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Partial oxidation

Partial oxidation is a thermochemical gasification process in which carbonaceous feedstocks, such as natural gas, heavy oils, or coal, react with a substoichiometric amount of oxygen to produce synthesis gas (syngas), a combustible mixture primarily composed of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂).^[1] Unlike complete combustion, which fully oxidizes the fuel to carbon dioxide and water, partial oxidation intentionally limits oxygen supply to achieve incomplete oxidation, yielding syngas rather than heat alone.^[1] This exothermic reaction occurs at high temperatures, typically 1,250–1,450 °C, in refractory-lined, entrained-flow reactors equipped with downflow burners.^[1] The process can be categorized into non-catalytic and catalytic variants, each suited to different scales and feedstocks. Non-catalytic partial oxidation, often simply called POX, relies on thermal reactions at extreme temperatures and pressures (20–80 atm), making it suitable for large-scale industrial applications with heavy feedstocks like petroleum residues or coal, where residual carbon (0.5–1% for oils) helps sequester ash.^[1] In contrast, catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX) employs metal catalysts such as platinum, rhodium, or nickel supported on alumina or ceria to facilitate the reaction at lower temperatures (around 800–1,000 °C) and shorter contact times, enabling efficient conversion of lighter hydrocarbons like methane or propane with higher selectivity toward syngas.^[2] The core reaction for methane, for example, is CH₄ + ½O₂ → CO + 2H₂, which is exothermic and often followed by the water-gas shift reaction (CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂) to adjust the H₂:CO ratio.^[3] Partial oxidation plays a pivotal role in energy and chemical industries due to syngas's versatility as a building block. It is a key method for hydrogen production, yielding less H₂ per unit fuel than steam reforming but operating faster and requiring smaller reactor volumes, which is advantageous for onboard fuel processing in vehicles or remote power generation.^[3] Syngas from POX supports downstream processes like ammonia synthesis, methanol production, and the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis for liquid fuels, while integrated systems such as partial oxidation gas turbines (POGT) achieve up to 70% efficiency in combined power and hydrogen co-production with reduced NOx emissions.^[1] The H₂:CO ratio in the output varies with feedstock—higher for natural gas (H:C ≈ 4) than for oils (H:C ≈ 1.67)—allowing tailoring for specific applications, though challenges include managing soot formation and optimizing oxygen purity (often using pure O₂ to avoid nitrogen dilution).^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Overview

Partial oxidation (POX) is a chemical process in which hydrocarbons or other carbonaceous feedstocks react with a substoichiometric amount of oxygen to produce synthesis gas, primarily consisting of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂), rather than the fully oxidized products of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O).^[4] This controlled combustion occurs under oxygen-limited conditions, ensuring incomplete conversion of the fuel and favoring the formation of syngas over complete oxidation.^[4] The primary feedstocks for partial oxidation include natural gas (primarily methane), heavy liquid hydrocarbons such as fuel oil or residual petroleum oils, and solid materials like coal.^[5]^[6] These diverse inputs allow POX to adapt to various energy resources, with the process converting them into a versatile gaseous mixture suitable for downstream applications. The resulting hydrogen-rich syngas serves as a key intermediate for hydrogen production in fuel cells, chemical synthesis processes like ammonia or methanol manufacturing, and integrated power generation systems.^[3]^[7] Partial oxidation typically operates at high temperatures ranging from 800°C to 1400°C and with precisely controlled oxygen-to-fuel ratios to maintain the partial combustion regime and optimize syngas yield.^[8]

Chemical Principles

Partial oxidation involves the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons or carbonaceous materials with a substoichiometric amount of oxygen, producing synthesis gas (syngas) primarily composed of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂). The idealized general reaction for a hydrocarbon fuel represented as CₙHₘ is:

\ce{C_n H_m + \frac{n}{2} O2 -> n CO + \frac{m}{2} H2}

This equation assumes complete conversion to CO and H₂ without side products, though actual processes yield some CO₂, H₂O, and minor species.^[9] Representative examples illustrate the stoichiometry for different feedstocks. For methane, the primary component of natural gas, the reaction is:

\ce{CH4 + 1/2 O2 -> CO + 2 H2}

For heating oil, approximated as C₁₂H₂₄, it becomes:

\ce{C12 H24 + 6 O2 -> 12 CO + 12 H2}

For coal, idealized as C₂₄H₁₂ to account for its higher carbon content, the equation is:

\ce{C24 H12 + 12 O2 -> 24 CO + 6 H2}

These examples highlight how the H₂/CO ratio decreases with lower hydrogen content in the feedstock, from about 2 for methane to 0.25 for coal.^[10] The process is inherently exothermic due to the oxidation reactions, such as C + ½ O₂ → CO (ΔH = -111 MJ/kmol) and H₂ + ½ O₂ → H₂O (ΔH = -242 MJ/kmol), which release heat to drive endothermic reforming reactions like the water-gas reaction (C + H₂O ↔ CO + H₂, ΔH = +131 MJ/kmol). This balance renders partial oxidation autothermal, requiring no external heating once initiated, with the extent of full combustion (to CO₂ and H₂O) controlled to maintain thermal equilibrium.^[9]^[11] Steam addition plays a crucial role by facilitating the water-gas shift reaction (CO + H₂O ⇌ CO₂ + H₂), which is mildly exothermic and adjustable via the Le Chatelier principle to increase H₂ yield and the H₂/CO ratio as needed for downstream applications. Additionally, steam helps suppress soot formation by promoting gasification of carbon deposits. Thermodynamically, syngas formation is favored at high temperatures where Gibbs free energy minimization predicts higher CO and H₂ yields; the oxygen equivalence ratio (λ), defined as the supplied oxygen relative to that required for complete combustion, is typically λ < 1 (or fuel equivalence ratio φ > 1) to ensure partial oxidation conditions and avoid excessive CO₂ production.^[9]^[12]^[13] Soot formation arises primarily through carbon deposition mechanisms, such as the Boudouard reaction (C + CO₂ ↔ 2CO) or pyrolysis at lower temperatures, where incomplete oxidation leads to solid carbon accumulation. Mitigation occurs via elevated temperatures (>1200°C), which favor kinetic pathways for CO production over carbon buildup, and steam addition, which oxidizes nascent carbon to CO or CO₂. High-temperature operation thus minimizes soot to trace levels, particularly for cleaner feedstocks like natural gas.^[9]^[14]

Process Variants

Thermal Partial Oxidation (TPOX)

Thermal partial oxidation (TPOX) is a non-catalytic process involving the partial combustion of hydrocarbons in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere, where high thermal energy drives the conversion to synthesis gas (syngas) comprising primarily hydrogen (H₂) and carbon monoxide (CO).^[5]^[15] Unlike catalytic methods, TPOX relies solely on elevated temperatures to initiate and sustain the exothermic reactions, making it suitable for robust, high-throughput operations.^[16] TPOX operates under severe conditions, including temperatures of 1200°C or higher to ensure complete fuel decomposition, pressures ranging from 20 to 80 bar to facilitate downstream processing, and short residence times on the order of seconds to minimize soot formation and carbon deposition.^[5]^[6]^[17] Reactor designs typically employ entrained-flow configurations, where finely atomized fuel and pure oxygen are co-injected through specialized burners into a refractory-lined vessel, providing resistance to thermal shock and corrosive syngas environments while promoting rapid mixing and reaction.^[18]^[6] This process accommodates a wide range of feedstocks, including heavy hydrocarbons such as residual oils and refinery residues, coal slurries, and biomass-derived streams, due to its inherent tolerance for impurities like sulfur at levels exceeding 400 ppm and up to 3000 ppm in sulfur-tolerant variants.^[19]^[20] Yields typically feature an H₂/CO molar ratio of 1.5–2, influenced by the oxygen-to-carbon ratio, with cold gas efficiencies of 60–70% based on the lower heating value of the feedstock.^[21]^[22] The process flow begins with preheating the fuel and oxygen streams to enhance ignition and reaction kinetics, followed by their injection into the high-temperature reaction zone for partial oxidation. The resulting hot syngas is then rapidly quenched using water or steam injection to halt reverse reactions, cool the gas stream, and facilitate downstream separation of impurities.^[23]^[6]

Catalytic Partial Oxidation (CPOX)

Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX) is a reforming process in which hydrocarbons are partially oxidized with substoichiometric amounts of oxygen in the presence of a catalyst to produce syngas, primarily hydrogen (H₂) and carbon monoxide (CO), through an exothermic reaction that does not require external heating or steam addition.^[24] This variant accelerates the partial oxidation kinetics at moderate temperatures compared to non-catalytic methods, enabling efficient syngas generation and often integration with steam reforming to adjust product ratios or enhance yields.^[25] The process is particularly suited for lighter fuels like natural gas or methane, where high selectivity to desired products is achieved in compact reactors.^[24] Typical operating conditions for CPOX include temperatures of 800–900°C, pressures ranging from atmospheric to over 20 bar, and short residence times of 10–100 ms, which promote rapid conversion while minimizing side reactions.^[24] Catalysts commonly employ noble metals such as rhodium (Rh) or platinum (Pt) supported on alumina or structured monoliths, with rhodium particularly effective for C-H bond activation in methane due to its ability to facilitate direct oxidation pathways.^[24] However, these catalysts are susceptible to deactivation by sulfur poisoning, which blocks active sites at concentrations above 50 ppm, and carbon coking, which forms deposits that hinder mass transfer and reduce activity over time.^[24] In the process flow, fuel and oxygen are premixed upstream to ensure uniform feeding, followed by passage through the catalytic bed where the exothermic reaction generates heat; effective heat management, such as through wall cooling or short contact times, is essential to prevent hotspots that could lead to full combustion or catalyst sintering.^[24] CPOX typically yields syngas with an H₂/CO ratio of approximately 2–3 and selectivity to H₂ and CO of 80–90%, offering higher product purity than thermal partial oxidation due to the catalytic suppression of complete oxidation.^[24] Advancements include the development of promoter additives, such as ceria or zirconia modifications, to enhance sulfur tolerance up to 1000 ppm in sulfur-containing feeds like diesel surrogates, thereby broadening applicability to less refined fuels.^[26] Additionally, microchannel reactors have gained prominence for their portability and improved heat transfer, enabling on-board syngas production in fuel cell systems with reduced size and enhanced efficiency at millisecond residence times.^[27]

Applications

Syngas Production

Partial oxidation (POX) serves as a key method for producing syngas, a versatile mixture primarily consisting of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂), which serves as a building block for various chemical syntheses and fuel production.^[1] In POX processes, hydrocarbons such as natural gas, oil, or coal are reacted with limited oxygen under high temperatures (typically 1,200–1,500°C) to generate syngas with a composition generally featuring 40–60% CO and 30–50% H₂ on a dry basis, accompanied by trace amounts of CO₂ (2–5%), CH₄ (1–3%), and minor soot formation depending on the feedstock and conditions.^[28] This composition arises from the partial combustion and reforming reactions, yielding an H₂/CO molar ratio often around 1.5–2.0 for natural gas feedstocks, which is suitable for downstream applications without extensive adjustment.^[29] In industrial settings, POX-derived syngas is integrated into processes like Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis, where it is converted into liquid hydrocarbons for fuels such as diesel and gasoline, leveraging the syngas's H₂/CO ratio of approximately 2 to optimize chain growth on catalysts like iron or cobalt. Similarly, for methanol production, syngas with an H₂/CO ratio near 2 undergoes catalytic hydrogenation via the reaction CO + 2H₂ → CH₃OH, enabling large-scale manufacturing of methanol as a chemical intermediate or fuel blendstock.^[29] These integrations highlight POX's role in gas-to-liquids (GTL) and coal-to-liquids (CTL) pathways, where the exothermic nature of POX provides process heat, enhancing overall efficiency.^[1] Optimization of POX involves tuning the oxygen-to-carbon (O₂/C) molar ratio, typically maintained at 0.5–0.6 for stoichiometric partial oxidation, to achieve desired H₂/CO ratios; lower ratios (1–2) suit chemical syntheses like FT or oxo-alcohols, while higher ratios (above 2) are targeted for ammonia production by incorporating steam or CO₂ co-feeds to promote water-gas shift reactions. Large-scale POX plants, such as Shell's Coal Gasification Process (SCGP) used in CTL facilities, operate at capacities exceeding 2,000 MW thermal equivalent, with capital costs estimated at $1,000–2,000 per kW of syngas output, influenced by oxygen supply and feedstock handling systems.^[30] These economics reflect the high upfront investment in refractory-lined reactors and pure oxygen generation via air separation units (ASUs), offset by POX's compact design and rapid startup compared to steam reforming alternatives.^[1] Case studies demonstrate POX's efficacy in integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants, where syngas from coal or biomass POX is cleaned and combusted in gas turbines for electricity generation with efficiencies up to 40–45%, as seen in operational facilities like the 250 MW Buggenum plant in the Netherlands, which utilized Shell's SCGP for low-emission power while co-producing syngas for chemicals.^[31] The planned Kemper County IGCC project in the U.S. aimed to employ TRIG partial oxidation technology to gasify lignite coal, producing syngas to support both power output and potential hydrogen co-production. However, due to significant technical, economic, and reliability challenges, including issues with syngas conditioning to minimize impurities like sulfur and particulates, the gasification component was abandoned in 2017, and the facility now operates as a natural gas-fired combined cycle plant (769 MW capacity).^[32] These examples illustrate POX's scalability in hybrid energy-chemical systems, contributing to cleaner coal utilization and syngas flexibility for fuels and power.

Hydrogen Generation

Partial oxidation (POX) serves as a key method for generating hydrogen by converting hydrocarbons into syngas, an intermediate mixture that is subsequently processed to isolate high-purity hydrogen. In this process, the partial oxidation of fuels such as natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons produces a syngas stream primarily consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which can then undergo the water-gas shift (WGS) reaction to enhance hydrogen content. Hydrogen yields from POX typically reach 70–80% based on the input fuel, depending on factors like fuel type and operating conditions.^[33] Further purification via pressure swing adsorption (PSA) achieves hydrogen purity exceeding 99%, making it suitable for demanding applications.^[34] Key applications of POX-derived hydrogen include onboard reforming in fuel cell vehicles, where compact reformers convert liquid fuels like gasoline or methanol directly to hydrogen to power proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. In stationary power systems, POX supports PEM fuel cells that require ultra-pure hydrogen, enabling efficient electricity generation for distributed energy or backup power. These uses leverage POX's ability to handle diverse feedstocks, from natural gas to heavier hydrocarbons, providing a flexible hydrogen supply without reliance on centralized production infrastructure.^[35]^[36] To optimize hydrogen output, POX is often integrated into autothermal reforming (ATR), which combines partial oxidation with steam reforming to balance exothermic and endothermic reactions, resulting in higher hydrogen yields compared to standalone POX. This hybrid approach adjusts the oxygen-to-fuel ratio to maximize H₂ production while minimizing unwanted byproducts. Overall system efficiencies for ATR-based hydrogen generation range from 50–65% on a lower heating value (LHV) basis, with startup times under 1 minute—significantly faster than the hours required for conventional steam reforming processes.^[37]^[38] A primary challenge in POX for hydrogen generation is the presence of carbon monoxide (CO) in the syngas, which can poison PEM fuel cell catalysts; levels must be reduced below 10 ppm to meet performance specifications. This is addressed through CO cleanup methods such as selective (preferential) oxidation (PROX), where air is introduced to oxidize CO to CO₂ in the presence of hydrogen, or hydrogen-selective membranes that separate H₂ while retaining CO. These techniques ensure the reformate meets fuel cell requirements without substantially reducing overall hydrogen recovery.^[38]^[39]

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The origins of partial oxidation (POX) trace back to 1926, when researchers Vandeveer and Samuel W. Parr at the University of Illinois conducted pioneering experiments on coal gasification using pure oxygen instead of air, aiming to produce synthesis gas with higher calorific value by avoiding nitrogen dilution. This work laid foundational principles for oxygen-blown gasification, though it remained largely experimental due to the high cost of oxygen production at the time. During the 1940s, the urgency of World War II accelerated POX development in Germany for synthetic fuel production, particularly through coal-to-liquids processes integrated with Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. German engineers employed oxygen-steam gasification methods, such as precursors to the Lurgi process, to generate syngas from lignite and bituminous coal, enabling the operation of multiple plants that supplied up to 92% of aviation fuel and significant portions of other liquid fuels by 1944. These efforts highlighted POX's potential for wartime energy security but were constrained by resource limitations and bombing campaigns that destroyed key facilities. Commercialization advanced in the 1950s with Texaco's development of the thermal partial oxidation (TPOX) process for heavy oils and residuals, leading to early industrial applications in petroleum operations and influencing subsequent designs like the Winkler process precursors, which evolved from air-blown fluidized beds to oxygen-enriched variants to minimize inert gas content.^[40] Early POX implementations faced significant challenges, including soot formation from incomplete carbon conversion in high-temperature reactors and the prohibitive costs of oxygen supply, which relied on inefficient cryogenic separation before air separation unit (ASU) advancements in the 1960s reduced expenses and improved purity.^[4] These hurdles limited scalability until process optimizations, such as quench cooling for soot quenching, were refined in pilot operations.

Modern Advancements

In the 1970s and 1990s, catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX) emerged as a prominent method for converting natural gas to syngas, enabling more efficient and compact reforming processes compared to non-catalytic thermal approaches.^[41] General Electric (GE) advanced partial oxidation-based gasification technologies for integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) systems, with initial demonstrations in the 1970s and commercial-scale plants operational by the 1990s, facilitating cleaner coal utilization.^[42] Concurrently, the development of sulfur-tolerant catalysts, such as those incorporating molybdenum or nickel-based formulations, allowed POX processes to tolerate sulfur levels up to 50 ppm in natural gas feeds without significant deactivation, broadening applicability to less refined feedstocks.^[43] The 2000s saw innovations in microreactor-based CPOX systems for portable fuel reforming, enabling on-demand hydrogen production for mobile applications like fuel cells through compact, high-surface-area designs that achieved rapid startup and high conversion rates.^[36] European Union and U.S. Department of Energy (DoE) projects during this period focused on biomass POX, including initiatives like the DoE's Hydrogen Program reviews that explored oxygen-blown gasification of biomass residues to produce syngas with reduced tar formation.^[44] These efforts emphasized scalable biomass integration, with pilot tests demonstrating syngas yields suitable for renewable hydrogen pathways.^[45] From the 2010s onward, integration of POX with carbon capture and storage (CCS) advanced in industrial settings, where POX and autothermal reforming (ATR) technologies enable capture of over 90% of CO2 emissions from process gas streams, supporting low-carbon syngas production for applications like ammonia synthesis.^[46] Plasma-assisted POX gained traction for enhancing reaction kinetics and syngas selectivity by combining non-thermal plasma with catalytic beds to minimize full oxidation. These hybrid POX-CCS configurations reduced the carbon footprint of hydrogen and syngas production while maintaining economic viability. Advancements in scalability addressed small-scale applications for renewables, including solar-thermal POX hybrids that use concentrated solar energy to supply process heat and reduce fossil fuel dependency in syngas production. AI-optimized oxygen ratios in POX processes, leveraging machine learning models for chemical looping oxygen carriers, enabled precise control of oxidation extents to maximize syngas yield and minimize coke formation in dynamic feeds.^[47] Key milestones include the 2008 thesis by Florian-Patrice Nagel, which demonstrated biomass-integrated gasification fuel cell systems using POX-derived syngas for solid oxide fuel cells, achieving electrical efficiencies over 50% in conceptual designs.^[48] In the 2020s, perovskite catalysts, such as Ru-promoted variants, enhanced POX durability for methane reforming, exhibiting over 90% syngas selectivity and stability for more than 100 hours under high-temperature conditions.^[49]

Advantages and Challenges

Operational Benefits and Limitations

Partial oxidation (POX) processes offer several operational advantages, particularly in terms of responsiveness and design simplicity. One key benefit is the rapid startup capability, especially for thermal partial oxidation (TPOX), where ignition and operational readiness can occur in seconds due to the exothermic nature of the reaction, contrasting with the longer warmup times required for endothermic processes like steam methane reforming (SMR). This enables quicker response to load changes and transient operations, making POX suitable for applications demanding flexibility. Additionally, POX exhibits high fuel flexibility, accommodating a range of feedstocks including liquids, solids, and gaseous hydrocarbons beyond methane, which broadens its applicability compared to more feedstock-specific methods. The autothermal balance inherent in POX—combining partial oxidation and reforming reactions—eliminates the need for external heat input, further enhancing operational efficiency by self-sustaining the reaction at high temperatures (typically 1100–1500°C). In terms of equipment design, POX reactors are notably compact, requiring smaller vessels than SMR systems due to the higher reaction rates and shorter contact times (often milliseconds), which reduce overall footprint and material costs. Efficiency-wise, POX achieves 60–80% energy efficiency for syngas production, slightly lower than SMR's 70–85%, but the process's exothermic profile allows for effective heat recovery, such as in integrated gasification combined cycle setups approaching 70% overall efficiency. Despite these strengths, POX faces notable limitations. A primary drawback is the high cost of oxygen, which constitutes 20–50% of operational expenditures (OPEX) since pure O₂ is required to achieve the desired syngas composition, making the process sensitive to O₂ supply prices and less viable in regions without cost-effective air separation units. Soot formation and CO₂ emissions arise from incomplete combustion, particularly in non-catalytic variants, necessitating downstream cleanup that adds complexity. Hydrogen yield is lower than in electrolysis (which produces pure H₂ at near-100% selectivity), as POX primarily generates syngas with an H₂/CO ratio of about 2, requiring additional water-gas shift steps to boost H₂ content. Safety concerns are significant, with explosion risks stemming from the premixing of O₂ and fuel, which can lead to autoignition or detonation under high-pressure conditions; these are mitigated through staged injection techniques that avoid direct O₂-fuel contact until the reaction zone. Economically, capital expenditures (CAPEX) for POX plants range from $800–1500/kW, positioning it as a competitive option for utilizing stranded natural gas resources where pipeline infrastructure is absent, though profitability remains tied to fluctuating O₂ costs and syngas market prices.

Environmental and Economic Considerations

Partial oxidation (POX) processes, particularly thermal partial oxidation (TPOX), contribute to environmental impacts through greenhouse gas emissions, with CO₂ emissions typically ranging from 7 to 9 kg CO₂-eq per kg of H₂ produced without carbon capture, which is comparable to or slightly lower than steam methane reforming (SMR) at around 8-12 kg CO₂-eq per kg H₂ due to POX's exothermic nature reducing external energy needs.^[50]^[51] High temperatures in TPOX, often exceeding 1,200°C, promote thermal NOx formation via oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, leading to elevated NOx emissions that require post-combustion controls to meet air quality standards.^[52] Additionally, water use in POX arises primarily from quenching syngas to prevent further reactions, consuming approximately 10-20 liters per kg of H₂, though this is lower than SMR's steam requirements of 20-30 liters per kg H₂.^[53] Mitigation strategies for POX's environmental footprint include pre-combustion carbon capture and storage (CCS), where CO₂ is separated from syngas after the water-gas shift reaction, achieving capture rates of up to 90-95% in integrated systems, thereby reducing net emissions to 1-3 kg CO₂-eq per kg H₂.^[54] Integrating renewable oxygen from water electrolysis into POX further lowers the carbon intensity by avoiding fossil-based air separation units, potentially enabling near-zero emissions when powered by renewables.^[55] Economically, the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) from POX in 2025 is estimated at $2-4 per kg, influenced by natural gas prices, oxygen supply, and CCS integration, with POX offering advantages over SMR in co-producing syngas for chemicals like methanol, enhancing revenue streams and improving overall project viability.^[56]^[57] In regulatory contexts, POX with CCS aligns with net-zero goals as "blue hydrogen," qualifying for incentives such as the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act's Section 45V tax credit, which provides up to $3 per kg for hydrogen with lifecycle emissions below 0.45 kg CO₂-eq per kg.^[58] Life-cycle assessments (LCA) reveal that biomass-fed POX has a lower overall carbon footprint than fossil-based POX, with net GHG emissions potentially negative (e.g., -20 to 50 g CO₂-eq per MJ syngas) due to biomass carbon neutrality, compared to 80-100 g CO₂-eq per MJ for natural gas POX without CCS.^[59] However, biomass POX involves trade-offs, including land-use changes that can increase emissions by 20-50% if unsustainable sourcing leads to deforestation or biodiversity loss.^[60]

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Autothermal reforming combines the heat effect of partial oxidation reforming ... Methanol Reforming for Hydrogen Production in Fuel Cell Applications,” Phys.
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Real-Time Optimization of a CO Preferential Oxidation Reactor ...
Jun 2, 2020 · Preferential oxidation is used to reduce the CO concentration less than 10 ppm in the gas mixture. It has an optimal reaction temperature at ...
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Gasification Processes Old and New: A Basic Review of the Major ...
The BGL gasifier was developed by British Gas during the period from 1958 to 1965 at the Gas Council Midlands Research Station where it operated 13 ft gasifier, ...
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[PDF] Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX) of natural gas and renewable ...
Tsang's work showed that CO and H2 selectivity increased at elevated temperatures, with higher methane conversion (>90%) and high syngas selectivity (>90%) ...Missing: TPOX | Show results with:TPOX
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The History of Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants
Feb 10, 2020 · This paper reviews the history of IGCC power plants from the first unit, which was built in Germany in the 1970s, to the current wave of IGCCs being deployed ...
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Review on Innovative Catalytic Reforming of Natural Gas to Syngas
Catalytic partial oxidation can be used only if the sulfur content of natural gas is below 50 ppm. Higher sulfur content would poison the catalyst, so non- ...Missing: 1970 GE
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[PDF] Proceedings of the 2000 U.S. DOE Hydrogen Program Review
NOTICE. This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. Neither the United States government nor any ...
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[PDF] Hydrogen from Biomass: State of the Art and Research Challenges
This report is a review largely of thermochemical research studies for the formation of hydrogen from whole biomass and stable intermediate products from ...<|separator|>
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Plasma catalytic steam methane reforming for distributed hydrogen ...
Oct 15, 2019 · The energy efficiency (of CH4 to t-H2) of 75% and the low energy cost of 1.5 kW h/Nm3 is achieved. •. The formation of C2Hx can be suppressed by ...
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[PDF] carbon sequestration leadership forum - Office of Fossil Energy
Yara converted its existing, Partial Oxidation (POX)-based ammonia plant in Germany, which is one of the largest ammonia plants in Europe, from heavy ...
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(PDF) Blue Hydrogen Production Through Partial Oxidation
The research reveals that the overall energy efficiency of the POx-CCS process is around 73%. ... CCS, carbon capture and storage; POx, partial oxidation. …
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Machine learning-driven predictive design of catalytic oxygen ...
Jul 31, 2025 · Such an approach would facilitate the design of COCs that are simultaneously optimized for chemical looping combustion, partial oxidation, ...
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Biomass Gasification and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell | PDF - Scribd
Villigen, im Juli 2008. Florian-Patrice Nagel Abstract. The availability of energy in general and electricity in particular has become a major con- cern given ...
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[PDF] Ru-promoted perovskites as effective redox catalysts for CO2 ...
Nov 9, 2022 · Ru-promoted perovskites are effective redox catalysts for CO2 splitting and methane partial oxidation, with a promising catalyst achieving >90% ...
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Perspectives on CO2-Free Hydrogen Production: Insights and ...
As per the stoichiometric equation, the partial oxidation process emits about 7.3 kg of CO2-equiv per kg of H2, which is not included for combustion emissions ...
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Comparison of the emissions intensity of different hydrogen ... - IEA
Jun 29, 2023 · Comparison of the emissions intensity of different hydrogen production routes, 2021 - Chart and data by the International Energy Agency.
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[PDF] 3.2-1 Introduction 3.2-2 NOx Formation Combustion Strategies for ...
Thermal NOx is formed by oxidation of nitrogen in air and requires sufficient temperature and time to produce NOx. A rule of thumb is that below approximately ...
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Water intensity for hydrogen production with and without carbon ...
This study evaluates water demand, including water withdrawal, consumption, and discharge, in hydrogen production via steam methane reforming (SMR), auto- ...
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9.2. Carbon Dioxide Capture Approaches | netl.doe.gov
This “partial oxidation” process provides the heat necessary to chemically decompose the fuel and produce synthesis gas (syngas), which is composed of hydrogen ...
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Hybrid system of hydrogen generation by water electrolysis and ...
This paper proposes a concept of combining two technologies for producing hydrogen - partial oxidation of methane with oxygen and water electrolysis.Missing: process | Show results with:process
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Technological evolution of large-scale blue hydrogen production ...
Jul 6, 2024 · The levelized cost of hydrogen production without carbon abatement ranges roughly from $1.1 to 2.6 per kilogram of hydrogen and varies with ...
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Blue Hydrogen Production Through Partial Oxidation: A Techno ...
Dec 19, 2024 · Therefore, while the fuel price ranges between 3 and 10 €/GJ, the heat price ranges between 1.6 and 5.5 €/GJ simultaneously. Figure 3 reveals a ...
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Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit (45V) Resources
The Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit creates a new 10-year incentive for clean hydrogen of up to $3.00/kilogram. For qualifying clean hydrogen, the credit ...
[60]
Syngas from What? Comparative Life-Cycle Assessment for Syngas ...
Mar 29, 2023 · Also, biomass gasification for syngas production emits more direct GHGs than fossil-based steam methane reforming or partial oxidation. In ...
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[PDF] Using a Life Cycle Assessment Approach to Estimate the Net ...
The aim of this technical paper is to summarise and outline the key methodological aspects of LCA with respect to GHG balances of bioenergy systems and include ...