nuclear thresholds due to the conflict's containment short of state collapse. Analysts note that explicit NFU could invite miscalculation by non-nuclear actors, emboldening graduated escalations in Lebanon or Gaza, where conventional superiority alone has proven insufficient against sustained rocket campaigns exceeding 10,000 launches from Hezbollah since October 2023.^[136] In direct Israel-Iran dynamics, Israel's June 13, 2025, strikes on Iranian targets—combining air, cyber, and covert operations—demonstrate how nuclear ambiguity enables preemptive conventional actions under the Begin Doctrine, targeting nascent threats without crossing into first-use territory, while deterring Iranian nuclear breakout.^[137] Adopting NFU might constrain such flexibility, signaling to Iran that nuclear options remain holstered until after a nuclear strike, potentially accelerating Tehran's weaponization efforts, which advanced despite U.S.-Israel sabotage, reaching breakout capacity estimates of weeks by early 2025.^[138] Empirical assessments of post-1973 conflicts indicate that ambiguity has preserved strategic stability by imposing costs on aggressors aware of undefined escalatory endpoints, though critics from security institutes argue it risks inadvertent proliferation incentives in a region where Iran's proxies have fired over 20,000 projectiles at Israel since October 2023 without facing existential reprisal.^[139]^[140] Regional actors, including Saudi Arabia and Gulf states, factor Israel's non-NFU stance into normalization pacts like the Abraham Accords, viewing it as a counterweight to Iranian ambitions, with joint defense dialogues in 2024-2025 emphasizing shared deterrence against Tehran's missile exports to Houthis and others.^[141] Yet, this opacity sustains low-level tensions, as seen in Houthi drone interceptions and Syrian skirmishes, where the absence of NFU boundaries deters but does not eliminate attrition warfare, underscoring the causal link between doctrinal vagueness and restrained adversary behavior short of all-out invasion.^[142]

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May 22, 2025 · Nuclear deterrence is the cornerstone of NATO security, and the independent strategic nuclear forces of the UK contribute significantly to the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Bridging the Channel: The UK's nuclear deterrent and its role in ...
Nov 18, 2021 · The UK does not exclude the first use of nuclear weapons. And its nuclear weapons are designed to defend its NATO allies as well as itself.<|separator|>
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The United Kingdom's future nuclear deterrent: the 2022 update to ...
Mar 8, 2023 · The United Kingdom's (UK) independent nuclear deterrent protects against the most extreme threats to our national security and way of life, both now and in the ...
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The UK's nuclear deterrent relies on US support - Chatham House
Mar 24, 2025 · Unlike most US allies in NATO, the UK is officially a nuclear weapons state, and therefore less reliant on Washington's nuclear extended ...<|separator|>
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French nuclear weapons, 2025 - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Jul 15, 2025 · France does not have a no-first-use policy and reserves the right to ... The possibility of using the nuclear weapon first is assumed: our ...
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Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: France
French nuclear policy is one of calculated ambiguity regarding first-use of nuclear weapons. France adheres to its principle of “strict sufficiency” whereby it ...
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Nuclear Disarmament France
Aug 27, 2025 · Use of Nuclear Weapons · Retains first use policy and states it will only use nuclear weapons if France's vital interests are threatened.
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“Nuclear spring is coming”: examining French nuclear deterrence in ...
Mar 11, 2024 · However, Burkhard reaffirmed that France's nuclear doctrine does not align with either no-first-use or sole-purpose principles, emphasizing ...
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Pakistan's Nuclear Use Doctrine
Jun 30, 2016 · Since the early years of its nuclear program, Pakistan has refused to declare a no-first-use policy; the country retains the option of using ...
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Pakistan does not adhere to 'no first use' of nuclear weapons policy
May 30, 2024 · Pakistan does not follow the “no first use” policy on nuclear weapons and the country’s deterrence capabilities can respond to all threats from the enemy.
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Could India, Pakistan use nuclear weapons? Here's what their ...
May 10, 2025 · No First Use (NFU): This principle means that India will not be the first to launch nuclear attacks on its enemies. · Credible Minimum Deterrence ...
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India and Pakistan - Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation
The state had declared a No First Use policy, which means they have vowed to never use nuclear weapons first in a conflict.India's Nuclear Weapons · How real is the risk of nuclear... · Kashmir region
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Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: Pakistan
Nuclear Doctrine Pakistan has pledged no first use against non-nuclear weapon states. Pakistan's policy on first use against states that possess nuclear ...
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Sep 4, 2025 · Pakistan has historically maintained a deliberately ambiguous nuclear doctrine, including through refusal to endorse or reject a no-first-use ...
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North Korea Passes Nuclear Law | Arms Control Association
North Korea passed a new law in September that updated its nuclear doctrine and provided greater clarity about command and control of the country's nuclear ...
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North Korea States It Will Never Give Up Nuclear Weapons - CSIS
Sep 9, 2022 · The new legislation appears to signal its intent to launch a preemptive, tactical nuclear strike against South Korea and U.S. forces in Korea, ...<|separator|>
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New North Korea law outlines nuclear arms use, including ... - Reuters
Sep 9, 2022 · North Korea has officially enshrined the right to use preemptive nuclear strikes to protect itself in a new law that leader Kim Jong Un said makes its nuclear ...
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The Troubling New Changes to North Korea's Nuclear Doctrine
Oct 17, 2022 · On September 8, 2022, Pyongyang passed a new law that codifies long-standing nuclear doctrine, though with some alarming refinements.
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Feb 8, 2023 · After all, the new nuclear use law may provide North Korea with some flexibility in employing nuclear force—from pre-emption to retaliation— ...
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Why North Korea may use nuclear weapons first, and why current ...
Nov 21, 2023 · There are three reasons that North Korea will likely use nuclear weapons first if war erupts on the Korean peninsula: Operationally, Pyongyang ...
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The DPRK's Changed Nuclear Doctrine: Factors and Implications
Mar 16, 2023 · The DPRK said it could launch a nuclear preemptive strike even if it judged that the enemy's attack was imminent, which is also “decalcomani” ...
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Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: North Korea
North Korea conducted six nuclear tests between 2006 and 2017. After the first test in 2006, the UN Security Council adopted resolution 1718, enacting a variety ...
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Israel - The Nuclear Threat Initiative
Jun 19, 2025 · Although Israel has possessed nuclear weapons since the 1960s, it maintains a policy of nuclear opacity, never officially confirming the ...
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Wrestling With Nuclear Opacity - Arms Control Association
Israel 's repeated response: “ Israel will not be the first nation to introduce nuclear weapons into the region.”
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Nuclear Weapons - Israel - Nuke - Federation of American Scientists
Israel has not confirmed that it has nuclear weapons and officially maintains that it will not be the first country to introduce nuclear weapons into the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Israel's Nuclear Strategy Ambiguity: Disclosure Doctrine
In such circumstances, Israel's only rational application of counterforce doctrine would be to strike first itself. If, for whatever reason, Israel were to ...
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The Untold Nuclear Dimension of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War and Its ...
... Israel would not be the first to introduce nuclear weapons to the Middle East. This formula had been used orally in 1962 by Israel's first leader, David Ben ...
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Start With Small Steps in the Middle East | Arms Control Association
May 1, 2022 · Although Israel maintains that it will not “be the first to introduce nuclear weapons to the Middle East,” it is believed to have produced 100 ...
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Full article: The evolution and future of Israeli nuclear ambiguity
Jul 11, 2023 · Israel's nuclear posture of ambiguity is a long-standing element of its security strategy that has achieved a uniquely high level of consensus ...
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https://www.armscontrolcenter.org/countries/israel/
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Israel's not-so-secret nuclear weapons
Dec 15, 2024 · Despite its policy of ambiguity, some Israeli officials have even made explicit threats to use nuclear weapons, such as Israeli Heritage ...
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Israel's Nuclear Weapons - Nuke - Federation of American Scientists
This paper is a history of the Israeli nuclear weapons program drawn from a review of unclassified sources. Israel began its search for nuclear weapons at the ...Missing: stance | Show results with:stance
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Israel's Nuclear Ambiguity - by Lawrence Freedman
Jul 25, 2025 · Since 1965 its line had been that it would not be 'the first to introduce nuclear weapons into the Middle East.Missing: strike | Show results with:strike
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Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance
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The Samson Option: Israel's Plan to Nuke Its Opponents
Jun 24, 2024 · What's ambiguous about Israel's nuclear policy is not whether the country has these weapons, but how it plans to use them.Missing: no | Show results with:no
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Israel's nuclear option remark raises 'huge number of questions'
Nov 7, 2023 · Russia's foreign ministry says Israel appeared to have admitted that it has nuclear weapons and is willing to use them.
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No First Use - Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation
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No First Use and Credible Deterrence - Taylor & Francis Online
A no first use policy would not reduce deterrence of nuclear attack, and nuclear weapons are not effective against non-nuclear attacks. It reduces risks of ...
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[PDF] No First Use and Credible Deterrence - UMD School of Public Policy
A no first use policy would in no way reduce deterrence of nuclear attack against the United States or its allies. Nuclear weapons are not an effective ...
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The Future of U.S. Nuclear Policy: The Case for No First Use
By foreclosing the U.S. option to use nuclear weapons first, NFU would enhance crisis stability, bolster conventional deterrence, and provide the United States ...
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India's No First Use (NFU) Nuclear Policy: Doctrine, Debate & Future ...
It reduces the risk of nuclear conflict, supports global non-proliferation norms, strengthens India's diplomatic image, and avoids costly arms build-up.<|control11|><|separator|>
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The Overwhelming Case for No First Use | Harvard Kennedy School
The arguments in favor of the United States' declaring that the only purpose of its nuclear weapons is to deter others who possess them from using theirs.
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A “No-First-Use” doctrine would undermine American nuclear ...
Jan 21, 2021 · No-First-Use is a declaratory pledge not to initiate the employment of nuclear weapons in a conflict, and limits the role of nuclear weapons to countering the ...
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Assessing the Risks of a Nuclear 'No First Use' Policy
Jul 5, 2019 · Elizabeth Warren have called for a U.S. no-first-use policy. Well-meaning supporters of no-first-use are taken with the simplicity of the ...
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America's 'no First Use' Nuclear Doctrine Debate: Implications for the ...
Jul 28, 2021 · A future American “No First Use” nuclear policy could make a Taiwan Strait conflict more likely, more violent, and more likely to involve non-nuclear attacks.
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The Danger of Minimum Deterrence - Global Security Review
Nov 5, 2023 · There are three key flaws with such a policy. First, minimum deterrence undermines the credibility of the United States' nuclear umbrella by ...
[114]
India's Nuclear Doctrine: Need for a Review - CSIS
Dec 5, 2014 · NFU is not in the least credible, because it requires India to first absorb a nuclear attack before responding in kind.” Former prime minister ...
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The Case Against the No First Use Policy - The Stanford Review
Jan 26, 2022 · ... (NFU), a doctrine in which America would never use nuclear weapons ... conventional invasion. In the era of Great Power Competition with ...
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The Catch-22 of NFU - Hudson Institute
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China's Evolving Nuclear Strategy: Will China Drop “No First Use?”
Jan 12, 2018 · China's conventional forces are unable to defend against a “large-scale foreign invasion” (“大规模外敌入侵”). If “the enemy attacks our ...
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The Next Taiwan Crisis Will (Almost) Certainly Involve Nuclear Threats
China's NFU policy is one reason nuclear threats in Taiwan invasion scenarios have not received adequate scrutiny. For decades, China has declared it will never ...
[119]
Growing risk of Chinese 'nuclear blackmail' over Taiwan: Experts
Oct 14, 2025 · ... first use ... Taiwan in the event of a Chinese invasion. "The Chinese Communist Party likely learned nuclear blackmail from Russia during the war ...
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Full article: Russian nuclear strategy and conventional inferiority
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Will China abandon its 'no first use' nuclear policy? - ThinkChina
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CIAO: On China's No First Use of Nuclear Weapons
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The Strategic Realities of China's No-First-Use Policy
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The strategic logic of the No First Use nuclear doctrine
Aug 30, 2019 · India adopted a No First Use (NFU) nuclear doctrine in 2003, but the counter-intuitive logic of the doctrine was controversial from the very beginning.
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India's No-First-Use Policy: A Reality Check
The authors' substantive article presents an intriguing analysis of how India is acquiring nuclear capabilities that far exceed what is needed for credible ...
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[PDF] RAND - Uniform Deterrence of Nuclear First Use
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S.192 - Restricting First Use of Nuclear Weapons Act of 2025
This bill prohibits using federal funds to conduct a first-use nuclear strike unless Congress expressly authorizes such a strike pursuant to a declaration of ...
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No First Use: Frequently Asked Questions
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A Nuclear Posture Review for the Next Administration
Jul 30, 2024 · This Special Report is meant to be a draft Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) for a 2025 presidential Administration.<|separator|>
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Maintaining America's First-Use Policy - Global Security Review
Oct 14, 2024 · The United States must unambiguously reject a nuclear no-first-use policy. Regardless of the moral or ethical debates surrounding the use of nuclear weapons.
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Why a substantive and verifiable no-first-use treaty for nuclear ...
Jun 4, 2024 · Third, a no-first-use treaty could prohibit verbal threats of first use of nuclear weapons by the governments and militaries of states parties.
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Iran's Conflict With Israel and the United States
Oct 3, 2025 · Following Israel's killing of the leaders of Hamas and Hezbollah, Iran launched 180 ballistic missiles against Israel in October 2024.
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Israel-Iran 2025: Developments in Iran's nuclear programme and ...
Jun 24, 2025 · This paper provides an overview of the status of Iran's nuclear programme and recent developments. It also discusses recent military action between Israel and ...
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Iran Is at a Strategic Crossroads
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How Israel's undeclared Nuclear Arsenal Destabilizes the Middle East
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Geopolitical Implications of Israel's June 13 Attacks against Iran
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The State of Israel's National Security - INSS
It represents an effort to propose a stable strategic vision for Israel and recommend policies that can withstand the test of time and change.<|separator|>
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The Israel-Iran Conflict: Q&A with RAND Experts
Jun 16, 2025 · Israel's strikes against Iran could alter its strategic calculus and prompt it to pursue nuclear weapons despite the associated risks, or at the ...
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Israel's dramatic gains on Iran present a historic chance—and ...
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Oil, Missiles and Power: The Geopolitics of the Iran-Israel Conflict
Jun 26, 2025 · At the heart of this confrontation lies the issue of Iran's nuclear program, which Israel perceives as an existential threat.<|separator|>

No first use

Definition and Core Principles

Definition of No First Use

Distinctions from Related Nuclear Policies

Historical Origins and Evolution

Cold War Era Developments

Post-Cold War Shifts and International Efforts

National Adoption and Policies

Countries with Formal NFU Commitments

China

India

China

India

Countries Explicitly Rejecting or Lacking NFU

United States

Russia

United Kingdom

France

Pakistan

North Korea

Ambiguous or Undeclared Stances

Israel

Strategic Rationale and Theoretical Foundations

Arguments in Favor of NFU

Arguments Against NFU from Deterrence Perspectives

Critiques, Risks, and Empirical Assessments

Potential Deterrence Weaknesses

Responses to Non-Nuclear Threats

Historical and Hypothetical Case Analyses

Contemporary Debates and Developments

Recent Policy Reviews and Proposals

Implications in Ongoing Geopolitical Tensions

References