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Onkelos


Onkelos, also known as Onqelos, was a first-century CE Roman aristocrat who converted to Judaism and is traditionally credited with composing Targum Onkelos, the standard Aramaic translation of the Torah widely accepted in rabbinic Judaism for liturgical and study purposes. According to the Babylonian Talmud, he was the son of Kalonikos and nephew of Emperor Titus, initially engaged to a Roman noblewoman but drawn to Judaism through necromantic consultations with the spirits of Titus and other leaders, who extolled the merits of the Jewish people and Torah. After his conversion, Onkelos studied under prominent sages such as Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah, producing a translation noted for its literal fidelity to the Hebrew text while subtly incorporating midrashic interpretations to clarify ambiguities and theological nuances. The Targum's authoritative status derives from its alignment with rabbinic exegesis, though modern scholarship debates the precise dating and single authorship, suggesting it may reflect later refinements in the Babylonian tradition rather than a solely first-century composition.

Historical Identity and Background

Talmudic Depictions of Onkelos

The Babylonian Talmud's tractate 56a–b presents Onkelos bar Kalonikos, identified as the nephew of the Roman general , as a would-be convert who resorted to to discern the spiritual merits of joining . He successively summoned the spirits of —punished eternally by a gnat derived from Jerusalem's ashes—Balaam, who extolled 's unique honor in the , a figure named (associated with leading sinners of and punished by boiling excrement), and the prophet , who urged attachment to above all nations. These consultations reinforced Onkelos's resolve, as each affirmed the exalted status of the Jewish people and observance despite earthly tribulations. Post-conversion, the narrative depicts Onkelos leveraging his ties to subvert imperial authority in favor of Jewish interests. When Roman officials demanded his through practical service, Onkelos advised elevating Torah scholars, constructing edifices for study, and shifting the "great boundary" to enable Jewish resettlement in the —measures portrayed as prophetically eroding Rome's stability by fostering Jewish spiritual and demographic revival. Other Talmudic sources, such as Babylonian Megillah 3a, reference Onkelos ha-Ger without the dramatic lineage or necromantic prelude, instead highlighting his scholarly devotion as a who rendered the Torah's translation under the direct tutelage of sages Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Joshua ben Hananiah. This portrayal underscores Onkelos's integration through rigorous textual study rather than political defiance.

Debates on Roman Familial Ties

The Babylonian Talmud portrays Onkelos as the nephew of the (r. 79–81 CE), identifying him as the son of Kalonikos (or Kolonikos), Titus's sister's offspring, which situates Onkelos in the immediate aftermath of the Second Temple's destruction in 70 CE. This aggadic depiction in Gittin 56b emphasizes Onkelos's proximity to Roman imperial power, framing his conversion as a profound repudiation of the forces that devastated . In contrast, Midrash Tanhuma (to ) reassigns Onkelos as the nephew of Emperor (r. 117–138 CE), portraying him as Hadrian's sister's son who negotiates with his uncle prior to conversion. This later timeline aligns with Hadrian's era of intensified Roman-Jewish conflict, including the (132–136 CE), but introduces chronological tension with the Talmudic account, as Titus's death predates Hadrian's accession by over three decades. These divergent traditions have prompted scholarly analysis of their aggadic intent rather than literal , with variances potentially serving to amplify Onkelos's status: linking him to evokes the Temple's fall and immediate redemption through conversion, while the Hadrian tie underscores defiance amid ongoing oppression. Such symbolic elevation in prioritizes theological messaging—illustrating the convert's embrace of over might—over precise genealogy, though both accounts affirm a lineage unverified by non-Jewish historical records. The absence of corroborating sources for either familial claim highlights the traditions' internal rabbinic development, possibly harmonizing oral narratives from Babylonian and Palestinian contexts.

Distinction from Aquila of Sinope

Onkelos, the purported author of the , and , known for his revision of the , are distinct historical figures despite occasional conflations arising from their backgrounds and translational activities. , originating from Sinope in , undertook his work circa 130 CE amid the aftermath of the (132–135 CE), producing a highly literal rendering intended to supplant the , which rabbinic authorities viewed as imprecise and susceptible to Christian reinterpretation. This effort aligned with Emperor Hadrian's policies, as held a familial connection to the emperor by marriage and reportedly oversaw construction in Jerusalem's rebuilding as . Talmudic literature treats Onkelos and separately, with the Babylonian Talmud depicting Onkelos as a 1st-century figure—son of Kolonikos and nephew of , the Roman general who sacked in 70 —without equating him to the later Aquila mentioned in the . Their translations targeted divergent audiences and languages: Onkelos's version served Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities for liturgical and interpretive purposes, whereas Aquila's text addressed Hellenistic and countered Greek scriptural traditions. Medieval interpreters sometimes merged the two due to phonetic similarities in names (Aquila/Onkelos) and parallel proselyte legends, but such identifications overlook chronological discrepancies—Aquila's post-revolt activity versus Onkelos's ties to 's era—and the absence of overlapping biographical elements, including Onkelos's unique necromantic consultations with figures like absent from 's accounts. These factors, grounded in primary rabbinic sources and historical timelines, affirm their separation, with conflations reflecting later scribal corruptions rather than evidential identity.

Conversion and Life Events

Motivations and Consultations

According to the Babylonian Talmud in tractate 56b, Onkelos bar Kalonikos, nephew of the , sought spiritual guidance prior to his conversion through necromantic rituals to ascertain the merit of aligning with the Jewish people. He first summoned the spirit of , who affirmed the exalted status of in the , stating that their welfare must be sought and their harm avoided, as any who touch them touch "the apple of [God's] eye" ( 2:12), despite their historical subjugation and persecution following the destruction of the . This consultation underscored Judaism's enduring truth amid adversity, as —responsible for Jerusalem's fall—nonetheless acknowledged 's divine favor. Onkelos then evoked Joshua the High Priest, whose spirit emphasized the supreme merit of , declaring it the foundation sustaining the world and advising immersion in Jewish scholarship over worldly pursuits. Subsequently, he consulted Samuel the Little, who extolled the virtue of (tzedakah), noting its power to extend life and avert calamity, positioning it as a core ethical pillar of Jewish life that outweighed Roman imperial temptations. These responses collectively reinforced Onkelos's resolve, highlighting Judaism's intellectual and moral superiority through empirical validation rather than temporal power. The narrative further depicts Onkelos rejecting enticements of authority, such as elevation to kingship, vast land grants, or high priesthood, deeming them inferior to Jewish ideals: a leader beloved through wisdom, a populace distinguished by the modesty of its impoverished, and a spiritual order where reigns supreme without intermediaries. When forces were dispatched to apprehend him for defying allegiance, Onkelos engaged them in on Jewish practices—contrasting hierarchies (emperor guarded externally) with divine kingship (protected by celestial hosts), the significance of laying hands on the head for blessing rather than subjugation, and straps symbolizing mitzvot over weaponry—prompting the soldiers to revere symbols like the and ultimately facilitate his escape, interpreted as providential endorsement of his choice. This sequence of deliberations illustrates a deliberate prioritization of Judaism's causal ethical and communal virtues over material or political dominance.

Interactions with Sages

Onkelos, after converting to , became a student of the prominent Tannaitic sages Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah, both key figures in the Yavneh academy following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The Babylonian records that he received from them the authoritative oral traditions for the Aramaic Targum of the , which he subsequently formalized. This direct transmission underscores his rapid assimilation into rabbinic scholarship, positioning him as a bridge between Roman elite origins and Jewish interpretive practice. His engagements with these sages emphasized the preservation of explanatory Aramaic renderings that had circulated orally among in the and , where Hebrew was increasingly a liturgical amid widespread Aramaic vernacular use. Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Joshua, as survivors of the era, imparted traditions aligned with the Pharisaic emphasis on scriptural fidelity and public accessibility, aiding Onkelos in codifying interpretations that avoided expansive midrashic elaboration. This collaboration reflected the post-70 rabbinic priority to maintain comprehension for non-Hebrew speakers without diluting textual authority. Talmudic accounts portray Onkelos's interactions as marked by deep reverence for rabbinic authority, integrating him into a scholarly lineage that valued precise transmission over innovation. His studies under these sages, who debated core halakhic and interpretive issues in the generations immediately after Bar Kokhba (132–135 CE), facilitated his role in sustaining communal amid Roman persecution and cultural shifts.

Post-Conversion Contributions

Following his , Onkelos demonstrated defiance toward Roman authority when imperial forces were dispatched to arrest him and return him to the emperor's court. According to the Babylonian ( 56b), the soldiers urged compliance, but Onkelos responded by citing verses emphasizing peace and reverence for its commandments, such as Proverbs 3:17 and Deuteronomy 6:8. This led the to seek themselves, effectively thwarting the mission and symbolizing Onkelos's rejection of his former imperial ties in favor of Jewish allegiance. Onkelos's primary scholarly contribution was the production of an Aramaic translation of the , known as , which served as a linguistic bridge for Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities in , preserving scriptural access amid challenges. Traditional accounts attribute this work to his post-conversion efforts under the guidance of sages like Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Joshua, positioning it as a tool for and liturgical stability. In personal observance, Onkelos adhered rigorously to priestly purity laws, maintaining Temple-level standards in daily life, which underscored his ascetic commitment to halakhic discipline over prior worldly privileges. Additionally, upon the death of around 118 CE, Onkelos organized an elaborate funeral incorporating royal customs such as burning costly spices, adapting imperial practices to honor while affirming his integrated identity.

Targum Onkelos

Structure and Scope

Targum Onkelos provides a complete Aramaic rendering of the Torah, limited to the Five Books of Moses—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—without extending to the Prophets or other sections of the Hebrew Bible. This scope distinguishes it from Targum Jonathan, which addresses the Prophets. The translation adheres to a verse-by-verse format, closely mirroring the structure and sequence of the Masoretic Hebrew text while rendering it into Aramaic. It employs the Eastern Aramaic dialect, reflecting usage among Babylonian Jewish communities where the targum gained prominence. Surviving manuscripts, primarily from the medieval period, demonstrate remarkable textual uniformity with few significant variants, indicating an early process of standardization and fixation by rabbinic authorities. This consistency underscores its role as the authoritative version of the Pentateuch in Jewish tradition.

Translation Methodology

Targum Onkelos employs a predominantly strategy, rendering the Hebrew into with close adherence to the original wording and structure, in contrast to the more expansive, midrashic elaborations prevalent in Palestinian Targums like Pseudo-Jonathan. This approach prioritizes , or the plain sense of the text, integrating explanatory elements seamlessly without extended narrative additions or haggadic insertions. The result is a concise that facilitates public reading and comprehension while maintaining textual fidelity, reflecting a disciplined suited to liturgical use in Babylonian Jewish communities. To adapt Hebrew idioms into idiomatic Aramaic, Onkelos substitutes anthropomorphic expressions with circumlocutions that preserve theological intent without implying divine corporeality; for instance, phrases denoting the "face of God" (panei elohim) are rendered as "before the Lord" (qodam yyy) or equivalent formulations evoking presence rather than physical form. Such adjustments mitigate potential misinterpretations of literalism while clarifying obscure constructions, as seen in renderings of divine "hand" or "back" through prepositional phrases like "from before me." Halakhic considerations further shape the phrasing, particularly in ritual contexts, where Onkelos selects aligned with rabbinic rulings to specify sacrificial elements and procedures—for example, using precise Aramaic equivalents for Hebrew terms related to offerings that reflect post-biblical legal distinctions, such as those distinguishing types of korbanot. This incorporation ensures the translation serves not only as linguistic bridge but as a conduit for authoritative interpretive , embedding subtle exegetical rulings into the base text without overt expansion.

Key Interpretive Features

The exhibits a deliberate avoidance of anthropomorphic in describing the divine, consistently substituting metaphorical or abstract terms for physical attributes in the Hebrew text. For example, bodily references such as God's "hand" (e.g., 15:6) or "arm" (e.g., Deuteronomy 33:27) are rendered as "strength" (hayla) or "power" (gevara), emphasizing divine might without implying corporeality. This approach aligns with rabbinic sensitivities to divine , extending to facial features (e.g., "eyes" as "contemplation") and , comprising over half of such substitutions in the Pentateuch. Reverence for the divine name YHWH is preserved through euphemistic circumlocutions, replacing direct usage with periphrases like "the Memra of YHWH" (Word of the Lord), "the Shekinah" (Presence), or "Yeqar Shemayya" (Glory of Heaven), particularly in contexts involving speech or action to avert anthropomorphic implications. These substitutions appear in over 170 instances across the text, serving both liturgical sanctity and theological abstraction, while curses or profanations (e.g., Leviticus 24:16) are softened to indirect forms like "those who curse the name of the Memra." Select passages feature interpretive expansions introducing messianic elements, such as Numbers 24:17, where the Hebrew "a star shall come forth out of " is paraphrased to "a king shall arise from the house of " or a anointed with the of the , highlighting eschatological kingship from . Such renderings reflect midrashic influences, prioritizing collective Israelite fulfillment over individual , though their presence fuels discussions on the Targum's compositional era relative to early Christian interpretations.

Authorship and Dating Debates

Traditional Attribution

The Babylonian attributes the composition of the , the translation of the , to Onkelos the , who received its content directly from the sages Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Rabbi in the early second century . This endorsement positions the translation as an authorized rendering, grounded in oral traditions transmitted by these tannaitic authorities active shortly after the destruction of the Second in 70 . Medieval Jewish scholars, including (1040–1105 CE), affirmed Onkelos's personal authorship, treating the as a venerated interpretive tool that preserved precise halakhic nuances for Aramaic-speaking communities. 's own commentary frequently aligns with or references the 's renderings, reflecting its status as a reliable conduit for ancient exegetical insights approved by the sages. This traditional ascription underscores the 's role in addressing the linguistic shift to as the vernacular among Jews post-70 CE, ensuring accessibility without compromising textual fidelity. Onkelos's identity as a convert further symbolizes the Targum's universal applicability, extending understanding to non-native Hebrew speakers and integrating seekers into Jewish interpretive tradition through a medium endorsed by rabbinic forebears.

Scholarly Challenges to Onkelos's Role

Scholars have challenged the traditional attribution of to a single historical figure named Onkelos in the early , citing linguistic evidence of uniformity in style and vocabulary that points to a process of later rather than individual composition. The Targum's consistent dialect and interpretive patterns align closely with post-Tannaitic midrashic traditions, including 698 documented parallels with later rabbinic expansions in texts like those on , Leviticus, , and Deuteronomy, suggesting compilation and standardization by anonymous tradents in the 3rd to 5th centuries . Historical evidence further undermines direct authorship, as no contemporary references to Onkelos or his work appear in Tannaitic literature or early midrashim predating the ; the earliest citations emerge in the , which lacks explicit endorsement of Onkelos as translator and instead refers to the generically as "our translation." The sole Talmudic linkage to Onkelos derives from a 4th-century source that scholars identify as potentially erroneous, possibly conflating the with the Septuagint-influenced version of the , a figure sometimes confused in rabbinic memory. This scarcity of pre-Amoraic attestation implies that Onkelos functions more as an eponymous or symbolic representative of an evolving translation tradition than as its sole originator, with the text's polished form reflecting collective in Babylonian academies rather than a 2nd-century Palestinian . Such views, advanced by researchers like Israel Drazin, prioritize the Targum's dependence on unavailable early sources and its absence from the as indicators of deferred finalization around the 4th or .

Chronological Evidence and Theories

The Talmudic tradition attributes the composition of Targum Onkelos to the proselyte Onkelos, portrayed as a contemporary of the second-century sage Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Joshua, implying a date in the late first or early second century CE. This view relies on statements in Babylonian Talmud Megillah 3a, which describe Onkelos consulting these Tannaitic authorities during translation, positioning the work amid the post-Temple destruction era of Roman Palestine. Scholarly analysis of interpretive parallels supports an early core, with exhibiting 698 instances of alignment with Tannaitic midrashim such as Mekhilta, , and across four Pentateuchal books, often favoring interpretations associated with Rabbi Akiva's school over those of Rabbi Ishmael. These correspondences, detailed in a 1999 Journal of Jewish Studies article, indicate that substantial portions draw from pre-200 CE rabbinic traditions, predating Amoraic developments and suggesting compilation no later than the mid-second century to incorporate such material without anachronistic elements. However, the targum's expansions and harmonizations may reflect later editorial layers, as some renderings align with post-Tannaitic expansions while avoiding explicit Amoraic citations. Linguistic and contextual evidence points to a later finalization, with many scholars dating the targum to the third century based on its standardized Babylonian dialect and absence of early Palestinian variants in surviving manuscripts. Sperber's critical edition highlights Babylonian phonological and morphological features, such as consistent use of emphatic consonants and periphrastic forms atypical of second-century Palestinian , arguing for a fourth- or fifth-century composition in Babylonian academies influenced by geonic . This theory aligns with manuscript evidence, where the earliest Babylonian fragments date to the fourth century, and dependencies on midrashim like (compiled ca. 400-500 ) for certain phrases suggest post-third-century revisions. Comparative translation studies reinforce a second-century milieu, as Targum Onkelos's literal, word-for-word methodology mirrors Aquila's Greek version (ca. 130 CE), produced under Hadrian to counter Septuagint deviations, creating a competitive rabbinic response emphasizing fidelity to the Masoretic Text. Similarities in handling anthropomorphisms and etymologies with Symmachus's late-second-century Greek targum further indicate an environment of multilingual interpretive rivalry around 130-200 CE, though Onkelos's Aramaic prioritizes oral-targumic traditions over Greek precedents. These parallels do not preclude later redaction, as the targum lacks Aquila's explicit anti-Christian polemic, focusing instead on intra-Jewish exegesis.

Legacy in Jewish Tradition

Acceptance and Use in Liturgy

attained authoritative status in Jewish liturgical practice, particularly within Babylonian traditions, where it was recited verse-by-verse after the Hebrew to aid comprehension among Aramaic-speaking audiences. This integration reflected its endorsement by the , the scholarly leaders of Babylonian academies from the 7th to 11th centuries CE, who promoted it as the standardized translation for public services. In Yemenite rites, which preserved ancient customs, the similarly accompanied readings, maintaining its role in facilitating understanding without altering the primacy of the Hebrew text. Rabbinic regulations elevated Onkelos by prohibiting the use of private or variant Targumim during services, a measure aimed at ensuring uniformity and preventing interpretive deviations. This prohibition, initially applied to oral renditions and later to written versions in , stemmed from earlier Talmudic-era concerns over non-standard translations, thereby solidifying Onkelos as the exclusive public standard. The persisted across Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities as a liturgical and study aid, recited or reviewed to elucidate the Hebrew without superseding it. In both traditions, its authoritative rendering supported —traditionally reviewed thrice weekly, twice in Hebrew and once in —while emphasizing fidelity to the original .

Influence on Later Commentaries

Rashi (1040–1105), the preeminent medieval commentator on the , frequently cited to elucidate the , or plain meaning, of biblical verses, integrating its renderings into his to resolve linguistic ambiguities and align with rabbinic tradition. His reliance on Onkelos, often without explicit attribution, influenced subsequent interpreters by establishing the targum as a benchmark for literal interpretation, with studies estimating that a significant portion of Rashi's comments derive from or harmonize with Onkelos's phrasing. This approach elevated Onkelos's status in Ashkenazic scholarship, where it served as a textual anchor amid midrashic expansions. Nachmanides (Ramban, 1194–1270) expanded Onkelos's interpretive scope by positing that its translations concealed halakhic secrets and mystical insights, diverging from earlier views that treated it solely as a straightforward rendition. In his Torah commentary, Ramban invoked Onkelos over 100 times to substantiate esoteric readings, such as anthropomorphic passages interpreted as divine attributes rather than corporeal forms, thereby bridging literal translation with Kabbalistic undertones. This innovation, first systematically articulated by Ramban in the 13th century, prompted later commentators to probe Onkelos for layered meanings beyond peshat. Rationalist exegetes, including (1138–1204), drew on Onkelos to advance philosophical interpretations, citing its renderings—such as non-literal depictions of divine actions—more than 20 times in Guide of the Perplexed to argue against and affirm incorporeal divinity. Karaite scholars, despite rejecting rabbinic , referenced Onkelos in their translations and commentaries, adapting its phrasing for scriptural analysis while critiquing its occasional expansions as interpretive liberties. This selective engagement highlighted Onkelos's versatility, even as rationalists and sectarians debated its midrashic elements against stricter literalism. In medieval Jewish-Christian disputations, Onkelos furnished authoritative alternatives to the Septuagint's renderings, aiding polemicists like Ramban in the 1263 disputation by underscoring discrepancies in messianic prophecies and divine descriptions to refute Trinitarian claims. Its status as a rabbinically sanctioned text lent weight to arguments preserving Jewish exegetical independence from patristic interpretations.

Cultural and Symbolic Significance

Onkelos embodies the ideal of the ger tzedek, a righteous proselyte whose conversion narrative in the illustrates profound sincerity and rejection of imperial privilege for observance. Depicted as a relative of emperors or , he reportedly consulted the spirits of , , and others via , receiving endorsements of Judaism's supremacy that affirmed his commitment despite potential persecution. This aggadic portrayal serves as a counterpoint to broader rabbinic literature's expressions of caution toward converts, often likened to disruptive elements, by highlighting Onkelos's scholarly devotion and production of a revered as evidence of genuine assimilation and contribution. The facilitated the perpetuation of as a liturgical and interpretive vernacular among , embedding it in and preserving dialectal forms distinct from variants used in non-Jewish contexts. This role extended to educational practices, where familiarity with the Targum's primed students for Talmudic analysis, thereby sustaining 's influence on Jewish textual traditions. Elements of this heritage permeated later Jewish vernaculars, with vocabulary and phrasing from Targumic sources appearing in glosses and adaptations within and literatures, reinforcing scriptural accessibility across communities. Within , the maintains quasi-canonical authority as a primary exegetical aid, integrated into weekly recitation and study despite academic analyses positing composite authorship or post-Tannaitic layers. This adherence prioritizes the unbroken chain of tradition—traced to in rabbinic sources—as the guarantor of interpretive fidelity, subordinating historical-critical methodologies that might undermine its uniformity to the imperatives of halakhic practice and elucidation.

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