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Obex

The obex (from the Latin word for "barrier"), also known as the calamus scriptorius, is a thin, triangular lamina of gray matter located at the caudal apex of the fourth ventricle in the human brainstem, marking the point where the ventricle narrows to form the central canal of the spinal cord.^[1]^[2]^[3] Situated on the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata at the level of the foramen magnum, approximately 10-12 mm superior to its plane, the obex is formed by the convergence of the left and right taeniae of the fourth ventricle, creating a small fold that delineates the transition from the open portion of the fourth ventricle to the closed central canal below.^[3]^[2]^[4] This structure serves as one of the four primary outflow pathways for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space and central canal, contributing to the circulation of CSF that cushions and nourishes the central nervous system.^[2]^[3] Clinically, the obex functions as a key radiological landmark for identifying the cervicomedullary junction, distinguishing intracranial structures from the spinal cord, and its position is particularly significant in evaluating congenital anomalies such as Chiari malformation type I (CM-I), where caudal displacement below the foramen magnum may correlate with syringomyelia, scoliosis, occipital headaches, and the need for posterior fossa decompression surgery.^[2]^[5] Lesions or abnormalities at the obex level can also impact nearby neural structures, including respiratory neuron groups in the rostral ventral respiratory group (rVRG), potentially leading to disruptions in breathing regulation.^[6]

Anatomy

Structure and Location

The obex, derived from the Latin word meaning "barrier," is a thin, triangular gray lamina that forms the apical part of the rhomboid fossa at the caudal end of the fourth ventricle.^[3]^[4] This structure serves as a transitional zone, reflecting its etymological connotation by acting as a boundary between the open portion of the fourth ventricle and the closed central canal of the spinal cord.^[3] In gross anatomy, it appears as a small fold created by the confluence of the left and right taeniae of the fourth ventricle, roofing the inferior angle of the ventricle.^[7] Positioned at the junction between the medulla oblongata and the spinal cord, the obex marks the cervicomedullary junction and lies approximately 10-12 mm above the plane of the foramen magnum in typical anatomy.^[8] Here, the fourth ventricle narrows progressively, transitioning into the narrower central canal that extends downward through the spinal cord.^[4]^[8] The obex is visible on the posterior surface of the medulla as a subtle V-shaped indentation, which distinguishes the intracranial portion of the medulla from the extracranial spinal cord.^[9] The obex is bounded laterally by the funiculus separans, a thin ridge that separates the adjacent area postrema from the vagal trigone.^[7] Rostral to it lies the vagal trigone, while caudally, it is flanked by the gracile and cuneate tubercles, with its lateral margins attaching directly to the clavae (elevations overlying the gracile nuclei).^[9]^[3] These spatial relationships position the obex within the diamond-shaped rhomboid fossa, the ventral floor of the fourth ventricle formed by the dorsal surfaces of the pons and upper medulla.^[7]

Embryological Development

The obex develops as part of the hindbrain (rhombencephalon) formation from the neural tube during the fourth week of gestation, contributing to the enclosure and continuity of the central nervous system neural canal.^[10] This process ensures the continuity of the neural canal from the brain to the spinal cord, with the caudal rhombencephalon region setting the stage for medullary structures including the obex.^[11] The obex plays a key role in the development of the fourth ventricle, emerging as a narrowing of the central canal within the rhombencephalon, where the ventricular roof and floor plates begin to specialize.^[10] By the sixth week, initial thickenings at the obex site mark the attachment of the inferior medullary velum to the rhombic lip, delineating the caudal limit of the ventricle.^[10] The rhombencephalon appears as a hypoechoic region on ultrasound around 8-10 weeks of gestation, reflecting the expansion of the hindbrain vesicles, with finer structures like the obex differentiating subsequently.^[12] Differentiation completes by 12-14 weeks, with the fusion and specialization of the alar (dorsal, sensory) and basal (ventral, motor) plates forming the lateral walls and floor of the fourth ventricle adjacent to the obex.^[7] Developmental anomalies affecting the obex are associated with Chiari malformations, where incomplete hindbrain descent leads to caudal displacement of the obex below the foramen magnum, often linked to disruptions in paraxial mesoderm growth during early gestation.^[13] These conditions highlight the obex's sensitivity to errors in hindbrain herniation and skeletal integration around weeks 4-8.^[13] Evolutionarily, the obex is a highly conserved structure across vertebrates, representing the transitional junction between the fourth ventricle (or equivalent hindbrain cavity) and the spinal central canal, a feature evident from fish to mammals that maintains cerebrospinal fluid continuity.^[14] This preservation underscores its fundamental role in the vertebrate neuraxis, with variations primarily in size and prominence rather than core architecture.^[14]

Histology and Microanatomy

Microscopic Composition

The obex, marking the caudal apex of the fourth ventricle in the medulla oblongata, is primarily composed of a single layer of cuboidal ependymal cells that form the ependyma, a specialized neuroepithelial lining derived from the neural tube. These ependymocytes are ciliated, low columnar to cuboidal in shape, and feature an oval nucleus that nearly spans the cell's length, facilitating cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulation through coordinated ciliary beating. Beneath this ependymal layer lies the subependymal region, consisting of glial cells including astrocytes whose processes interlock to provide structural support and contribute to barrier functions.^[7]^[15] Histologically, the obex exhibits a thin ventricular floor with a triangular configuration, reflecting its position at the inferior convergence of the taeniae of the fourth ventricle, and appears grayish in standard staining due to the presence of underlying myelinated nerve fibers from adjacent medullary tracts. Luxol fast blue staining highlights these myelinated elements, contrasting with the less dense cellularity of the ependymal surface, while the overall structure lacks direct neuronal bodies within the ependyma itself. Instead, it interfaces closely with fibers from the nearby dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, allowing indirect neural modulation without embedding neurons in the ependymal tissue.^[7]^[16] The vascular supply to the obex is sparse. Adjacent to it, the area postrema features fenestrated capillaries with absent tight junctions and sinusoidal architecture that lack a traditional blood-brain barrier, permitting selective permeability for sensing circulating signals while regulating solute exchange with the CSF. This arrangement in the area postrema supports roles in chemoreception near the obex without a fully impermeable barrier.^[17]^[7]

Adjacent Neural Structures

The obex, located at the caudal terminus of the fourth ventricle's floor in the medulla oblongata, is in close proximity to the area postrema, a circumventricular organ positioned rostrally to it on the dorsal surface of the brainstem.^[17] This adjacency facilitates potential interactions in chemoreception and emetic reflexes, as the area postrema lacks a blood-brain barrier and serves as a key site for detecting circulating toxins.^[17] Laterally, the obex borders the caudal extensions of the nucleus of the solitary tract and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, which together form the underlying components of the vagal trigone (ala cinerea) immediately rostral to the obex.^[18] The nucleus of the solitary tract processes visceral sensory afferents from cranial nerves IX and X, while the dorsal motor nucleus provides parasympathetic preganglionic output to thoracic and abdominal viscera, creating a functional complex for autonomic regulation near the obex.^[19] The obex lies adjacent to the hypoglossal nucleus rostrally and medially, which occupies a medial position in the medulla and contributes to the hypoglossal trigone, enabling coordinated motor control for swallowing and tongue movements in relation to nearby medullary structures.^[18] The obex integrates with major ascending and descending fiber tracts in the dorsal medulla, including the gracile and cuneate fasciculi, which terminate in their respective nuclei at this level to relay fine touch and proprioceptive information from the lower and upper body, respectively.^[19] The medial longitudinal fasciculus, running paramedian through the medulla, passes near the obex and coordinates eye movements and head orientation via connections to ocular motor nuclei, potentially linking sensory inputs from the dorsal column nuclei to brainstem reflexes.^[19] Vagal nerve roots emerge laterally from the medulla oblongata in close proximity to the obex, originating from the dorsal motor nucleus and nucleus ambiguus, thereby connecting the obex region to peripheral autonomic pathways that regulate cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and respiratory functions.^[19] In comparative anatomy, the obex maintains a similar midline positioning at the caudal fourth ventricle across mammals, serving as a consistent landmark for the transition to the central canal; however, non-primate species such as dogs, cats, and rabbits often lack the median aperture (foramen of Magendie) adjacent to it, unlike in primates where it is well-developed for cerebrospinal fluid flow.^[20]

Physiological Functions

Role in CSF Circulation

The obex is a narrowing at the caudal terminus of the fourth ventricle, marking the transition of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the ventricular system into the central canal of the spinal cord.^[21] This anatomical configuration contributes to the pulsatile flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during the cardiac cycle, where CSF moves caudally through the obex primarily during systole.^[22] The obex contributes to maintaining a pressure gradient between the ventricular system, where normal CSF pressure ranges from 10-15 cm H₂O, and the spinal canal, facilitating efficient drainage without excessive backflow.^[23] The obex interacts with the foramina of Luschka and Magendie to support comprehensive CSF egress from the fourth ventricle; while the foramina direct the majority of CSF into the subarachnoid space via the cisterna magna, the obex channels a minor fraction into the central canal.^[24] In hydrocephalus models, such as those associated with hindbrain malformations, obex closure disrupts this balance, leading to impaired caudal flow.^[22] The obex plays a minor role in conditions like aqueductal stenosis, which primarily affect rostral pathways, but is critical in caudal blockages that impede spinal CSF dynamics.^[25]

Relation to Brainstem Reflexes

The obex, situated at the caudal terminus of the fourth ventricle in the medulla oblongata, lies in immediate proximity to the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMN), which extends rostrally along the ventricular floor. This spatial relationship positions the obex within the dorsal vagal complex, facilitating integration of neural signals for vagal reflexes that govern autonomic functions, including swallowing and vomiting. The DMN originates parasympathetic preganglionic fibers innervating the gastrointestinal tract and other viscera, and its adjacency to the obex enables coordinated brainstem processing of sensory inputs from the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) to elicit these protective reflexes during gastrointestinal or airway perturbations.^[19] Adjacent to the obex, the nucleus ambiguus occupies the lateral reticular formation of the medulla, rostral to the obex level, serving as the primary motor nucleus for branchiomotor components of the glossopharyngeal (CN IX) and vagus (CN X) nerves. Glossopharyngeal sensory afferents, relaying oropharyngeal and pharyngeal inputs via the NTS near the obex, synapse onto ambiguus neurons to mediate the gag reflex, which involves pharyngeal muscle contraction to prevent aspiration. This relay pathway underscores the obex's role as a transitional landmark in sensory-motor integration for oropharyngeal protection, with disruptions in ambiguus function impairing gag responses in conditions like lateral medullary infarction.^[19]^[26] The obex demarcates key medullary levels for central pattern generators (CPGs) underlying respiratory and cardiovascular rhythms, with the rostral ventral respiratory group (rVRG) originating at the obex and extending ventrolaterally to drive inspiratory motoneurons in the spinal cord. This positioning integrates obex-adjacent circuits with pontine and spinal pathways for rhythmic breathing control. In cardiovascular regulation, obex-proximal neurons in the NTS and rostral ventrolateral medulla process baroreceptor signals, forming CPG-like networks that maintain blood pressure homeostasis. Animal studies demonstrate that electrical stimulation near the obex—specifically 1000–1700 μm rostral—alters catecholamine metabolism in baroreflex pathways, enhancing or modulating baroreflex sensitivity to arterial pressure changes.^[6]^[27] Clinically, lesions adjacent to the obex, particularly in the medial medulla, compromise the nearby medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), which relays vestibular signals for conjugate eye movements. Such damage disrupts the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), resulting in nystagmus, gaze paresis, or internuclear ophthalmoplegia, as seen in medial medullary syndromes where caudal brainstem involvement impairs horizontal gaze stabilization during head motion. This highlights the obex's utility as a neurosurgical and anatomical landmark for predicting reflex deficits in medullary pathologies.^[19]

Clinical and Pathological Significance

Involvement in Neurological Disorders

The obex, located at the caudal terminus of the fourth ventricle in the medulla oblongata, plays a critical role in several neurological disorders involving structural abnormalities, particularly Chiari malformation type I. In this condition, caudal displacement of the obex below the foramen magnum accompanies herniation of the cerebellar tonsils, disrupting cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics and often leading to syringomyelia—a fluid-filled cyst within the spinal cord—in 40–70% of cases, with rates of 40% in children and 69% in adults. This displacement, first systematically described by Hans Chiari in 1891 as part of hindbrain malformations, can result in symptoms such as headaches, nystagmus, and ataxia due to impaired CSF flow at the craniocervical junction. Surgical decompression, such as suboccipital craniectomy, aims to restore normal obex positioning and alleviate associated syringomyelia progression.^[28]^[29]^[30] Medullary compression syndromes further implicate the obex when tumors or infarcts occur at its level, exerting pressure on surrounding neural structures and mimicking or contributing to Wallenberg syndrome symptoms. For instance, intrinsic tumors like ependymomas or extrinsic lesions such as meningiomas at the obex can compress the lateral medulla, producing ipsilateral facial sensory loss, contralateral body analgesia, and Horner syndrome—hallmarks of lateral medullary infarction in Wallenberg syndrome. Similarly, ischemic infarcts at the obex level, often from vertebral artery pathology, disrupt the dorsal medullary pathways, exacerbating dysphagia and vertigo. These syndromes highlight the obex's vulnerability in the confined posterior fossa, where even modest compression can lead to significant autonomic and sensory deficits.^[31]^[32] Inflammatory conditions, notably multiple sclerosis, involve the obex through demyelinating plaques that impair CSF circulation. Plaques adjacent to or at the obex can obstruct the foramina of Luschka and Magendie, leading to hydrocephalus or exacerbated syringomyelia by altering pulsatile CSF flow. These lesions, typically periventricular or infratentorial, contribute to clinical manifestations like oscillopsia and gait instability when they encroach on the obex region.^[33]^[34] Vascular pathologies, such as basilar artery occlusion, compromise the obex's blood supply via branches of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery, potentially resulting in variants of locked-in syndrome. While classic locked-in syndrome arises from pontine involvement, lower basilar occlusions extending to the medulla can produce partial or atypical forms, characterized by quadriplegia, mutism, and preserved consciousness but with additional medullary signs like respiratory irregularities. The obex's reliance on paramedian perforators makes it susceptible to such ischemic events, which carry high mortality if untreated.^[35]^[36] In traumatic contexts, obex herniation occurs often as part of tonsillar herniation syndromes that compress the medulla and disrupt vital brainstem functions. This can precipitate rapid neurological deterioration, including apnea and cardiovascular instability, underscoring the obex's role in trauma-related mortality.^[37]

Role in Prion Accumulation

In prion diseases affecting ruminants, such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and chronic wasting disease (CWD), the obex serves as an early site of PrP^Sc accumulation in the central nervous system following peripheral neuroinvasion. In experimental CWD models using orally inoculated mule deer, PrP^CWD deposits are first detectable in the obex at approximately 4 months post-exposure, preceding widespread CNS involvement.^[38] In BSE models, PrP^BSE detection in the obex occurs later, typically around 30 months post-infection in cattle dosed with higher amounts of infected material, marking the onset of detectable brainstem pathology.^[39] The distribution of PrP^Sc in the obex of CWD-affected cervids, particularly centered on the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMNV), exhibits four characteristic patterns: diffuse neuropil staining, plaque-like aggregates, perineuronal deposits surrounding neuronal cell bodies, and intraneuronal accumulation within neurons.^[40] These patterns vary by host genotype and disease stage but are consistently observed in the parasympathetic region of the DMNV and adjacent nuclei, such as the nucleus of the solitary tract.^[41] In BSE-affected cattle, PrP^BSE deposition in the obex is predominantly intraneuronal and perineuronal within the DMNV, with less frequent plaque formation compared to CWD.^[42] This accumulation is particularly prominent in ruminant species like cattle, sheep, and deer due to efficient lymphatic drainage and uptake in gut-associated lymphoid tissues, facilitating prion entry into the enteric nervous system.^[43] Prions then spread via the vagus nerve, which provides a direct parasympathetic pathway to the brainstem. The obex's role as a "sentinel" site stems from its position as the initial CNS entry point during neuroinvasion, where prions arrive through retrograde axonal transport along vagal afferents from the gastrointestinal tract.^[43] This transport mechanism, observed in both BSE and scrapie models, allows prions to ascend from the gut-associated lymphoid tissues to the DMNV without requiring extensive lymphoreticular replication in all cases.^[44] Obex PrP^Sc positivity is a hallmark of confirmed BSE cases, detected in nearly all classical instances through standardized immunohistochemical screening of the brainstem medulla at this level.^[45] In CWD surveillance, obex involvement correlates closely with disease progression, as quantified by the obex score—a grading system assessing the extent and intensity of PrP^CWD immunoreactivity across nuclei and white matter tracts, which rises from minimal (score 1) in preclinical stages to extensive (score 5) in terminal disease.^[46] This progression reflects the obex's centrality in prion trafficking and lesion development, influencing clinical onset and severity across affected species.^[47]

Diagnostic Applications

Neuroimaging Techniques

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the primary modality for visualizing the obex, the caudal apex of the fourth ventricle where it narrows into the central canal of the spinal cord. Sagittal T1- and T2-weighted sequences provide optimal delineation, with the obex appearing as a thin, V-shaped structure at the foramen magnum level, approximately 10-12 mm above the plane in normal anatomy. T2-weighted sagittal views are particularly effective for identifying the obex as a subtle hypointense line relative to surrounding cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), facilitating assessment of its position relative to adjacent structures like the cerebellar tonsils. High-field 3T scanners enable resolutions down to 0.5 mm isotropic voxels, enhancing detail of the obex and cervicomedullary junction for precise anatomical evaluation.^[48] Computed tomography (CT) has limited utility for direct obex visualization due to its lower soft-tissue contrast compared to MRI but is valuable in cases of suspected bony compression at the craniocervical junction. On non-contrast CT, the obex manifests as a soft-tissue density at the C1 vertebral level, within the posterior fossa, aiding in the detection of osseous anomalies that may indirectly affect obex position, such as basilar invagination. CT is often employed as an initial screening tool in trauma or when MRI is contraindicated, though it does not resolve fine neural details.^[49] Advanced MRI techniques further refine obex assessment in research and clinical contexts. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) evaluates white matter fiber integrity around the obex and brainstem tracts, using tractography to map corticospinal and other pathways at the cervicomedullary junction, which is crucial for preoperative planning in lesions near the obex. Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences suppress CSF signal to improve detection of hyperintense lesions in the fourth ventricle floor or obex region, such as subependymomas or inflammatory changes, outperforming conventional T2 imaging in posterior fossa pathology. These methods are integrated into multiparametric protocols for comprehensive brainstem evaluation.^[50] In Chiari I malformation diagnosis, obex position is a key metric measured on midsagittal MRI relative to the foramen magnum; a low-lying obex (below the plane) correlates with syringomyelia and increased need for posterior fossa decompression, serving as an adjunct to tonsillar ectopia assessment. MRI visualization of the obex emerged in the early 1980s with the advent of clinical scanners, enabling non-invasive depiction of fourth ventricle anatomy previously reliant on autopsy or myelography. MRI is the standard modality for brainstem evaluations involving the obex, particularly in suspected malformations or tumors.^[29]

Prion Detection Protocols

Prion detection protocols for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) in ruminants target the obex region of the brainstem, where prion accumulation is an early and reliable indicator of infection.^[51] Sample collection involves harvesting a section of brainstem tissue including the obex post-mortem, typically from animals at slaughter or found dead; a fresh or formalin-fixed sample of approximately 2-4 grams, centered on the obex (roughly 1-2 cm in length), is obtained via incision at the atlanto-occipital joint to access the medulla oblongata.^[51]^[52] This tissue is preferred due to its consistent prion deposition in classical BSE and scrapie cases, though atypical forms may require additional sampling sites.^[53] Immunohistochemistry (IHC) serves as the gold standard confirmatory method, utilizing monoclonal antibodies such as those targeting epitopes on the disease-associated isoform of the prion protein (PrP^Sc) to visualize accumulation in formalin-fixed obex tissue sections, particularly in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus and nucleus of the solitary tract.^[51] IHC demonstrates high sensitivity, comparable to Western blotting, when applied to obex samples.^[51]^[54] For initial screening, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot are widely employed as rapid tests that detect proteinase K-resistant PrP^Sc in obex homogenates; these methods have been integral to EU BSE surveillance programs since 2001, processing millions of cattle samples to monitor prevalence.^[55]^[54] ELISA provides results in hours and is suitable for high-throughput settings, while Western blot offers strain differentiation (e.g., classical vs. atypical BSE) but requires more time.^[51] Positive or inconclusive screens necessitate confirmation via IHC or an alternative method to minimize false positives.^[51] Emerging techniques like the real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay enhance detection in obex tissues for scrapie and chronic wasting disease (CWD), amplifying trace PrP^Sc through seeded fibrillization monitored by thioflavin T fluorescence, achieving up to 100% specificity in CWD surveillance and sensitivity rivaling IHC in low-burden samples.^[56]^[57] World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, formerly OIE) guidelines mandate obex sampling as the primary site for TSE confirmation in ruminants, recommending a multi-test approach—such as initial rapid screening followed by discriminatory Western blot or IHC—to achieve diagnostic accuracy with false negative rates below 5% in surveillance programs.^[51] As of 2024, EU surveillance reports no classical BSE cases, with testing focused on high-risk animals and atypical forms, per EFSA guidelines.^[51]^[58] This protocol ensures robust TSE monitoring while accommodating variations in prion accumulation patterns observed in classical and atypical strains.^[51]

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[PDF] PrPCWD in the myenteric plexus, vagosympathetic trunk and ...
In one deer, abundant PrPCWD stain was present in the DMNV, the radix tract and the vagus nerve exiting the obex (Fig. 2a). PrPCWD was detected in the.
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[PDF] Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) - WOAH
Pathological and bioassay characterisation showed that the BSE epizootic was sustained by a single strain, and consistently distinctive neuropathology and PrPSc.
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Progressive accumulation of the abnormal conformer of the prion ...
The purpose of our study was to describe the progressive accumulation of the abnormal conformer of the prion protein (PrP(CWD)) and spongiform degeneration.
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https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1040638715593368
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Chiari I Malformation - Radsource
Chiari I malformation is the mildest form of a series of congenital hindbrain malformations, in which the cerebellar tonsils are displaced below the level of ...
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A rare case - Surgical Neurology International
Jan 5, 2024 · INTRODUCTION. The type I Chiari malformation is characterized by a caudal displacement of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum ...
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Diffusion tensor tractography of brainstem fibers and its application ...
Feb 18, 2020 · Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a noninvasive MRI imaging technique that measures changes of extra-cellular molecular water diffusion in white ...
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History of magnetic resonance imaging - Wikipedia
MR imaging was invented by Paul C. Lauterbur who developed a mechanism to encode spatial information into an NMR signal using magnetic field gradients in ...Relaxation times and early... · Imaging · Additional techniques
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[PDF] Chapter 3.4.5. – Bovine spongiform encephalopathy - WOAH
Estimating the temporal relationship between PrPSc detection and incubation period in experimental bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) of cattle. J. Gen ...
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[PDF] Specimen Collection and Submission for Scrapie Testing - usda aphis
The sample extracted with this method is usually 3 to 4 centimeters long with the obex in the center. Trim out the central 1/3 containing the obex and place in ...Missing: BSE | Show results with:BSE
[54]
[PDF] Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies of Animals
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies have incubation periods of months or years. TME has the shortest estimated incubation period, at 6-12 months, while ...
[55]
Conventional and State-of-the-Art Detection Methods of Bovine ...
Western blot (WB) is the most common technique used for the diagnosis of prion diseases. A variety of Western blot methods have been developed. Some are used as ...
[56]
The European Union summary report on surveillance for the ...
Nov 30, 2017 · Since 2001, approximately 115 million cattle have been tested for BSE in the EU, with a sustained decrease in the number of animals tested over ...
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Evaluation of Real-Time Quaking-Induced Conversion, ELISA, and ...
We show evidence that the RT-QuIC assay is comparable to ELISA and IHC and could be helpful for routine CWD detection in surveillance programs.
[58]
RT-QuIC detection of chronic wasting disease prions in third eyelids ...
Mar 15, 2025 · We determine whether third eyelids from naturally infected white-tailed deer are a reliable tissue for detecting CWD prions using real-time quaking-induced ...