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Open theism

Open theism, also known as openness theology, is a Christian theological framework that emphasizes God's relational and responsive nature, portraying the divine-human relationship as dynamic and reciprocal, with the future partially open due to genuine human free will and God's decision not to exhaustively foreknow undetermined events.^[1] This view holds that God possesses perfect knowledge of the past and present, as well as all possible future outcomes, but lacks complete foreknowledge of free choices, allowing for a world where divine sovereignty coexists with creaturely libertarian freedom.^[2] At its core, open theism challenges classical theism's notions of divine immutability and timelessness by affirming that God experiences time sequentially, can be affected by human actions, and may adjust plans in response to prayers or events, all while maintaining God's supreme power and love.^[3] The movement's modern articulation emerged in the late 20th century, building on earlier precedents in Christian thought. While roots trace back to figures like the 4th-century commentator Calcidius and 18th-century thinkers such as Samuel Fancourt, open theism gained prominence through evangelical scholars in the 1980s and 1990s.^[4] A pivotal moment came with Richard Rice's 1980 book and the 1994 book The Openness of God, co-authored by Clark Pinnock, Rice, John Sanders, William Hasker, and David Basinger, which systematically defended the view against traditional doctrines of exhaustive divine foreknowledge.^[2] Key proponents, including Greg Boyd and Thomas Jay Oord, argue that this model better aligns with biblical portrayals of God as relational—such as instances of divine regret or surprise (e.g., Genesis 6:6)—and resolves philosophical tensions between divine omniscience and human freedom.^[1] Open theism has sparked significant debate within evangelical circles, praised for its emphasis on God's vulnerability and empathy in suffering but criticized for potentially undermining doctrines like predestination and the reliability of prophecy.^[3] Proponents contend it fosters a more authentic prayer life and theodicy, portraying God as a risk-taking partner rather than a distant controller, while opponents from classical and Reformed traditions maintain it compromises God's sovereignty and immutability as depicted in Scripture.^[2] Despite controversies, including investigations by the Evangelical Theological Society in the early 2000s, open theism continues to influence discussions on divine providence, free will, and relational theology across Protestant denominations, with recent works like Richard Rice's 2020 book The Future of Open Theism assessing its ongoing development.^[4]^[5]

Overview and Core Concepts

Definition and Key Tenets

Open theism, also known as openness theology, is a contemporary theological perspective that emphasizes God's relational nature and dynamic interaction with creation, positing that the future is partly open and epistemically inaccessible even to God due to the reality of human libertarian free will.^[6] This view maintains that while God possesses exhaustive knowledge of the past and present, as well as all possible future outcomes, divine omniscience does not extend to settled future events involving free creaturely choices, which remain indeterminate until realized.^[7] Unlike classical theism's doctrine of exhaustive definite foreknowledge, open theism argues that such openness preserves genuine freedom without compromising God's maximal greatness.^[8] Central to open theism are several key tenets that redefine traditional divine attributes in relational terms. God's omnipotence is understood as the capacity to actualize any possible state of affairs, but it includes voluntary self-limitation to allow for authentic relationships with free agents, enabling God to take risks in creation out of love.^[2] Divine immutability applies to God's unchanging moral character and essential nature, but not to God's experiences or knowledge, which evolve in response to creaturely actions, affirming God's emotional responsiveness and passibility—such that God can genuinely grieve, rejoice, or be surprised by human decisions.^[7] This temporal, personal conception of God rejects atemporal eternity influenced by Greek philosophy, instead portraying God as everlasting and dynamically present in time, fostering a give-and-take partnership with humanity.^[8] The concept of "openness" underscores that the future constitutes a domain of possibilities rather than a fixed sequence, where causal openness arises from libertarian free will, epistemic openness limits even divine knowledge of undetermined events, and providential openness reflects God's adaptive guidance without predetermining outcomes.^[6] Grounded in the primacy of divine love, this framework portrays God as vulnerably invested in creation, experiencing novelty and relational depth as humans exercise freedom, thereby highlighting themes of risk, trust, and mutual influence in the divine-human relationship.^[7]

Comparison with Classical and Reformed Theism

Open theism diverges significantly from classical theism, which traces its roots to early Christian thinkers such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, who emphasized God's timelessness, immutability, and exhaustive foreknowledge as foundational attributes derived from philosophical and scriptural synthesis.^[9] In contrast, open theism posits a dynamic, temporal God who experiences relational change, challenging the static eternity central to classical views. Similarly, open theism contrasts with Reformed theism, rooted in John Calvin's emphasis on divine sovereignty and predestination, by rejecting exhaustive determinism in favor of genuine human freedom and divine responsiveness.^[10] The following table outlines core doctrinal contrasts across these traditions, highlighting open theism's unique emphasis on relational openness:

Attribute	Open Theism	Classical Theism	Reformed Theism
God's Knowledge (Foreknowledge)	Possibilities-based; God knows all actualized events but not undetermined future free actions, allowing for divine learning.^[8]^[9]	Exhaustive and timeless; God knows all future events eternally in a single "now."^[8]^[11]	Decretive and comprehensive; foreknowledge aligns with God's eternal decree, including all contingencies.^[10]^[9]
Sovereignty	Persuasive influence; God works through relational power without meticulous control, limited by creaturely freedom.^[8]^[10]	Absolute and unchanging; God is the primary cause of all events from eternity.^[8]^[11]	Compatibilist determinism; sovereignty encompasses all events via divine decree, compatible with secondary causes.^[10]^[9]
Human Free Will	Libertarian and open; humans possess genuine, uncoerced choices that shape the future, enabling true partnership with God.^[8]^[10]	Compatible with foreknowledge; free will operates within God's eternal knowledge and plan.^[8]^[11]	Limited by decree; freedom is real but subordinate to God's sovereign will, rejecting libertarianism.^[10]
Divine Immutability	Character fixed but experiences dynamic; God remains unchanging in essence while responding to creation.^[8]^[9]	Fully static and impassible; God is unaffected by time or external relations.^[8]^[11]	Immutable in nature and decree; active in history through accommodation, not literal change.^[10]^[9]

These differences carry profound implications for theological concepts like prayer and divine repentance. In open theism, prayer holds genuine efficacy as it can influence God's actions within an open future, fostering a reciprocal relationship that resolves apparent tensions in biblical narratives of God "repenting" or changing course in response to human decisions.^[8]^[10] By contrast, classical theism views such repentance as anthropomorphic language, with prayer aligning to God's unchanging will rather than altering it, preserving divine impassibility.^[8]^[11] Reformed theism similarly interprets these elements through exhaustive determinism, where prayer and repentance reflect God's eternal plan without introducing uncertainty or divine adaptation.^[10]^[9] This relational emphasis in open theism thus portrays God as a vulnerable partner in history, distinct from the transcendent ruler in classical and Reformed frameworks.^[8]^[10]

Historical Development

Early Precursors

In the fourth and fifth centuries, early Christian thinkers began exploring ideas that resonated with later open theist concepts, particularly regarding the limits of divine foreknowledge in light of human freedom. Calcidius, in his commentary on Plato's Timaeus (circa 321 CE), argued that divine providence operates within a framework where human choices introduce contingency, suggesting that God's knowledge of future events is constrained by the libertarian freedom of agents.^[12] This view positioned divine awareness as responsive rather than absolutely deterministic, challenging emerging syntheses of Christian theology with Platonic eternity. Similarly, the Audians, a short-lived fourth-century Syrian sect, interpreted biblical anthropomorphisms literally to deny God's exhaustive foreknowledge, viewing divine knowledge as evolving with creation's unfolding events.^[13] Early church fathers like Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335–395 CE) also implied a dynamic aspect to divine knowledge in addressing human suffering. In his treatise On Infants' Early Deaths, Gregory suggested that God's allowance of premature deaths prevents potential future evils, portraying divine action as adaptive to contingent human trajectories rather than fixed in timeless predetermination.^[14] This relational emphasis echoed broader patristic tensions with static Greek philosophical models, such as Boethius' later conception of divine eternity as simultaneous apprehension of all time (sixth century), which portrayed God as unchanging and outside temporal flux. Precursors like Calcidius and the Audians prioritized biblical depictions of a God who interacts temporally, laying groundwork for views of divine openness without fully articulating modern formulations. In medieval Jewish thought, Levi ben Gershon (Gersonides, 1288–1344) advanced similar ideas by rejecting exhaustive divine foreknowledge of human actions to preserve free will. In his Wars of the Lord, Gersonides contended that God knows universals perfectly but particulars—like future free choices—only in potentiality, allowing for genuine contingency in creation. This position, drawn from scriptural exegesis such as Genesis 22, emphasized God's relational engagement with humanity over an omnitemporal omniscience, influencing later debates on providence. The Socinian movement of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries explicitly denied exhaustive divine foreknowledge to safeguard human autonomy. Faustus Socinus (1539–1604) and followers like Johann Crell argued that God's prescience of free acts would negate liberty, proposing instead a divine knowledge responsive to creaturely decisions.^[15] This anti-trinitarian school's emphasis on contingency challenged Reformed doctrines of immutability, aligning with earlier relational motifs while prioritizing scriptural literalism over Hellenistic immutability. During the Enlightenment, figures like Samuel Fancourt (1678–1768) directly critiqued divine timelessness. In his 1722 work Liberty, Grace, and Prescience, Fancourt maintained that God's eternity involves succession, enabling genuine foreknowledge of free futures without predetermining them, thus preserving relational providence.^[4] Arminian theology, emerging from Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609), complemented this by positing "simple foreknowledge" as conditional on foreseen free responses, though affirming its exhaustiveness unlike later open views.^[16] These developments collectively shifted focus from Boethian atemporality to a temporal, interactive divine nature, establishing intellectual roots for emphasizing openness in God's knowledge and relations.

Modern Emergence and Key Milestones

The modern emergence of open theism can be traced to mid-20th-century influences from process theology and neoclassical theism, particularly the work of Charles Hartshorne, who developed a dipolar conception of God emphasizing divine responsiveness to the world while maintaining classical attributes like omnipotence in a limited sense.^[17] Hartshorne's ideas, articulated in works such as The Divine Relativity (1948), provided philosophical groundwork for viewing God's knowledge as dynamic rather than exhaustively static, influencing later evangelical thinkers seeking to reconcile divine sovereignty with human freedom.^[18] This foundation gained traction in evangelical circles through early publications, including Richard Rice's The Openness of God (1980), revised and republished as God's Foreknowledge and Man's Free Will in 1985, which argued for a relational model of divine knowledge compatible with scriptural depictions of God.^[19] These roots in 1980s discussions marked the shift from isolated theological reflections to a more organized evangelical movement. The 1990s saw a surge in open theism's visibility, catalyzed by the collaborative manifesto The Openness of God: A Biblical Challenge to the Traditional Understanding of God (1994), co-authored by Richard Rice, Clark Pinnock, John Sanders, William Hasker, and David Basinger, which systematically presented open theism as a biblically grounded alternative to classical theism's exhaustive foreknowledge.^[20] This volume ignited widespread debate within evangelical scholarship, positioning open theism as a reformative perspective on God's relational nature. Complementing this, John Sanders' The God Who Risks: A Theology of Providence (1998) expanded the framework by exploring divine risk-taking in providence, drawing on biblical themes to defend a non-deterministic view of God's interaction with creation.^[21] In the 2000s, open theism faced significant institutional scrutiny, notably through debates at the Evangelical Theological Society (ETS). In 2001, the ETS passed a non-binding resolution affirming God's exhaustive foreknowledge, implicitly rejecting open theist views, amid growing calls to investigate proponents like Pinnock and Sanders.^[22] By 2003, formal charges against Pinnock and Sanders for doctrinal deviation were debated at the ETS annual meeting but ultimately not sustained, allowing their continued membership while highlighting tensions over orthodoxy.^[23] Denominational responses followed, such as critiques from Southern Baptist leaders in the early 2000s, which labeled open theism incompatible with confessional standards on divine immutability and omniscience.^[22] Post-2010 developments have seen the formation of openness networks and sustained academic defense, with ongoing conferences like those sponsored by the Open Theism Network fostering dialogue among philosophers and theologians. Richard Rice's The Future of Open Theism: From Antecedents to Opportunities (2020) chronicled the movement's trajectory, emphasizing its enduring relevance in addressing relational theology amid critiques.^[5] By 2025, philosophical defenses continued in journals, including an article in the International Journal for Philosophy of Religion affirming limited divine foreknowledge as a counter to deterministic models, underscoring open theism's persistence in academic discourse without major doctrinal shifts in major denominations.

Theological and Philosophical Foundations

Scriptural Basis

Open theists draw significant support from Old Testament passages depicting God as dynamically responsive to human actions, suggesting that the future involves genuine possibilities rather than a fixed, exhaustively known sequence of events. For instance, in Genesis 6:6, God regrets creating humanity due to their wickedness, indicating an emotional response to unforeseen developments in the created order. Similarly, Exodus 32:14 describes God relenting from destroying the Israelites after Moses' intercession, portraying divine decisions as adaptable to prayer and circumstance. Conditional prophecies further illustrate this openness; in Jonah 3:10, God spares Nineveh upon its repentance, reversing an earlier pronouncement of judgment and highlighting how future outcomes depend on free human responses.^[24]^[25] New Testament texts reinforce these themes by emphasizing God's relational engagement and limitations in foreknowledge for incarnational purposes. Mark 13:32 states that even the Son does not know the day or hour of the end, only the Father, which open theists interpret as evidence that certain future details remain unsettled to preserve authentic freedom and relationship. James 5:16 underscores the efficacy of prayer, implying that human petitions can influence divine action and alter potential courses of events. Additionally, narratives like the testing of Abraham in Genesis 22:12 reveal God discovering Abraham's faithfulness through the ordeal, as the text notes, "now I know that you fear God," pointing to a sequential divine experience where outcomes are not eternally predetermined.^[24]^[25] Open theists employ a hermeneutical approach that prioritizes the Bible's anthropomorphic and narrative depictions of God as literally indicative of divine temporality and emotional responsiveness, rather than mere accommodations to human understanding. They view relational stories—such as God's grief, surprise, and testing—as central to the scriptural portrayal of a God who experiences time sequentially to foster genuine interaction. Verses often cited for exhaustive foreknowledge, like Isaiah 46:10 declaring God proclaims the end from the beginning, are interpreted metaphorically as affirmations of divine sovereignty over possibilities, not literal predictions of every detail in an open future. This framework aligns with the broader biblical motif of a temporally engaged deity who values freedom and partnership.^[24]^[25]

Philosophical Arguments for Open Theism

One central philosophical argument for open theism addresses the logical incompatibility between exhaustive divine foreknowledge and human libertarian free will. Libertarian free will requires that agents possess genuine alternative possibilities for action, enabling moral responsibility without causal determination. If God possesses infallible knowledge of future free actions, those actions become fixed in the past at the moment of divine foreknowledge, rendering them necessary rather than contingent and thus incompatible with true freedom.^[23] Open theism resolves this paradox by positing that the future is inherently open and partly indeterminate, allowing God to know all that is knowable—past and present realities exhaustively, and future possibilities robustly—without foreknowing undetermined free choices, thereby preserving both divine omniscience and human freedom.^[23] This resolution extends to metaphysical critiques of classical theism's doctrine of divine timelessness. Timelessness portrays God as existing in an eternal present, outside the flow of time, which open theists argue is incoherent because it prevents God from experiencing genuine relational change or temporal sequence, such as responding to creaturely actions in real time.^[1] Instead, open theism affirms that God is everlasting and temporal, capable of dynamic interaction with creation, which aligns with a personal deity who adapts providentially to unfolding events without diminishing sovereignty.^[23] A related argument draws from the nature of divine love, which entails relational vulnerability and risk. Perfect love, as the essence of God's character, requires openness to reciprocal response from free creatures; exhaustive foreknowledge would eliminate such risk by predetermining outcomes, reducing relationships to scripted inevitability rather than authentic communion.^[24] By embracing an open future, God voluntarily limits foreknowledge to foster genuine love, where rejection remains possible, mirroring the risk inherent in persuasive divine influence over coercive control.^[26] Open theism also challenges bivalent logic's application to future contingents, asserting that statements about undetermined future events lack determinate truth values until realized, as they are neither necessarily true nor false.^[27] This critique, rooted in the open future model, avoids paradoxes by denying that God must know non-existent truths about the future, maintaining omniscience as knowledge of all actualized realities and possibilities.^[28] William Hasker's influential "open future" model formalizes these ideas, arguing that the future comprises a tree of branching possibilities rather than a single fixed timeline, with God's knowledge encompassing all logical possibilities but not counterfactuals of creaturely freedom.^[23] Hasker defends this against Molinism's middle knowledge, which posits God's pre-volitional awareness of what agents would freely do in any circumstance; open theists counter that such knowledge presupposes a settled future, failing to resolve the foreknowledge-freedom tension and collapsing into determinism.^[23] Recent affirmations of these arguments appear in anti-determinist philosophy, such as limited foreknowledge open theism, which upholds that contingent future truths exist but are unknowable even to God, reinforcing compatibility with libertarianism amid ongoing debates in analytic theology.^[29] Under open theism, God's knowledge of possibilities enables robust providence: God comprehends all true propositions across possible worlds, guiding history through middle knowledge of likely outcomes and responsive intervention rather than exhaustive predetermination, ensuring sovereignty without negating freedom.^[24]

Variations and Proponents

Major Varieties

Open theism encompasses several distinct varieties, each emphasizing different aspects of divine knowledge, the nature of the future, and God's relational engagement with creation. These subtypes generally share the core tenet of limited foreknowledge, where the future is not exhaustively settled, but they diverge in their explanations of how God remains omniscient amid an open future. These varieties often differ in their treatment of alethic openness (whether future propositions have truth values now) versus epistemic openness (what God can know about them).^[30] Scholars categorize these based on metaphysical assumptions about truth, divine choice, and risk.^[31] One prominent variety is voluntary nescience, which posits that God possesses the ability to know all future events but voluntarily chooses not to know certain free human actions to preserve genuine relational freedom and avoid determinism.^[31] In this view, the future is alethically settled—meaning propositions about it are true or false—but epistemically open to God due to self-imposed limits, allowing for authentic love and response without coercion.^[32] This approach underscores God's sovereignty as expressed through deliberate restraint rather than exhaustive control.^[30] Risk theology represents another key subtype, where God intentionally assumes genuine risks in creation by granting creatures libertarian freedom, resulting in a partially indeterminate future that God navigates through adaptive providence.^[33] Emphasized in works like John Sanders' framework, it highlights God's central purpose of fostering voluntary relationships, employing strategies such as contingency plans and redundancies to mitigate risks while affirming divine vulnerability and temporal engagement. This variety distinguishes itself by portraying the future as a dynamic interplay of divine intentions and creaturely choices, with God responding in real time to unfolding events.^[33] In bivalentist omniscience, proponents maintain that future contingent propositions lack definite truth values (are neither determinately true nor false) until they occur, allowing God to know all current truths while the future remains epistemically open, as there are no settled facts about undetermined events to know.^[31] Drawing from dynamic models, this view argues that God's knowledge aligns with the alethic openness of the future, where exhaustive foreknowledge would undermine freedom, yet divine awareness encompasses all actualized truths as they emerge. It contrasts with non-bivalent approaches by affirming truth-value realism for settled events without implying predetermination for contingents.^[32] Neo-classical variants integrate elements of process thought into open theism, depicting God as dipolar with eternal and temporal poles, where the future includes both settled aspects (divine decisions) and open possibilities (creaturely freedom).^[30] These models retain classical attributes like creation ex nihilo and unilateral divine power but reject immutability and timelessness, emphasizing God's responsiveness and partial accommodation to the world.^[34] The degree of openness varies, with some variants allowing more indeterminacy in creaturely actions while others prioritize divine initiative in shaping outcomes.^[35] Post-2020 developments have introduced nuances like probabilistic foreknowledge, where God holds rational credences (non-extreme probabilities) in future contingents based on objective chances, aligning with cognitive perfection without claiming certainty.^[36] This approach, explored in recent philosophical defenses, distinguishes stricter indeterminism by incorporating belief-credence dualism, enabling God to anticipate likely scenarios while respecting metaphysical openness.^[8] Such models enhance open theism's compatibility with scientific notions of probability in quantum and decision contexts.^[36]

Influential Thinkers and Their Contributions

Richard Rice played a pivotal role in articulating the scriptural foundations of open theism through his chapter in the collaborative volume The Openness of God (1994), where he emphasized God's relational responsiveness and the dynamic interplay between divine initiative and human freedom as depicted in the Bible.^[20] Rice's work highlighted passages portraying God as affected by human actions, fostering a theology centered on love and mutual interaction rather than unilateral control.^[20] Clark Pinnock, having transitioned from a Calvinist background, advanced open theism by portraying God as a "risk-taking" relational partner in his book Most Moved Mover: A Theology of God's Openness (2001), challenging classical immutability and defending divine vulnerability in response to creaturely choices.^[37] Pinnock argued that God's openness enables genuine love and freedom, drawing on biblical narratives of divine accommodation to human decisions.^[37] John Sanders contributed to the development of an "open future" model in The God Who Risks: A Theology of Providence (1998), positing that God employs persuasion rather than coercion to influence free agents, thereby preserving relational integrity amid uncertainty.^[21] Sanders's framework underscored divine vulnerability as essential to authentic providence, supported by scriptural examples of God adapting to human responses.^[21] Gregory Boyd integrated open theism with themes of spiritual conflict in God at War: The Bible and Spiritual Conflict (1997), interpreting biblical events as part of an ongoing cosmic battle where God's knowledge of the future remains partial due to genuine creaturely freedom.^[38] Boyd's approach reframed theodicy by emphasizing divine resistance to evil forces alongside human agency in a non-determined reality.^[38] William Hasker provided philosophical underpinnings for open theism in God, Time, and Knowledge (1989), advocating a temporalist view of divine omniscience that reconciles God's perfect knowledge with an indeterminate future through logical arguments against exhaustive foreknowledge.^[39] Hasker's analysis critiqued timeless eternity models, proposing instead that God's temporal existence allows for dynamic providence without compromising freedom.^[39] In recent years, figures like Alan Rhoda have continued to refine open theism, particularly through probabilistic models of divine knowledge and providence, as explored in his 2024 book Open Theism (Elements in Religion and Monotheism series), which defends the view's compatibility with monotheistic commitments amid ongoing debates.^[40] Rhoda's contributions emphasize contingent future possibilities, contributing to journal defenses and philosophical clarifications up to 2025.^[40]

Criticisms and Responses

Theological and Scriptural Objections

Critics of open theism argue that it conflicts with key biblical passages emphasizing God's unchanging nature and exhaustive foreknowledge. For instance, Numbers 23:19 states that "God is not a man, that he should lie, nor a son of man, that he should repent," which traditional interpreters see as affirming divine immutability and reliability in plans, directly challenging open theism's portrayal of God as responsive to unforeseen human actions. Similarly, Malachi 3:6 declares, "For I the Lord do not change; therefore you, O children of Jacob, are not consumed," underscoring God's eternal consistency in contrast to open theism's dynamic relationality.^[41]^[42] Further scriptural objections focus on God's comprehensive knowledge of the future. Psalm 139:4 describes God as knowing "what I am about to say even before there is a word on my tongue," interpreted by critics as evidence of exhaustive foreknowledge, including future free decisions, which open theism denies as inherently unknowable. Acts 15:18 reinforces this by stating, "Known unto God are all his works from the beginning of the world," suggesting divine awareness of all events from eternity past, incompatible with an "open" future. These verses, according to Reformed scholars, demonstrate that open theism selectively reinterprets texts to fit its framework while ignoring passages that affirm classical omniscience.^[41]^[42] Theologically, open theism is charged with undermining divine sovereignty and immutability, core attributes in traditional Christian doctrine. By positing that God limits His knowledge to accommodate human freedom, it implies a partial sovereignty where future events escape divine control, contradicting biblical depictions of God ordaining all things according to His will (Ephesians 1:11). This view also weakens immutability, portraying God as temporally affected and potentially surprised, which critics like Norman Geisler argue reduces God to a reactive being rather than the eternal sovereign. In Reformed critiques, such limitations jeopardize predestination, as seen in Romans 8:29-30, where God foreknows and predestines individuals, and assurance of salvation, since promises like John 10:28-29 rely on God's unchangeable decree rather than contingent responses. Geisler further contends that open theism's implications erode confidence in prophetic fulfillment and the gospel's certainty, as God's foreknowledge underpins the reliability of Christ's atonement.^[43]^[42] Denominational bodies have issued formal condemnations, viewing open theism as inconsistent with evangelical orthodoxy. The Evangelical Theological Society (ETS) in 2001 affirmed God's exhaustive foreknowledge through a resolution passed by 81% of members (253-66 vote), rejecting open theism's denial of infallible knowledge of future free acts as a threat to scriptural inerrancy and the gospel. Southern Baptist Theological Seminary's faculty and trustees adopted a 2003 proclamation declaring open theism an "egregious biblical and theological departure from orthodoxy," specifically citing its contradiction of God's predetermined plan (Acts 4:27-28) and threat to salvation's assurance. Presbyterian groups, such as the American Presbyterian Church, have labeled it a "dangerous heresy" that degrades God's transcendence by exalting human will.^[22]^[44]^[45] A central objection is that open theism excessively anthropomorphizes God, interpreting relational language (e.g., God "repenting" in Genesis 6:6) literally rather than figuratively, thereby diminishing divine transcendence. Critics maintain this approach conflates God's accommodative self-revelation with His essential nature, leading to a finite deity akin to process theology, which traditional orthodoxy rejects.^[43]^[42]

Philosophical Critiques and Open Theist Rebuttals

One prominent philosophical critique of open theism centers on the coherence of divine omniscience. Critics argue that if God lacks exhaustive foreknowledge of future free actions, then divine omniscience—traditionally understood as knowledge of all truths, past, present, and future—is undermined, rendering God less than fully omniscient.^[46] This view posits that future contingents, being inherently unknowable due to their openness, imply a limitation in God's cognitive capacity that conflicts with classical theistic attributes.^[47] Another objection concerns divine providence in the absence of foreknowledge. Without knowing future free choices in advance, critics contend, God cannot exercise meticulous control over history or guarantee the fulfillment of divine purposes, leading to a diminished sovereignty where outcomes depend on creaturely decisions rather than divine orchestration.^[48] This raises questions about how open theism accounts for the reliability of prophecy or the accomplishment of redemptive plans without exhaustive prescience.^[49] Molinism emerges as a key alternative in philosophical debates, positing that God possesses middle knowledge—awareness of what free creatures would do in any possible circumstance—thus reconciling exhaustive foreknowledge with libertarian freedom without denying bivalence or future definiteness.^[50] Proponents argue this framework resolves the freedom-foreknowledge tension more coherently than open theism, allowing divine providence to incorporate counterfactuals while preserving classical omniscience.^[51] Critics further challenge open theism's temporalism, which locates God within time and allows divine responsiveness, as implying passibility—God's susceptibility to change or suffering—that contradicts divine aseity, the self-sufficient and unchanging nature of God.^[52] By making God temporally conditioned, this view allegedly introduces contingency into the divine essence, eroding immutability.^[53] Recent critiques, particularly in 2025, intensify concerns over the problem of evil. Without foreknowledge of future evils, God's limited preventive knowledge exacerbates theodicy, as divine inaction stems not from mysterious permission but from ignorance of impending harms, potentially portraying God as less benevolent or powerful.^[54] Open theists rebut these charges by redefining omniscience as maximal possible knowledge, encompassing all actualities and possibilities without requiring exhaustive definite futures, thereby preserving God's perfection while accommodating openness.^[55] On providence, they emphasize God's guidance through present interactions, risk assessment of possibilities, and adaptive power, enabling robust sovereignty without deterministic control.^[56] Regarding bivalence, many open theists reject it for future contingents, arguing that such statements lack determinate truth values until realized, thus avoiding paradoxes of predetermination while upholding divine knowledge of probabilities.^[28] They counter passibility critiques by distinguishing voluntary relational responsiveness from essential change, affirming aseity through God's unchanging character amid dynamic engagement. These rebuttals highlight relational benefits, such as genuine love and reciprocity, over classical paradoxes like unchanging foreknowledge implying fatalism.^[57] The debate, ignited in the 1990s, continues, with proponents arguing that open models are superior to deterministic alternatives for integrating freedom and theism.^[49] As of 2025, the discussion persists through ongoing critiques, such as teachings emphasizing God's omniscience against open theism, and comparative analyses of theological frameworks.^[58]^[59]

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Oct 13, 2021 · God's foreknowledge & man's free will. 107 p. ; 21 cm. Rev. ed. of: The openness of God. c1980. Includes bibliographical references.
[19]
The Openness of God - InterVarsity Press
### Summary of Richard Rice's Contribution to Open Theism
[20]
The God Who Risks - InterVarsity Press
### Summary of John Sanders' Key Ideas in *The God Who Risks* for Open Theism
[21]
Evangelical Theological Society rejects 'open theism,' affirms God's ...
The non-binding resolution stated that the society believes “the Bible clearly teaches that God has complete, accurate and infallible knowledge of all events ...
[22]
Open Theism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
An attempt to show what's wrong biblically, theologically, and philosophically with freewill theism, both in its contemporary (Open Theism) and historical forms ...Missing: precursors | Show results with:precursors
[23]
https://iep.utm.edu/o-theism/
[24]
Summary of open theism - John Sanders
Summary of open theism. December 9, 2023 /8 Comments/in Open Theism /by John Sanders ... “Biblical Support,” in Clark Pinnock et. al. The Openness of God: A ...
[25]
5 Ways the Bible Supports Open Theism - Greg Boyd - ReKnew
Jul 9, 2019 · Open Theism believes God created a world with real possibilities. The Bible supports this by showing God changing his mind, expressing regret, ...
[26]
OPEN THEISM AND RISK MANAGEMENT: A PHILOSOPHICAL ...
Sep 2, 2021 · Open theism denies that God has definite exhaustive foreknowledge, and affirms that God takes certain risks when creating the universe. Critics ...
[27]
[PDF] Theistic Open Futurism: A Critical Philosophical Investigation
For many years throughout his career, Hasker held that there were true future contingents, but that it was logically impossible for anyone, including God, to ...
[28]
[PDF] Why Future Contingents are All False Patrick Todd - PhilArchive
The central goal of this book is to defend the thesis that future contingents are systematically false. I thus defend a version of the doctrine of the open ...
[29]
A philosophical defence of limited foreknowledge open theism
Jul 22, 2025 · Limited foreknowledge open theism (LFOT) is the view that there are contingent truths about the future but that even an omniscient God cannot foreknow them.
[30]
[PDF] Open Theism and Other Models of Divine Providence - PhilArchive
Among the many models of God now competing in the marketplace of ideas is a view that has come to be known as 'open theism'. 1 The view itself is not new, ...
[31]
Generic open theism and some varieties thereof | Religious Studies
May 2, 2008 · Bivalentist omniscience: The future is alethically open and therefore epistemically open for God because 'will' and 'will-not' propositions ...
[32]
[PDF] Generic open theism and some varieties thereof - Alan Rhoda
May 2, 2008 · Generic open theism and some varieties thereof. Religious Studies, 44, pp 225-234 doi:10.1017/S0034412508009438. Request Permissions : Click ...
[33]
OPEN THEISM AND RISK MANAGEMENT: A PHILOSOPHICAL ...
Jul 7, 2021 · Open theism denies that God has definite exhaustive foreknowledge, and affirms that God takes certain risks when creating the universe.
[34]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361260768_Neoclassical_Theism_as_Inherently_Dialogical
[35]
(PDF) Neoclassical Theism as Inherently Dialogical - ResearchGate
Jun 6, 2022 · By way of contrast, to speak of neoclassical theism is not to accentuate differences but rather the inclusion of one metaphysical tradition ...
[36]
[PDF] Introduction to Neo-classical Theism - Kevin Timpe
Four Neo-classical Arguments. The four papers in this section all deal with motivating and defending neo-classical models of the divine nature, as defined above ...
[37]
[PDF] Probing the mind of God: divine beliefs and credences - PhilArchive
Suppose instead that open theism is correct and God does not have exhaustive foreknowledge. Interestingly, then there is a different reason to prefer the ...
[38]
Most Moved Mover - Wipf and Stock Publishers
Now, Pinnock returns with Most Moved Mover to once again counter the classical, deterministic view of God and defend the relationality and openness of God. This ...
[39]
God at War - InterVarsity Press
### Summary of Gregory Boyd's Integration of Open Theism with Spiritual Warfare
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God, Time, and Knowledge by William Hasker | Paperback
May 15, 1998 · This outstanding book is a genuinely pivotal contribution to the lively current debate over divine foreknowledge and human freedom.<|separator|>
[41]
Open Theism - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
The first carefully defines open theism, distinguishes its major variants, compares it to other monotheistic models, and summarizes its history. The second ...
[42]
[PDF] THE HERMENEUTICS OF “OPEN THEISM” - TMS
Like other recent evangelical innovations, Open Theism has faltered through its use of errant hermeneutical principles. It has adopted a wrong view of.Missing: milestones publications
[43]
[PDF] beyond-the-bounds.pdf - Desiring God
... open theism” of Pinnock, Sanders, Boyd, and col- leagues, and find it a ... John Sanders, “Is Open Theism Evangelical?” (plenary address at the annual ...
[44]
https://www.sbts.edu/news/seminary-faculty-and-trustees-adopt-proclamation-on-open-theism/
[45]
Seminary faculty and trustees adopt proclamation on open theism
Oct 23, 2003 · “If you take this position of open theism seriously and begin to look at it, the entire plan of salvation comes down to God's good intentions ...
[46]
Open Theism - American Presbyterian Church
Open Theism is a dangerous heresy. It destroys the doctrine of God. It exalts man and his free will and degrades God to an impotent bystander in his creation.Missing: condemnation | Show results with:condemnation
[47]
Perils of the Open Road | Scholarly Writings - Reasonable Faith
Open theists deny that God has knowledge of such “future contingents.” They are prompted in large part by an estimable concern to safeguard human and divine ...
[48]
Openness Theology and Divine Omniscience - The Gospel Coalition
Openness theology denies the orthodox doctrine of God's omniscience, the belief that God knows all things exhaustively before they happen.
[49]
Open Theism and Divine Foreknowledge - Frame-Poythress.org
Jun 4, 2012 · Open theists deny that God knows the future exhaustively. In their view, God is often ignorant about what will happen, 1 sometimes even mistaken.Missing: precursors Calcidius Nyssa
[50]
(PDF) The Philosophical Case for Open Theism - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · My first criticism concerns his dismissal of open theism as an untenable account of divine omniscience. In my second criticism, I point out ...
[51]
Molinism on Trial: My Defense Against Warren McGrew and Open ...
Aug 11, 2025 · When critics attack Open Theism ... Critics of open theism and dynamic omniscience often conflate the present reality with future potentialities.
[52]
Molinism: The Contemporary Debate | Reviews
Nov 30, 2012 · One of the insights to be gleaned from Zimmerman's new argument is that Open Theists and Molinists may not be the fellow travelers concerning ...
[53]
Open Theism Risky Providence is More Blameworthy than Classical ...
Mar 22, 2021 · Open theism is the view that God lacks foreknowledge of undetermined future events, such as knowledge of how humans will or would use their ...
[54]
[PDF] Divine Temporalism and the Doctrine of the Eternal Processions
Jul 1, 2023 · Divine temporalism claims that God is temporally eternal, as opposed to atemporally eternal. Most traditional Christian philosophers and ...
[55]
Why I Reject Open Theism—and Why It Makes the Problem of Evil ...
Jul 8, 2025 · Since Open Theism denies that God has access to future eternal goods resulting from the tragedy, the only benevolent course of action would have ...
[56]
How People Misunderstand Open Theism - Greg Boyd - ReKnew
Jun 18, 2019 · Open theism holds that, because agents are free, the future includes possibilities (what agents may and may not choose to do).Missing: neo- | Show results with:neo-
[57]
Simple Foreknowledge is Useless for Providence - John Sanders
Oct 10, 2022 · The common claim is that God could foresee some event and then take steps to respond or even prevent that event. Hasker has stated the basic ...
[58]
Molinism and Open Theism - Part I - Greg Boyd - ReKnew
May 12, 2014 · Molinism is the view that, from all eternity, God knew not only what every free agent will do in the future, but also what they would do in any other possible ...