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Paklenica

Paklenica National Park is a protected karst river canyon area spanning 95 km² in northern Dalmatia, Croatia, encompassing the dramatic Velika and Mala Paklenica canyons carved into the southern slopes of Velebit mountain.^[1] Established on October 19, 1949, it features steep limestone cliffs, dense forests, and diverse ecosystems, making it a premier destination for hiking, rock climbing, and nature observation.^[1] The park's landscape is dominated by rugged geomorphological formations, including the highest peaks of Velebit—Vaganski vrh at 1,757 m and Sveto brdo at 1,753 m—and the accessible Manita peć cave, a show cave at 570 m elevation reachable via a 1.3-hour hike from the main entrance.^[1] Its torrential rivers and vertical canyons create a unique habitat mosaic, with over 150-200 km of marked trails ranging from easy tourist paths to challenging mountaineering routes.^[2] Paklenica is renowned as a world-class climbing site, offering approximately 590 equipped routes graded from 3 to 9a, attracting enthusiasts to its iconic cliffs like Anića kuk.^[3] Biodiversity thrives in the park's varied elevations and microclimates, with around 1,000 recorded plant species and subspecies, including 79 endemics, such as the window bellflower (Campanula fenestrellata), and rare species like the lady slipper orchid (Cypripedium calceolus).^[4] Forests of black pine and beech dominate, providing habitats for rich fauna: 31 amphibian and reptile species (including the nose-horned viper), 260 bird species (notably the golden eagle and eagle owl), and 53 mammals like the brown bear, wolf, and roe deer.^[5] Over 100 diurnal butterfly species, such as the scarce swallowtail, further highlight its ecological value.^[5] Recognized internationally, Paklenica was designated a UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Reserve in 1978, joined the Natura 2000 network in 2014, and its ancient beech forests were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2017 alongside other European primeval forests.^[1] These protections underscore its role in conserving karst biodiversity and sustainable tourism, while the park's location near Starigrad-Paklenica enhances accessibility for visitors exploring Croatia's Adriatic coast.^[1]

Overview

Location and Boundaries

Paklenica National Park occupies the southern slopes of the Velebit mountain range in northern Dalmatia, Croatia, spanning an area of 95 km² across the counties of Zadar and Lika-Senj. It lies in close proximity to the town of Starigrad-Paklenica, serving as a primary access point for visitors.^[1]^[6] The park's western boundary abuts the Adriatic Sea, with its core zone centered on the Velika and Mala Paklenica canyons that carve deeply into the Velebit slopes and extend eastward inland. These canyons rise from near sea level to elevations exceeding 1,700 meters, encompassing torrent flows and rugged terrain up to the highest peaks of Vaganski vrh at 1,757 meters above sea level and Sveto brdo at 1,753 meters.^[1]^[7] As part of the broader Velebit Nature Park, established on May 29, 1981, and covering 1,829 km² along the Adriatic coast from Vratnik Pass to the Zrmanja River Canyon, Paklenica integrates into one of Croatia's largest protected landscapes. It maintains a direct connection to the Northern Velebit National Park, established in 1999, facilitating ecological continuity across the Velebit range.^[8]^[9] The entire Velebit mountain range, including Paklenica, was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1978 under the Man and the Biosphere Programme.^[10]

Establishment and Designations

Paklenica National Park was established on October 19, 1949, as Croatia's second-oldest national park, following Plitvice Lakes National Park earlier that year.^[11]^[12] The designation aimed to protect the largest and best-preserved forest complex in Dalmatia, along with its unique geomorphologic features, including striking karst canyons such as Velika and Mala Paklenica, from threats like overexploitation.^[11] The park's name derives from "paklina," the resin extracted from black pine (Pinus nigra) trees abundant in the area, which local communities historically used for lighting torches, coating wooden boats, and treating wounds in folk medicine.^[13] In 1978, the broader Velebit Mountain range, which encompasses Paklenica National Park, was designated as Croatia's first UNESCO Biosphere Reserve under the Man and the Biosphere Programme on February 10, highlighting its role in balancing biodiversity conservation with sustainable human development through zoned protection of ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity.^[10]^[14] Paklenica itself received further international recognition in 2017 when its primeval beech forests were inscribed as part of the UNESCO World Heritage serial site "Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe," covering 2,031.78 hectares across two component parts: Suva draga-Klimenta and Oglavinovac-Javornik.^[15]

Physical Geography

Landscape Features

Paklenica National Park is characterized by dramatic karst landscapes, dominated by two principal canyons that define its topography. Velika Paklenica, the larger canyon, stretches 14 kilometers in length and measures 500 to 800 meters wide for much of its course, narrowing dramatically to as little as 50 meters near the underground tunnels, with steep cliffs rising up to 700 meters on either side.^[7] The canyon is incised by the Paklenica stream, which flows through its base, contributing to the rugged, boulder-strewn floor. In contrast, Mala Paklenica forms a shallower, more forested valley approximately 12 kilometers long and 400 to 500 meters wide, narrowing to just 10 meters at points, with cliffs reaching heights of up to 650 meters; its wilder character preserves a sense of untouched wilderness.^[7]^[16] The park's elevations culminate in Vaganski vrh, the highest peak in the Velebit range at 1,757 meters above sea level, situated amid expansive karst plateaus that form the mountain's backbone.^[7] Sharp ridges and prominent cliffs punctuate this high terrain, including Anića kuk, a striking limestone tower rising to 712 meters, renowned for its sheer northwest face exceeding 350 meters in vertical height.^[17] Subterranean features add to the park's geomorphic diversity, with numerous caves and deep potholes shaped by karst processes. Manita Peć stands out as an accessible show cave at 570 meters elevation, featuring impressive stalactites and stalagmites, reachable via a trail taking approximately 1.3 hours from the Velika Paklenica entrance.^[7] Among the potholes, the Ponor on Bunovac represents one of the deepest in the park at 534 meters, highlighting the extensive underground drainage systems typical of the region.^[18] The overall relief encompasses steep limestone cliffs, interspersed karst fields known as poljes, and elevated plateaus such as Bojinac and Vidakov kuk, where typical karst formations like cracks, grooves, and rocky outcrops prevail.^[7]^[19] Bojinac features picturesque clusters of limestone peaks up to 1,110 meters, while Vidakov kuk, at around 864 meters, offers panoramic vistas over the canyons and surrounding terrain.^[20]^[21] These elements, briefly influenced by karst erosion, create a varied mosaic of high-relief landforms.^[7]

Geological Formation

Paklenica National Park is predominantly composed of Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone, forming part of the extensive carbonate rock sequences of the Adriatic-Dinaridic Carbonate Platform. These Mesozoic sediments, deposited in a shallow marine environment during the platform's development from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous, underwent significant tectonic uplift due to the convergence of the Adriatic Microplate with the Eurasian Plate, initiating around the Late Jurassic and continuing into the Cenozoic. This uplift, driven by the closure of the Tethys Ocean, elevated the region to form the Dinaric karst landscape characteristic of the Velebit Mountain range, where Paklenica is located.^[22]^[7] The karstification processes in Paklenica have been shaped by prolonged dissolution of the soluble limestone by meteoric water over millions of years, resulting in a diverse array of surface and subsurface features including caves, sinkholes, and canyons. This chemical weathering, intensified by the region's high rainfall and tectonic fracturing, has created an intricate network of karst conduits and voids, with over 90 documented speleological objects such as the accessible Manita Peć cave. Additionally, evidence of Quaternary glaciation is preserved in the park, particularly in the form of morainic deposits around Bojinac and subtle U-shaped valleys, indicating episodic ice cover during the Pleistocene that further modified the karst terrain through mechanical erosion and frost action.^[7]^[23]^[24] Underlying the porous karst layers in specific areas like Velika Paklenica and Brezimenjača are watertight sediments, primarily Eocene flysch deposits, which impede downward percolation and sustain perennial surface flow in the Velika Paklenica creek while facilitating underground rivers elsewhere in the karst system. These impermeable layers contrast with the overlying permeable carbonates, promoting localized hydrological features such as tufa barriers and intermittent springs. Unique geomorphological elements, including sharp karst pinnacles at sites like Vidakov Kuk and small poljes formed by tectonic folding, trace back to compressional stresses during the Alpine orogeny, which began approximately 65 million years ago and intensified in the Miocene, folding and thrusting the carbonate platform into its current rugged configuration.^[25]^[7]^[22]

Biodiversity

Flora

Paklenica National Park hosts a rich floral diversity, with over 1,000 vascular plant species and subspecies recorded, representing nearly 30% of Croatia's total flora. Among these, 79 species are endemic to Croatia or the broader Dinaric region, highlighting the park's role as a key center of plant endemism in the western Balkans. This high diversity stems from the park's varied microclimates and karstic terrains, which support relict species persisting from the last Ice Age, including certain orchids such as the lady's slipper (Cypripedium calceolus) and various ferns adapted to shaded, moist environments.^[4]^[26]^[27] The park's vegetation transitions across distinct zones, beginning with Mediterranean maquis shrublands near sea level, characterized by drought-resistant species like holm oak (Quercus ilex) and strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), and ascending to mixed forests of pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) and oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis) at mid-elevations. Higher altitudes feature dominant black pine (Pinus nigra) forests in the lower canyons, forming dense stands on rocky, skeletal soils that stabilize steep slopes. Above 1,000 meters, primeval European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests prevail, covering approximately 2,000 hectares in untouched areas such as Suva draga and Velika Paklenica, recognized as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe" since 2017 for their ecological integrity and old-growth characteristics. At elevations exceeding 1,500 meters, subalpine grasslands and dwarf shrub communities emerge, hosting alpine species like the alpine toadflax (Linaria alpina). These forests also serve as primary habitats for diverse fauna, including insects and birds.^[4]^[28]^[15]^[29] Notable endemic plants underscore the park's botanical uniqueness, including the sandwort (Arenaria orbicularis), a relict cushion plant confined to rocky crevices; the Adriatic bellflower (Campanula fenestrellata), with its delicate, window-like flowers adapted to cliff faces; Velebit degenia (Degenia velebitica), a rare perennial herb growing in scree habitats; and the meadow saffron (Crocus malyi), a spring-blooming geophyte limited to high-altitude meadows. Other endemics, such as Kitaibel's columbine (Aquilegia kitaibelii) and the Croatian bellflower (Campanula cochleariifolia), thrive in the park's karstic fissures, contributing to its status as a refuge for Dinaric flora.^[4]^[26]^[30]^[28]

Fauna

Paklenica National Park hosts a diverse array of animal species, with its varied habitats ranging from deep canyons and karst caves to high-altitude meadows supporting complex ecological interactions. The park's fauna includes 53 mammal species, 260 bird species (of which 165 are nesting), 31 reptile and amphibian species, and over 100 diurnal butterfly species, among other invertebrates. These animals play key roles in the ecosystem, from pollination and seed dispersal by insects to predation and herbivory that maintain forest balance.^[5] Mammals in Paklenica are represented by 53 species, encompassing large herbivores such as roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), which graze on understory vegetation in beech and black pine forests. Predators include the brown bear (Ursus arctos), gray wolf (Canis lupus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European wildcat (Felis silvestris), beech marten (Martes foina), and least weasel (Mustela nivalis), which regulate prey populations and contribute to trophic dynamics. Small mammals feature prominently, with 24 bat species inhabiting caves and underground systems, alongside the fat dormouse (Glis glis) and Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), which aid in forest regeneration through nut caching. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) are also common, foraging across diverse elevations and influencing soil turnover.^[5]^[31] The avifauna of Paklenica is exceptionally rich, with 260 species recorded overall and 165 nesting pairs, benefiting from the park's cliffs, forests, and meadows as breeding and foraging grounds. Raptors are particularly notable, with species like the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) nesting on steep rock faces, preying on smaller birds and mammals to control populations. Other raptors include the short-toed snake eagle (Circaetus gallicus) and northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), while owls such as the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), tawny owl (Strix aluco), and Eurasian scops owl (Otus scops) occupy nocturnal niches. Woodpeckers like the white-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) and middle spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos medius) are rare but present in mature forests, alongside 24 cliff-nesting species including the rock nuthatch (Sitta neumayer) and blue rock thrush (Monticola solitarius). The Velebit mountain range, including Paklenica, serves as a migration corridor for many birds, facilitating seasonal movements between Europe and Africa.^[5]^[32] Reptiles and amphibians total 31 species in the park, adapted to its rocky terrains, streams, and subterranean waters. Among reptiles, 11 snake species occur, including non-venomous ones like the Balkan whip snake (Hierophis gemonensis), leopard snake (Zamenis situla), and Aesculapian snake (Zamenis longissimus), alongside the venomous nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes) and the rare Orsini's viper (Vipera ursinii). Amphibians thrive in moist canyon environments, contributing to aquatic food webs. Invertebrates, particularly insects, enhance biodiversity, with 42 ant species (Formicidae) inhabiting forest floors and facilitating decomposition and nutrient cycling. Butterflies exhibit high diversity, exceeding 100 diurnal species such as the scarce swallowtail (Iphiclides podalirius), swallowtail (Papilio machaon), and Apollo (Parnassius apollo), which pollinate flowers and serve as prey for birds and small mammals.^[5]^[28] Ecologically, Paklenica's fauna forms interconnected food chains, where herbivores like roe deer and chamois consume beech forest foliage and shoots, sustaining predators such as brown bears and golden eagles. Vertical habitat stratification—from canyon floors to peaks—supports specialized niches, with cave-dwelling bats and troglobitic invertebrates like the isopod Proasellus coxalis lucifugus and pseudoscorpion Chthonius radjai in underground ecosystems, while crickets such as Grylomorpha dalmatina act as troglophiles bridging surface and subterranean realms. These interactions underscore the park's role in conserving Dinaric karst biodiversity.^[5]

History

Prehistoric and Ancient Settlement

The area of Paklenica National Park and the surrounding South Velebit region shows evidence of human presence dating back to the Neolithic period, approximately 8,000 years ago, when the first farmers and cattle breeders arrived, introducing domesticated animals such as goats and sheep, as well as wheat cultivation.^[33] Archaeological discoveries in caves throughout South Velebit, such as Vaganačka Cave, include bones of domestic animals, stone tools, and decorated clay pottery fragments, indicating early agricultural and pastoral activities layered within cave sediments up to 4 meters deep.^[33] These findings suggest seasonal use by early communities transitioning from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to more settled farming practices.^[33] During the Bronze and Iron Ages, the region featured Illyrian hillforts and burial sites, with fortifications and stone walls constructed as defensive structures or observation points overlooking key routes. In November 2025, excavations at Gradina Svete Trojice revealed a monumental Bronze Age fortress dating to around 3,200 years ago, highlighting advanced defensive structures in the region.^[34] Notable examples include the hillfort at Gradina Svete Trojice on the Velebit slopes near Starigrad-Paklenica, which yielded artifacts from the Roman period (early 1st century AD), such as weapons and jewelry from a warrior grave.^[35] Surrounding Velebit areas contain ring-shaped burial mounds (tumuli) up to several meters high, often located near these fortifications, reflecting Illyrian funerary practices and social organization.^[33] Roman influence emerged in the early 1st century AD, with remnants of roads passing through the Velika Paklenica gorge toward the Lika highlands, protected by forts like Paklarić at the canyon entrance; additional infrastructure, including potential aqueduct elements, appears near park boundaries in the ancient trading center of Argyruntum (modern Starigrad).^[36] Excavations there have uncovered glassware, coins, and tools from over 400 graves, highlighting the site's role in Roman Dalmatia until the 4th century AD.^[33] Medieval human activity in Paklenica centered on shepherding communities that utilized the mountain pastures for nomadic herding, supported by karstic features and seasonal transhumance.^[37] These groups extracted resin (paklina) from abundant black pines (Pinus nigra), a practice reflected in the park's name and tied to traditional economic uses of the forest.^[38] Early medieval traces include 9th-10th century chapels like St. George in Rovanjska, while later fortifications such as Večka kula and Paklarić date to the 14th-16th centuries.^[37] Abandoned villages in valleys like Suha Draga, including sites such as Parići, Ramići, and Kneževići, preserve stone architecture with distinctive cube and barrel-shaped roofs, evidencing pastoral settlements now in ruins.^[37] The park's cultural heritage program manages an inventory of over 100 archaeological sites, encompassing Mesolithic flint tools from caves like Vaganačka, prehistoric petroglyphs in broader Velebit contexts, and Iron Age flint implements, ensuring preservation of these traces of early human adaptation to the karst landscape.^[33]

Modern Development and Protection

The history of alpinism in Paklenica gained momentum in the early 20th century, marking the park's transition toward recreational use. The first recorded climbing attempt occurred in 1938, when Dragutin Brahm, a member of the Croatian Mountaineering Society “Velebit,” undertook a solo ascent of the Anića Kuk wall but tragically perished during the effort.^[39] This event highlighted the site's challenging terrain and drew attention from the climbing community. In the 1940s, amid the disruptions of World War II, progress continued with the successful ascent of Brahm's attempted route by Marijan Dragman and Slavo Brezovečki in 1940, who named it in his honor and graded it at 5c difficulty.^[39] These early exploits laid the groundwork for post-war expansion in climbing activities, though efforts paused during the conflict and resumed more systematically in the mid-1950s.^[39] During the Cold War era, Paklenica became a site of strategic military development under Yugoslav rule. Between 1950 and 1953, the Yugoslav People's Army constructed an extensive underground bunker complex in the Velika Paklenica canyon, comprising tunnels and chambers extending up to 80 meters deep, in response to heightened tensions following Tito's split with Stalin and fears of Soviet invasion.^[40] The system included multiple levels for command, storage, and protection, reflecting broader Yugoslav defensive preparations across the region.^[41] Later repurposed as storage by the Croatian Army during the 1991–1995 Homeland War, the bunkers fell into disuse but were preserved as a historical feature; by 2016, they were transformed into the "Underground Secrets of Paklenica" Visitor Centre, offering educational exhibits on the area's geology and human history while promoting awareness of its military past.^[40] Conservation efforts in Paklenica intensified through the late 20th century, focusing on boundary adjustments and habitat protection. In 1997, Croatian legislation (Act No. 15/97) expanded the national park's borders to encompass additional upstream river territories between Velika and Mala Paklenica, as well as adjacent karst areas, increasing the protected zone to better safeguard its canyons, forests, and biodiversity hotspots.^[42] This expansion addressed fragmentation risks and integrated more of the Velebit Mountain's ecological corridors. Following severe wildfires in the 2000s, including those affecting Zadar County in 2007, park management implemented enhanced fire prevention measures, such as the installation of an integral forest fire monitoring system in 2005–2006, featuring remote video surveillance from high-elevation sites like Crni Vrh to enable early detection and rapid response in vulnerable maquis and pine habitats.^[43] Since 2010, biodiversity monitoring programs have been established, including camera-trapping surveys from 2011 to 2016 across 22 sites to track mammalian diversity and predator-prey dynamics, alongside ongoing biospeleological assessments in caves like Manita Peć to evaluate subterranean species health.^[44]^[45] In recent years, Paklenica has confronted escalating environmental pressures from climate change, particularly affecting its beech-dominated forests. Rising temperatures and prolonged droughts have contributed to growth declines in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) populations, with projections indicating 20–30% reductions in central European forests, including Velebit's high-altitude stands, by mid-century due to water stress and altered regeneration patterns.^[46] These impacts threaten the park's UNESCO-listed primeval beech forests, which play a critical role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity support, prompting initiatives like the "Healthy Forest Regions" project to restore ecosystem resilience through adaptive silviculture.^[47] To counterbalance these challenges, sustainable tourism policies have been strengthened post-2020, aligning with Croatia's national strategy for eco-friendly visitor management; this includes zoning restrictions, capacity limits on trails, and promotion of low-impact activities under the BEECH POWER initiative, which fosters community involvement in conserving beech habitats while ensuring tourism revenues fund protection efforts.^[48]^[49]

Recreation and Tourism

Hiking and Climbing Activities

Paklenica National Park features an extensive network of over 150 kilometers of marked hiking trails, catering to various skill levels and offering access to its dramatic canyons, forests, and peaks.^[2] One of the most popular routes is the trail through Velika Paklenica Canyon, which ascends toward Vaganski vrh, the park's highest peak at 1,757 meters; this challenging path typically takes 8-10 hours round trip, involving steep inclines and rocky terrain that showcase the park's karst landscape.^[50] For shorter excursions, the tourist trail to Manita Peć Cave provides an educational introduction to the area's geology, covering about 1.5 hours one way from the Velika Paklenica entrance and reaching an elevation of 570 meters, where visitors can explore the cave's stalactites and underground formations.^[2] Trails are marked with red and white signs, and hikers are advised to use the park's interactive map or official guides for navigation.^[2] The park is renowned internationally for rock climbing, with approximately 590 well-equipped routes spanning a wide range of difficulties from UIAA grade 3 to 9a (equivalent to roughly 5.2 to 5.14a in Yosemite Decimal System).^[3] These routes are concentrated on prominent crags such as Anića kuk, which offers multipitch climbs up to 350 meters high, including classics like Mosoraška (6c+), appealing to both beginners and experts on the park's limestone cliffs.^[3] Other key sectors include Klanci for short sport routes accessible even for families and Crljenica for winter climbing.^[3] The annual International Climbers' Meeting, held around May 1 since 2001, draws global participants with competitions, workshops, and a film festival, fostering community and skill-sharing in the canyon.^[51] Optimal conditions for hiking and climbing occur from April to October, when milder weather and longer daylight hours prevail, though summer heat can intensify challenges in the canyon.^[52] Park regulations require climbers to use full equipment, including helmets, and prohibit solo climbing or off-trail ascents to minimize erosion and protect the sensitive karst ecosystem; all activities must stay within designated Velika Paklenica sites.^[53] Overnight hikes necessitate reservations at mountain shelters like Paklenica Hut, as wild camping is forbidden, ensuring safety and environmental preservation.^[54] The park attracted 130,913 visitors in 2023, following a dip to 64,924 in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and a rebound to over 99,000 by mid-2023, reflecting increased interest in outdoor pursuits.^[55]^[56]^[57] Many opt for guided tours focused on birdwatching—spotting species like the golden eagle—or photography, capturing the canyon's stark beauty and biodiversity under expert supervision.^[58]

Visitor Attractions and Facilities

Paklenica National Park offers a range of visitor attractions that emphasize its natural and cultural heritage, providing opportunities for educational and leisurely exploration. The historic Paklenica Mill, located at the entrance to Velika Paklenica Canyon, serves as an iconic starting point for visitors, showcasing traditional milling techniques from the 19th century. This well-preserved watermill, restored in 2000 by park authorities in collaboration with conservation experts, was operational until the 1960s, grinding grain for local households in Podgorje, Ravni Kotari, and nearby islands. It is open daily from 8 a.m. to 7 p.m. during the main season (May to October), allowing visitors to observe its mechanisms and learn about rural life in the Velebit region.^[59] Another prominent attraction is the Struga viewpoint near the Struge mountain shelter at 1,400 m a.s.l., which provides panoramic vistas of the surrounding Velebit peaks and inland landscapes, accessible via moderate hiking trails from the park's mountain hut. For broader Adriatic overlooks, the Liburnija peak at 1,709 m a.s.l. stands out as one of the most scenic viewpoints in the park, offering spectacular sights of the mid-Adriatic archipelago on clear days after a roughly five-hour hike from the mountain hut. These sites highlight the park's dramatic topography without requiring advanced physical exertion.^[60]^[61] Educational facilities enhance the visitor experience by focusing on the park's geological and biological significance. The Visitor Center "Underground Secrets of Paklenica," situated in repurposed Yugoslav Army bunkers within Velika Paklenica Canyon, features interactive exhibits on the natural features of Velebit Mountain, including its geological formation and biodiversity as part of the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and Natura 2000 network. Opened in 2016 and fully completed in 2022, the center operates from 9 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. between April and October, with adult admission at €5. Complementing this, guided tours of Manita Peć Cave, the park's only public show cave located at 570 m a.s.l., delve into subterranean wonders such as stalactites, stalagmites, and unique formations like the "Helmet" and "Organ," alongside its rich underground fauna including bats and 20 endemic cave species. These 30-minute tours, conducted daily in peak season (July to September) and on select days otherwise, start from the cave entrance after a 1.5-hour walk from the main parking lot, emphasizing the cave's role in the park's karst ecosystem.^[40]^[62] Accessibility is prioritized for diverse visitors through features like the paved Pjeskarica trail, a 1.5 km family-friendly path connecting the Paklenica Mill to the main canyon parking area, suitable for strollers and those with mobility aids. These elements integrate seamlessly with the park's broader hiking network, enabling passive sightseeing alongside optional active pursuits.^[63] Sustainability initiatives ensure the preservation of these attractions for future generations. Visitors are required to carry out all waste, including cigarette butts, to prevent contamination of water sources and habitats, while strict adherence to marked trails—totaling 150-200 km—helps control erosion and protect sensitive vegetation. Entry fees, approximately €10 per adult for a one-day ticket, directly fund conservation efforts, including habitat maintenance and educational programs, with proceeds managed by the Public Institution Paklenica National Park under Croatia's Ministry of Environmental Protection and Green Transition.^[64]^[2]^[65]^[66]

Infrastructure

Mountain Huts and Trails

The mountain huts and shelters in Paklenica National Park provide essential accommodation for hikers undertaking multi-day treks, with several facilities, including mountain huts and unmanaged shelters, some managed under the oversight of the Croatian Mountaineering Association through local clubs. The primary option is the Paklenica Mountain Hut, located approximately 6 km from the main park entrance along the Velika Paklenica stream, offering around 50 beds in shared rooms with basic facilities such as shared sleeping areas; visitors are advised to bring their own sleeping gear. Operated by the Paklenica Mountaineering Club from Zadar, it serves as a convenient base near the park's entry point.^[67]^[68] Higher-elevation options include the Vaganski Vrh Hut (also known as the Struge shelter) at 1,400 m above sea level, a seasonal facility with capacity for 10 persons, positioned about 3 hours' walk from the main hut and ideal for access to the summit of Vaganski vrh, Velebit's highest peak at 1,757 m. Other key shelters are Ivine Vodice at 1,200 m (12 beds, 2.3 hours from the main hut, with a nearby water source), Vlaški Grad at 1,280 m (small capacity, 4 hours from the main hut), and Ivančev dom at 556 m (family-run with basic lodging and meals, 2 hours from the entrance). These unmanaged shelters offer simple, unserviced overnight stays without electricity, emphasizing self-sufficiency. Reservations are required for the Paklenica Mountain Hut via phone (+385 97 755 7654) or email ([email protected]), while shelters operate on a first-come, first-served basis; park rules strictly prohibit open fires to prevent wildfires, and all waste must be carried out.^[61]^[69]^[70]^[71]^[64] The park's trail network spans 150-200 km of paths, ranging from easy tourist routes to challenging mountaineering tracks, all well-marked with standard red-and-white Croatian mountaineering signs and direction boards at intersections in both Croatian and English for accessibility. A notable segment integrates with the 100-km Velebit Hiking Trail, a long-distance route spanning the Velebit range and culminating at Starigrad-Paklenica, allowing through-hikers to traverse the park's canyons and plateaus over several days. Maintenance is conducted by the park authority in collaboration with the Croatian Mountaineering Association, supported by annual volunteer programs that clear paths, repair signage, and enhance safety. Emergency shelters are available at strategic points, such as the Bojinac plateau, providing basic refuge during adverse weather. These huts and trails also function as starting points for rock climbing routes in the park.^[2]^[72]^[63]^[73]^[74]

Cultural and Historical Sites

Paklenica National Park preserves a range of human-made historical sites that reflect its layered past, from Cold War military installations to traditional pastoral architecture and medieval religious remnants, all integrated into the park's rugged landscape without compromising its wilderness character. These sites offer visitors insights into the region's strategic and cultural significance, with guided access emphasizing educational value over commercial development. Preservation initiatives have focused on restoration and interpretation to safeguard these features amid the park's protected status. One prominent example is the abandoned bunker complex in Velika Paklenica canyon, constructed by the Yugoslav Army between 1950 and 1953 as a secret underground facility amid Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union.^[40] Spanning 1,500 square meters of tunnels, the site exemplifies mid-20th-century military architecture designed for strategic defense and shelter.^[40] Today, it serves as the Visitor Centre "Underground Secrets of Paklenica," offering guided tours from April to October that highlight its historical role and transformation into an educational hub on the park's natural and cultural heritage.^[40] Reconstruction efforts began in 2000 by park authorities and were fully completed by July 2022, ensuring accessibility while maintaining the site's integrity.^[40] Traditional structures within the park include old shepherds' stone huts known as stani, particularly in Mala Paklenica, which adapted to the karst terrain for nomadic stock herding and summer residences.^[37] These dry-stone constructions, often built into semi-caves or fault lines, are remnants of ten mostly abandoned mountain settlements such as Parići, Ramići, Kneževići, and others, illustrating Velebit's pastoral heritage from the Middle Ages onward.^[37] Nearby, medieval church ruins, including early chapels like those of St. George in Rovanjska and St. Peter in Starigrad from the 9th-10th centuries, dot the landscape around settlements like Kneževići, serving as enduring markers of seasonal religious practices.^[37] Cultural programs enliven these sites through annual folklore festivals in Starigrad-Paklenica, featuring dance ensembles that showcase local Velebit traditions, such as the International Dance Festival "Adriatic Zadar Open."^[75] Complementing these events, the park's trails connect prehistoric finds—like Mesolithic tools in Vaganačka Cave—to Roman paths and structures, including walls and roads near ancient Argyruntum.^[33] These paths tie into broader prehistoric settlements detailed elsewhere, providing a narrative thread from antiquity to the present.^[33] Post-1990s Croatian War of Independence preservation efforts have been crucial, with sites like the bunkers—reopened by the Croatian Army in 1991 for wartime use—undergoing targeted restorations to repair conflict-related damage and install interpretive panels for visitor education.^[76] Overall, park management enforces strict no-development policies to preserve the wilderness feel, aligning with UNESCO protections since 2017 that encompass cultural elements alongside natural features.^[33]

References

[1]
About Park - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The Paklenica National Park on the area of 95 km2, and includes the highest peaks of the Velebit Mountain - Vaganski vrh (1752 m a.s.l.) and Sveto brdo (1753 m ...
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Hiking trails - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The Park area contains 150-200 km of trails and paths, from those characterized as tourist trails - leading from Velika Paklenica canyon to Manita peć cave, ...
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Climbing site - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Today, there are about 590 well-equipped marked routes of different difficulty and length (from grade 3-9a), set in the carbonate rocks, so each climber can ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Plants - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Paklenica has 1,000 plant species, including 79 endemic ones. Common genera include daisies, grasses, and legumes. Endemic plants grow in karstic habitats, and ...Missing: fauna | Show results with:fauna
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Animals - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Paklenica has diverse fauna including butterflies, 31 amphibian/reptile species, 260 bird species, and 53 mammal species like deer, wild boar, and bears.Missing: flora | Show results with:flora
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How to reach us - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Main entrance Address (Entrance 1):. Paklenička ulica, 23244 Starigrad. You can reach Paklenica: • By car. You can arrive from several directions by car.Missing: boundaries | Show results with:boundaries
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Geomorphological features - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Natural heritage. Geomorphological features · Underground · Water · Plants · Forests · Animals. Cultural heritage. Archaeological finds in Paklenica National ...Missing: flora fauna<|control11|><|separator|>
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General Information | PP Velebit
Velebit Nature Park was officially designated on May 29, 1981, as one of the most significant natural areas in Croatia and beyond. · According to the Register of ...
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PARK
Established in 1999, Northern Velebit is the youngest of eight Croatian national parks, with diverse habitats, a 109 km2 area, and a surface altitude of 518- ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
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UNESCO Biosphere Reserve - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The MAB Programme was among the first in the world which put an emphasis on achieving the balance between conserving biodiversity on one hand and development ...
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https://www.np-paklenica.hr/en/park-en/park-history
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https://expatincroatia.com/croatia-national-parks/
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None
### Summary: Origin of the Name Paklenica
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https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/velebit-mountains
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Paklenica National Park - European Beech Forests
UNESCO recognition: 2017 · Protected area: Paklenica National Park · Beech forest region: Illyrian · Area: 2,031.78 ha · Number of component parts: 2 (Suva draga- ...
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Mala Paklenica Canyon
Mala Paklenica canyon is known for its “wilderness” and intact nature. The Canyon is significantly smaller than Velika Paklenica and the stream that runs ...
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Anica Kuk : Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering - SummitPost.org
Certainly it is not legendary because of its absolute height but 400m high monumental NW Face which contains toughest Velebit and Croatian routes.
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Underground - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The longest cave is Vodarica Pit which is 300 meters long, while the Cave in Zub Buljme is 250 meters long. Lucinka Cave is 132 meters long and its 51-meter- ...Missing: boundaries | Show results with:boundaries
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Paklenica National Park in a Page: Climbing, Hiking ... - Total Croatia
May 31, 2023 · 14 km long and 500–800 m wide, Velika Paklenica canyon is an epic trail offering most of the park activities. At its narrowest, it's only 50 m ...
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Bojin Kuk : Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering : SummitPost
Bojinac group is located rises above the sea in 2 steps. Between them is large Rujno terrace or plateau. Bojinac is group in the streak of peaks of 1st step.
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Vidakov Kuk : Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering : SummitPost
It is approached by beautiful path which climbs up the western side of Velika Paklenica, just behind canyon part, or before it. Path is panoramic with great ...
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Insight from Dinaric Karst (Velebit Mt., Croatia) - MDPI
Aug 8, 2024 · The Dinaric Mountains originated with the convergence of the Adriatic Microplate and the Eurasian Plate from the Late Jurassic until the present ...
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Geological and relief characteristics | Natural beauty | Starigrad
Velika and Mala Paklenica The geological features of the National Park can be seen in the sharp karst formations in the regions of Bojinac and Vidakov Kuk ...
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(PDF) Introduction to the Dinaric Karst - ResearchGate
The karst surface is mainly characterised by circular concave and convex relief features such as conical hills, dolines, uvalas and poljes (Ford and Williams, ...
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Water - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Watertight sediments are situated beneath very porous karstic deposits of carbonate rock in the extended part of Velika Paklenica, Brezimenjača, and in the ...
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Flora and fauna - Rivijera Paklenica
According to the latest inventarisation of flora, Paklenica is inhabited by more then a 1.000 of different species that represent an exceptional wealth on the ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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Paklenica National Park: A UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Perfected ...
Feb 24, 2025 · Declared a national park in 1949, it sits within the greater Velebit mountain range, which has been protected as a nature park since 1981.Missing: date oldest
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The forests of Paklenica National Park
The forests of Paklenica National Park have provided habitats for numerous animal species, from the tiniest ants (Formicidae), of which there are 42 species in ...Missing: flora | Show results with:flora
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Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other ...
Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe. This transnational property includes 93 component parts in 18 countries.Missing: Paklenica | Show results with:Paklenica
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The genus Crocus L. in the Paklenica National Park - ResearchGate
No records have previously been available for the genus Crocus in the Paklenica National Park. In 1997 and 2000 three taxa from this genus were found in the ...Missing: Degenia Campanula fenestrellata orbicularis
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Flora and fauna - Visit Starigrad Paklenica
Among 50 or so registered species, the most diverse are bats with 16 species and there is a significant number of Fat Dormouses and Eurasian Red Squirrels.
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[PDF] The birds atlas of the Paklenica National Park, Croatia - Zobodat
The results show the precise spread area and their distribution for 250 birds species and 111 breeding birds species. Moreover, the distribution and number of ...
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Archaeological finds in Paklenica National Park and wider area
The area of South Velebit has been inhabited since prehistoric times. It is believed that, during the last ice age, the area was probably inhabited by small ...Missing: relict orchids
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(PDF) The Warrior Grave from Sveta Trojica near Starigrad Paklenica
Archaeological excavations at the hillfort site of Gradina Svete Trojice, situated on the slopes of Velebit mountain, revealed abundant finds from the second ...
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Starigrad-Seline-Tribanj - Rivijera Paklenica
At the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologists Abramić and Colnago discovered the remains of Roman town walls underneath modern Starigrad. A regular grid ...
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Traditional architecture - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Traditional architecture includes 9th-10th century chapels, 14th-16th century forts, cube and concrete barrel roofs, and houses built into semi-faults.Missing: proposals 1920s
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Underground Secrets of Paklenica - Muze.hr
Sep 1, 2016 · The indigenous forests of black pines – the name “Paklenica” itself most likely derives from the sap of the black pine, the so-called ...Missing: resin extraction
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History of Rock Climbing in Paklenica
The history of rock climbing in Paklenica began as far back as 1938, when Dragutin Brahm, aka Raca, attempted to make the first ascent of the Anića Kuk wall.Missing: alpinism | Show results with:alpinism
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Visitor Center "Underground Secrets of Paklenica"
Hidden in the Velika Paklenica canyon, there are underground tunnels, popularly called “Bunkers”. They were built by the Yugoslav Army between 1950 and 1953 ...Missing: landscape | Show results with:landscape
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Subterranea of Croatia: Podzemni grad Paklenice - Showcaves.com
Podzemni grad Paklenice is a former military bunker, now a visitor center and exhibition space, open to the public, with a cafe and art gallery.<|control11|><|separator|>
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the case of protected areas in the Republic of Croatia - Hrčak
Oct 31, 2024 · In 1997 the border of the national park was extended to the upstream parts of the river.
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[PDF] Forest Fire Monitoring - NRSC
The system was experimentally tested during 2005 and. 2006 fire seasons on three locations but it is also in everyday use in National. Park Paklenica from June ...
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Case Study in Paklenica National Park (Croatia) - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · To preserve the long-term survival of habitats and wildlife, it is necessary to monitor their status. In protected areas, that is, ...
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case study in Paklenica National Park (Croatia) - ARPI - UNIPI
A case study was conducted in the Paklenica National Park (Paklenica NP), Croatia, using camera trapping survey between 2011 and 2016 at 22 camera sites.
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Climate-change-driven growth decline of European beech forests
Mar 10, 2022 · From 2020 to 2050 growth, decreases of 20–30% are expected to affects most forests in central Europe, even including some elevated sites in ...
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Healthy Forest Regions - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The project tackles the CE-wide challenge of declining forest ecosystem functionality and the loss of biodiversity, resulting from unsustainable forest ...
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BEECH POWER - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The project takes an ecosystem-based and participatory approach working on different administrative levels to anchor the WH site in sustainable regional ...
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Sustainable Tourism - Ministarstvo turizma i sporta Republike Hrvatske
Sustainable tourism is tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, ...
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Paklenica National Park Hiking In 2025: A Complete Guide
Paklenica is the best national park for adventures. Here's all to know about Paklenica National Park hiking. It's also famous for rock climbing in Croatia.<|control11|><|separator|>
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International climbers meeting - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
25th International Climbers' Meeting PAKLENICA 2025. THURSDAY – May 1, 2025. 10:30 – 11:00 Registration for Kids' Speed PAKLENICA 2025
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Ultimate Guide to Croatia's National Parks - Wine & More
Jun 5, 2023 · Choose the right time to visit: The best time to visit Paklenica National Park is during the spring and autumn months when the weather is mild, ...
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Tips and rules for climbers - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Climbing is permitted only at the climbing site in Velika Paklenica canyon. Full climbing equipment must be used (helmet!). Do not climb alone; solo climbing ...Missing: overnight | Show results with:overnight
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F.A.Q.
There are two official entrances to the Paklenica National Park: Entrance 1 Velika Paklenica and Entrance 2 Mala Paklenica. The Entrance 1 is opened daily, ...Missing: boundaries | Show results with:boundaries
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[PDF] A case study in Paklenica National Park, Croatia - CABI Digital Library
Established in 1949, it is the second oldest of the eight national parks in the ... August, although the Park is visited from May until the end of October.
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Unveiling the Facts: A Decade of Insights into Deaths and Safety in ...
Oct 8, 2023 · Paklenica National Park welcomed 99,000 visitors this year until mid-September, with an average of 700 to 800 daily visitors from July to August ...
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Rock Climbing in Paklenica, Croatia: All You Need to Know
Dec 16, 2018 · ... Kukovi ispod Vlake, Debeli Kuk, Kuk od Skradelin and Ćuk. ... But the most famous mountain in Paklenica is definitely Anića Kuk, boasting a 350 m ...<|separator|>
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Paklenica Mill
Up until the 1960s, these mills were used to serve the households in Podgorje, and often from Ravni Kotari and the island archipelagos as well.
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Peaks above 1700 m a.s.l. - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Sveto brdo (1753 m a.s.l.) is located on the easternmost part of the Paklenica National Park and it is the second highest peak of the Velebit Mountain. The peak ...Missing: boundaries size
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Mountain shelter Struge - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The shelter is located at 1 400 m a.s.l, around 3 hours of walking time from the Mountain Hut. The accommodation capacity is 10 persons.
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Manita peć cave - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Among 115 speleological objects so far known in the Paklenica National Park, Manita peć is the most famous among the visitors, as it is the only show cave made ...Missing: Neolithic | Show results with:Neolithic
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GUIDE TO PAKLENICA NATIONAL PARK – Explore - Zadar region
Known for its two amazing canyons, Velika and Mala Paklenica, remarkable forests, rocks, caves, and wildlife, National Park Paklenica is designated UNESCO ...
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Code of Conduct - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Area of Paklenica National Park is protected by means of the Nature Protection Act. Please help protect this area of exceptional values and beauty by respecting ...Missing: sustainability measures
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Price list - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Basic ticket for all categories of visitors include: one-term visit and walk on marked educational and mountaineer's trails of National Park Paklenica.
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Park authority - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Paklenica National Park is managed by the Public Institution under the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Green Transition.
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Mountain hut - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
Climbing site. Paklenica National Park is the most visited climbing ... web: http://www.pdpaklenica.hr/ · Facebook Mountain hut "Paklenica" · Facebook ...Missing: English | Show results with:English
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Paklenica National Park - North Dalmatia - Visit Croatia
Paklenica National Park is located slightly inland from the coast of North Dalmatia, situated about 47km north (northeast) of Zadar.
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Mountain shelter Ivine Vodice - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The Ivine Vodice shelter is at 1200m, 2.3 hours from the Mountain Hut, sleeps 12, has a nearby water source, and is suitable for Sveto Brdo visits. Check water ...
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Mountain shelter Vlaški grad - Nacionalni Park Paklenica
The Shelter is located at 1 280 m a.s.l. around 4 hours of walking time away from the Mountain Hut and around an hour of walk from the Mountain shelte ...
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IVANCEV DOM - Lodge Reviews (Starigrad-Paklenica, Croatia)
Rating 3.8 (25) The Ivancev Dom is situated on the hillside of the marvelous mountain Velebit, it takes approximately 2 hours to walk there from the entrance of the Paklenica ...
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Mountain shelter Dušice • Self-catering Hut - Via Dinarica
The entrance area serves as a small dining area. The shelter offers room for overnight stays of up to 12 hikers. Storage for fuel wood and other material is ...
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Velebit hiking trail - Hrvatski planinarski savez
The Velebit hiking trail is a 100km mountain trail through Velebit, starting at Zavižan and ending at Starigrad Paklenica, taking 9 days to complete.
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The Green Guard - Parkovi Hrvatske
Why volunteer at our Park · to work with visitors from all over the world and thus improve your knowledge of foreign languages and communication skills ...
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'Life on the edge of civilisation': hiking in Croatia's mountains
Apr 14, 2018 · All the various refuges were built by the 600 members of the Paklenica Mountain Association and they have done a sterling job: not too much ...
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Events - Rivijera Paklenica
... Festival 2025 (Starigrad – Paklenica, Hall next to the Administration ... Music night with No Oridnary acoustic band Starigrad, Dr. Franje Tuđaman 14 ...Missing: Rock | Show results with:Rock<|control11|><|separator|>
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The Underground City in the Heart of Velebit - Eupolis grupa
The underground city in the heart of Velebit has been transformed from military infrastructure into an educational and interpretation center of the Paklenica ...Missing: Illyrian | Show results with:Illyrian