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Partisan Review

Partisan Review was an influential American quarterly magazine of literature, politics, and culture, founded in February 1934 by editors William Phillips and Philip Rahv under the auspices of the New York City John Reed Club, an organization affiliated with the Communist Party USA.^[1]^[2] Initially aligned with proletarian literature and Marxist orthodoxy, the publication broke from communist oversight in 1937, adopting an independent "third camp" stance that rejected both Stalinism and fascism while embracing Trotskyist influences and later evolving toward anti-totalitarian liberalism during the Cold War era.^[3]^[4] Over its 69-year run until 2003, Partisan Review served as a pivotal forum for the "New York intellectuals," a loosely affiliated group of mostly Jewish writers and critics who shaped mid-20th-century debates on modernism, existentialism, and the role of high culture amid ideological upheavals.^[1]^[5] The magazine's defining characteristics included its commitment to rigorous literary criticism and political inquiry, publishing seminal works by contributors such as Dwight Macdonald, Mary McCarthy, Lionel Trilling, and Saul Bellow, alongside European exiles like George Orwell and Hannah Arendt.^[2]^[6] Its controversies often stemmed from provocative symposia and questionnaires—such as the 1939 poll on "What We Are For," which highlighted fractures within leftist circles, and wartime debates on pacifism and intervention that alienated some radical allies.^[7] These forums underscored Partisan Review's role in challenging dogmatic ideologies, fostering a tradition of dissent that prioritized intellectual autonomy over partisan loyalty.^[8] By the postwar period, the journal had transitioned to Boston University in 1978 under Phillips's continued editorship, maintaining its influence until financial pressures led to its cessation, leaving a legacy as a bastion of cosmopolitan criticism amid America's cultural wars.^[1]^[9]

Origins and Communist Roots

Establishment as John Reed Club Organ

Partisan Review was established in 1934 in New York City by editors Philip Rahv and William Phillips as the official publication of the John Reed Club of New York, an organization dedicated to fostering proletarian literature aligned with Marxist principles.^[2]^[10] The John Reed Clubs, formed in the fall of 1929 under the auspices of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA), served as cultural fronts to cultivate radical intellectuals and artists, emphasizing literature that advanced class struggle and revolutionary consciousness among the working class.^[11]^[12] The magazine's inaugural issue appeared in February–March 1934 as a bimonthly titled A Bi-Monthly of Revolutionary Literature, featuring essays, fiction, and criticism rooted in dialectical materialism and proletarian aesthetics.^[10]^[13] Early content promoted the CPUSA's Third Period doctrine, which prioritized uncompromising class warfare in cultural production over alliances with other left-wing groups, drawing inspiration from critics like Mike Gold who advocated for art as a weapon against bourgeois individualism.^[14]^[15] Contributions in the first issues included reviews of emerging proletarian works and manifestos urging writers to depict the exploitation of labor and the inevitability of socialist revolution, reflecting the clubs' mission to organize literary radicals within the party's framework.^[16] Under Rahv and Phillips's initial editorship, Partisan Review positioned itself as a vehicle for the proletarian literary movement, publishing pieces that critiqued mainstream American culture for its detachment from economic realities and celebrated narratives of worker uprising.^[4] This phase embodied the CPUSA's effort to harness artistic output for ideological mobilization, with the John Reed Clubs providing organizational support through local chapters that hosted discussions and workshops on revolutionary writing techniques.^[17] By mid-1934, subsequent issues continued this focus, incorporating poetry and short stories that embodied the era's emphasis on collective struggle over personal expression.^[18]

Initial Alignment with American Communism

Partisan Review, launched in February 1934 as the bi-monthly organ of the New York John Reed Club, operated as a conduit for the Communist Party USA's (CPUSA) cultural policies, directly transmitting Soviet directives through Comintern channels to American intellectuals. The John Reed Clubs, with approximately 30 branches and over 1,200 members by the 1934 national convention, provided the primary distribution network, confining circulation to party-affiliated writers, workers, and sympathizers rather than broader literary audiences.^[19] This structure ensured content alignment with CPUSA priorities, fostering fellow-traveling among contributors who viewed the magazine as a tool for proletarian cultural mobilization.^[2] The publication endorsed socialist realism as the vanguard of revolutionary art, publishing Soviet Politburo member Nikolai Bukharin's "Poetry and Socialist Realism" in its May 1934 issue (Vol. 1, No. 5), which argued for literature that synthesized form with socialist content to advance class consciousness.^[16] Complementing this, it critiqued bourgeois modernism—exemplified in works by James Joyce—as elitist, decadent, and detached from historical materialism, drawing on Georg Lukács' dialectical framework to prioritize realistic portrayals of social conflict over formal experimentation.^[19] These positions reflected causal transmission from Moscow's 1934 Writers' Congress, where socialist realism was codified, via CPUSA cultural commissars to outlets like Partisan Review, subordinating aesthetic autonomy to political utility.^[19] Editors Philip Rahv and William Phillips, while harboring private reservations about the CPUSA's crude aesthetics, maintained public alignment through 1936, evading criticism of Stalin's purges—including the August 1936 Moscow Trial of Zinoviev and Kamenev—that eliminated perceived internal enemies.^[2] This uncritical stance mirrored widespread acquiescence among American leftists, who rationalized the trials as necessary defenses against Trotskyist "fascist wreckers," prioritizing ideological loyalty over evidentiary scrutiny of coerced confessions.^[19] Content increasingly emphasized anti-fascist unity, heeding the Comintern's July 1935 Popular Front directive, which shifted CPUSA focus from class warfare to broad coalitions against fascism, often at the expense of independent Marxist critique.^[19] Such emphasis causal linked Soviet strategic pivots to U.S. cultural discourse, positioning Partisan Review as a propagandistic bridge rather than a forum for dissent until its 1936 suspension amid mounting editorial frictions.^[2]

Break from Stalinism and Relaunch

1937 Schism and Independence

In 1937, editors Philip Rahv and William Phillips severed ties with the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) amid deepening disillusionment with Stalinist authoritarianism, exemplified by the Moscow Trials' fabricated confessions and the party's suppression of non-Stalinist factions during the Spanish Civil War.^[20]^[2] This break stemmed from the editors' rejection of the CPUSA's dogmatic enforcement of literary and political orthodoxy, including demands to defend Soviet purges and align cultural criticism with party directives rather than independent analysis.^[2] Rahv faced formal expulsion from the CPUSA on October 1, 1937, labeled a Trotskyite for his dissent.^[21] The schism prompted suspension of Partisan Review's publication earlier that year to escape CPUSA oversight, marking a deliberate pivot from proletarian conformity to autonomous radical inquiry.^[2] The journal relaunched as an independent bimonthly in December 1937, with an expanded editorial board comprising Rahv, Phillips, F.W. Dupee, Dwight Macdonald, Mary McCarthy, and George L.K. Morris.^[20]^[2] Its inaugural editorial statement declared: "Partisan Review aspires to represent a new and dissident generation in American letters; it will not be dislodged from its independent course by any political conformity or literary orthodoxy," explicitly repudiating Stalinist dogma while embracing critical engagement with Marxism's revolutionary potential, influenced by Trotskyist exposures of bureaucratic degeneration.^[2]^[22] Rahv and Phillips immediately recruited fellow anti-Stalinist ex-communists and radicals, including Sidney Hook, Lionel Trilling, Meyer Schapiro, and Lionel Abel, transforming the journal into a central forum for the emerging "New York Intellectuals"—a loose cadre of urban, Jewish-American critics prioritizing empirical scrutiny over ideological loyalty.^[20] This influx of contributors, many recent converts from CPUSA orbit, solidified Partisan Review's role as a nexus for heterodox leftism, fostering debates on literature, politics, and culture unbound by Moscow's strictures.^[20]^[2]

Defining Anti-Stalinist Principles

Upon its relaunch in December 1937, Partisan Review defined its anti-Stalinist principles through a commitment to independent Marxism that rejected the bureaucratic degeneration of the Soviet regime and the Communist Party's subordination of culture to political orthodoxy.^[2] The editors positioned the journal as a platform for radical social critique unbound by Stalinist dogma, emphasizing analytical Marxism as a tool for understanding rather than prescriptive ideology.^[23] Influenced by Leon Trotsky's writings, which they published including his essays on art and politics, the magazine advocated a revolutionary internationalism opposing Stalin's "socialism in one country" and the Comintern's popular front tactics, prioritizing ongoing intellectual and cultural autonomy over party-line conformity.^[2]^[20] In cultural debates of the late 1930s, Partisan Review privileged modernist aesthetics—exemplified by figures like T.S. Eliot and James Joyce—as expressions of alienation and moral complexity compatible with revolutionary aims, in contrast to socialist realism's enforced didacticism and propagandistic schematism.^[20]^[7] This stance rejected Communist literary orthodoxy, which demanded conformity to proletarian themes and techniques, viewing such controls as corrupting genuine artistic innovation and subordinating creativity to state power.^[2] The 1939 questionnaire "The Situation in American Writing" encapsulated these tensions, probing the balance between individual autonomy and collective commitment while affirming modernism's role in resisting totalitarian cultural impositions.^[7] These principles drew empirical support from mounting evidence of Soviet repression, including the Moscow show trials of 1936–1938 and André Gide's critical accounts of the USSR, which exposed the regime's mass criminality and contradicted Stalinist claims of socialist progress.^[20] Editors like Philip Rahv issued indictments of the trials as betrayals of revolutionary ideals, grounding their critique in verifiable reports of purges that falsified apologetics denying totalitarian coercion.^[20] This rejection of empirical denialism in left-wing defenses underscored a causal realism: Stalinism's bureaucratic centralism had inverted Marxism's emancipatory intent into authoritarianism, necessitating intellectual independence to preserve radical critique.^[2]

Ideological Trajectory

Evolution to Independent Radicalism

During the early 1940s, Partisan Review solidified its role as a forum for non-sectarian leftist critique, fostering debates that prioritized intellectual independence over dogmatic allegiance to any faction of the radical tradition. Contributors, including Philip Rahv and William Phillips, navigated the tensions of World War II by rejecting both isolationist pacifism and uncritical alliance with Allied powers, emphasizing instead a rigorous analysis of totalitarianism as a causal force undermining human agency and cultural vitality. This perspective equated the Nazi regime's racial ideology and militarism with Stalinist bureaucratism, portraying both as symmetrical threats that eroded liberalism through state terror, mass mobilization, and suppression of dissent—evident in symposia like the 1940 discussion on "The War and the Individual," where writers such as Dwight Macdonald and Lionel Trilling argued that fascist and communist tyrannies shared structural affinities in their assault on civil society.^[24]^[25] The magazine's ideological maturation involved a deliberate pivot from the Trotskyist orthodoxy of the late 1930s toward a more humanistic ethical socialism, which critiqued capitalist commodification and inequality alongside the totalitarian centralization of Soviet communism. This shift manifested in essays decrying the Soviet Union's post-1939 pact with Nazi Germany as a betrayal of proletarian internationalism, while advocating for socialist renewal grounded in democratic pluralism rather than vanguard party dictatorship. By 1943, as the war progressed, Partisan Review contributors increasingly highlighted the empirical failures of Stalinist policies—drawing on eyewitness accounts of purges and forced labor to argue that such regimes prioritized ideological purity over human welfare, thus discrediting Marxist-Leninist claims to historical inevitability.^[26]^[27] Parallel to these political polemics, the journal balanced its commitment to literary modernism—defending avant-garde experimentation against proletarian realist dictates—with an anti-fascist realism that demanded cultural criticism engage concrete threats like propaganda and censorship. Issues from 1941–1945 featured works by exiles such as Arthur Koestler and Ignazio Silone, whose novels exposed totalitarian psychology through narrative realism, reinforcing the view that authentic radicalism required empirical confrontation with power's abuses rather than abstract theorizing. This synthesis positioned Partisan Review as a bulwark against both right-wing reaction and left-wing sectarianism, cultivating a radicalism rooted in causal analysis of how ideologies distorted reality.^[28]^[24]

Anti-Communist Commitment in the Cold War Era

In the postwar period, Partisan Review intensified its opposition to Soviet communism, framing it as an expansionist ideology substantiated by events such as the 1947-1948 Greek civil war crisis, the 1948 Czechoslovak coup, and the 1948-1949 Berlin Blockade, which demonstrated Moscow's determination to extend control beyond Eastern Europe.^[29] The journal's editors and contributors, including Sidney Hook and Lionel Trilling, argued that these actions reflected a pattern of aggression rooted in Leninist principles, necessitating intellectual vigilance against apologetics that downplayed the threat.^[30] This stance distinguished Partisan Review from pacifist or neutralist leftists, positioning it as a proponent of resolute defense of democratic institutions amid the escalating East-West divide.^[31] Throughout the 1950s, the publication featured exposés on communist efforts to infiltrate cultural and academic spheres, relying on firsthand accounts from defectors and ex-party members to document organized influence operations. For example, articles and symposia drew on testimonies like those of Victor Kravchenko, whose 1946 defection and subsequent 1949 libel trial in Paris revealed Soviet labor camp atrocities and recruitment tactics targeting Western intellectuals.^[32] Contributors highlighted how communist fronts in the arts, such as the Hollywood Ten's affiliations, and in universities, where party cells promoted ideological conformity, undermined independent thought—claims bolstered by admissions from former operatives like Louis Budenz, who detailed infiltration strategies in education during the decade.^[33] These pieces underscored the empirical evidence of subversion, countering denials by emphasizing verifiable networks rather than abstract sympathies. Partisan Review endorsed containment as a pragmatic strategy to deter Soviet advances, aligning with the 1947 Truman Doctrine's commitment of $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey and the Marshall Plan's $13 billion reconstruction effort for Western Europe, which forestalled communist takeovers by addressing economic vulnerabilities exploited by Moscow.^[34] Writers viewed these measures not as ideological crusades but as realistic responses to observed aggressions, including the 1950 North Korean invasion of South Korea, which killed over 36,000 U.S. troops and confirmed the need for forward defense without capitulation.^[29] The journal sharply critiqued domestic "fellow travelers"—sympathizers who equated American foreign policy with Soviet totalitarianism—dismissing their moral equivalence as disconnected from the causal evidence of gulag systems, where archival estimates later confirmed 1.5 to 2 million deaths from 1930 to 1953, and espionage rings like the 1948 Alger Hiss conviction for perjury in passing State Department secrets.^[30] Sidney Hook, in contributions during the era, contended that such apologetics ignored the totalitarian dynamics driving Soviet crimes, including forced collectivization famines killing 5-7 million in Ukraine by 1933, prioritizing fidelity to facts over relativistic alibis.^[35] This rejection extended to debunking claims of U.S. "witch hunts," insisting that exposure of infiltration preserved rather than eroded freedoms, grounded in documented threats rather than hysteria.^[32]

Emergence of Liberal and Proto-Neoconservative Views

In the 1960s, Partisan Review contributors increasingly critiqued the New Left's ideological excesses and the counterculture's relativism, viewing them as threats to rational discourse and cultural standards rather than legitimate responses to systemic oppression. Essays in the journal emphasized the causal role of unchecked progressive experimentation in fostering social fragmentation and moral decay, contrasting sharply with narratives that attributed societal ills primarily to institutional racism or economic structures. This perspective prioritized empirical assessment of outcomes, such as rising youth alienation and erosion of authority, over utopian egalitarian reforms.^[36]^[37] Daniel Bell, a frequent contributor, exemplified this proto-neoconservative turn through his anti-utopian writings, which linked the journal's longstanding rejection of totalizing ideologies to pointed attacks on 1960s radicalism. In pieces published or aligned with Partisan Review's orbit, Bell argued that the New Left's narcissism and rejection of bourgeois norms undermined the piecemeal reforms of welfare liberalism, advocating instead for a realism attentive to human limits and institutional prerequisites for order. His 1960 book The End of Ideology, drawing from earlier journal essays, dismissed ideological fervor—including that animating Great Society expansions—as historically exhausted, favoring evidence-based policy adjustments that acknowledged trade-offs in social engineering.^[38]^[39] By the 1970s, under editor William Phillips, Partisan Review amplified these views amid internal shifts, as the departure of more sympathetic figures like Philip Rahv underscored a hardening against New Left influences. Contributors questioned the empirical efficacy of welfare-state expansions, citing data on persistent urban poverty and family dissolution despite massive interventions, and stressed cultural preconditions for policy success over redistributive ideals. This foreshadowed neoconservative realism by insisting on causal accountability—such as the disincentives embedded in expansive aid programs—while maintaining a liberal commitment to markets tempered by moral order, distinct from both statist progressivism and laissez-faire orthodoxy.^[40]

Editorial Operations and Sustainability

Key Editors and Leadership Changes

Philip Rahv and William Phillips served as the primary co-editors of Partisan Review from its 1937 relaunch as an independent publication until Rahv's resignation in 1969, with Rahv emphasizing literary criticism and Phillips focusing on political analysis.^[5]^[41] Their partnership, marked by occasional tensions over editorial direction, maintained the journal's anti-Stalinist stance while fostering a platform for rigorous debate.^[42] Phillips, in particular, became the enduring figurehead, guiding the magazine through its postwar peak, when circulation reached 5,000 to 7,000 subscribers, sustained by selections prioritizing intellectual quality over ideological conformity.^[4] Rahv's departure in 1969 stemmed from disputes over manuscript review processes and broader editorial control, prompting him to found Modern Occasions; Phillips retained leadership, supported by associate editors including William Barrett, who contributed philosophically inflected pieces in the 1940s and 1950s and later chronicled the group's dynamics in his 1982 memoir The Truants.^[5]^[42] Barrett's involvement highlighted internal balances, as the editors navigated residual Trotskyist influences—evident in early anti-Stalinist polemics—from the journal's origins while integrating liberal and independent voices, such as those critiquing Soviet totalitarianism without dogmatic adherence.^[42]^[32] By the 1970s, following the journal's affiliation with Boston University in 1978, Phillips collaborated with co-editors Steven Marcus and executive editor Edith Kurzweil, ensuring continuity amid evolving cultural debates, though without major ideological ruptures.^[43] These transitions preserved Partisan Review's voice by favoring merit-based decisions, as seen in rejections of neutralism on issues like McCarthyism, where editors Rahv and Phillips affirmed opposition to both communism and investigative excesses on principled grounds.^[44] Phillips led until his death on September 13, 2002, after which the journal ceased operations in 2003.^[5]

Funding Mechanisms and CIA Involvement

In its early years after the 1937 schism from Stalinist influences, Partisan Review relied primarily on subscriber payments and sporadic donations from sympathetic intellectuals to maintain operations, often facing chronic financial shortfalls that threatened publication continuity.^[19] By the late 1940s, these mechanisms proved insufficient amid rising production costs, leading editors to seek external grants from private foundations while preserving operational independence.^[7] During the 1950s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) provided covert financial support to Partisan Review as part of broader efforts to counter Soviet cultural dominance, channeling funds through intermediary organizations such as the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF), founded in 1950 to underwrite anti-totalitarian intellectual projects worldwide.^[45] ^[46] This assistance, which extended into the 1960s, supplemented subscriptions without documented conditions on editorial decisions, aligning with declassified records portraying the aid as reinforcement for pre-aligned non-communist outlets rather than directive influence.^[47] The magazine's foundational opposition to Stalinism, crystallized in its 1937 relaunch and subsequent critiques of Soviet authoritarianism, predated CIA involvement by over a decade, establishing causal independence from external funding incentives.^[48] Revelations of these ties in 1967 prompted Partisan Review editors to issue a public statement affirming that no agency interference had occurred and characterizing the support as a mutual front against ideological monopoly, consistent with empirical patterns in declassified CIA cultural operations.^[49]

Institutional Shifts to Universities

In 1963, Partisan Review relocated its operations to Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey, following editor William Phillips's appointment to the faculty there, which facilitated access to institutional resources amid the journal's evolving financial needs during the 1960s.^[50] This shift marked a pragmatic integration into academia, providing office space and administrative support without initial formal university control over content.^[51] By 1969, Rutgers began providing direct financial support to the publication, helping sustain its quarterly output as subscription revenues and independent funding proved insufficient against rising print costs and distribution challenges in the postwar era.^[52] This affiliation expanded readership through student engagement and university networks, empirically extending the journal's viability by leveraging endowments and facilities that offset operational deficits.^[1] The arrangement preserved editorial independence, as evidenced by Partisan Review's continued publication of anti-communist and culturally provocative essays without reported university interference, even amid broader campus political tensions of the period.^[53] In 1978, following disputes over archive ownership that culminated in litigation, the journal transferred to Boston University, where Phillips, alongside co-editor Steven Marcus and executive editor Edith Kurzweil, maintained autonomy under a similar resource-sharing model.^[54]^[1] This move to Boston University further secured stability through academic affiliation, enabling focus on intellectual output rather than fiscal precarity.^[43]

Final Years and 2003 Closure

In the 1990s, Partisan Review encountered mounting financial and operational difficulties amid the proliferation of digital media platforms, which fragmented intellectual audiences and eroded the market for niche print journals reliant on subscription models. Circulation figures stagnated below 15,000 subscribers, reflecting diminished demand for extended polemical essays in an era of shortening attention spans and instantaneous online commentary.^[55]^[56] The journal's viability hinged on the leadership of co-founder and editor William Phillips, who had steered it since 1937 but showed no signs of retirement prior to his death on September 13, 2002, at age 94. Without a designated successor or institutional mechanism to sustain its editorial vision, the advisory board voted on March 31, 2003, to terminate publication, citing the irreplaceable loss of Phillips' guiding influence.^[5]^[57]^[58] The final issue, released in spring 2003 as a tribute to Phillips and edited by his wife, sociologist Edith Kurzweil, marked the end of 68 years of continuous operation since its 1934 founding. This closure underscored a cultural pivot from deliberative print intellectualism—characterized by Partisan Review's commitment to nuanced anti-totalitarian critique—to the dominance of polarized, bite-sized digital discourse, with no recorded attempts at revival by former contributors or affiliates.^[59]^[56]^[58]

Core Content and Intellectual Output

Literary and Cultural Criticism

Partisan Review's literary criticism emphasized the autonomy of aesthetic form, defending modernist innovations exemplified by T.S. Eliot and James Joyce against the constraints of proletarian literature, which subordinated art to explicit class propaganda. Contributors contended that modernism's value lay in its capacity to render the disorder of modern experience through structural complexity and mythic resonance, rather than didactic messaging aimed at worker mobilization. This stance reflected a rejection of 1930s literary trends that sought to "proletarianize" artists, arguing such efforts ultimately failed to advance genuine emancipation by diluting artistic truth to ideological utility.^[14] Central to this defense was the magazine's publication of Clement Greenberg's "Avant-Garde and Kitsch" in Fall 1939, which articulated a binary between the avant-garde's pursuit of self-validating form—imitating nature's intrinsic validity—and kitsch's reliance on prefabricated emotional shortcuts for mass appeal. Greenberg traced kitsch's rise to industrialization's commodification of culture and totalitarian regimes' weaponization of simplified narratives, observing its dominance in Soviet cinema and commercial entertainments by the late 1930s. The essay grounded its critique in the observable mechanization of taste, where kitsch evades cognitive effort, fostering conformity over discernment.^[60]^[61] Partisan Review extended this analysis to broader mass culture, portraying it as a debasing force that eroded standards of literacy and critical reading through formulaic narratives in film, radio, and pulp fiction, which prioritized accessibility over depth and thereby diminished public capacity for engaging sustained intellectual works. Essays highlighted how such cultural products, unlike modernism's demanding forms, induced passive consumption akin to addiction, correlating with measurable shifts toward simplified prose in popular media by mid-century. Yet the Review maintained that high art must engage political realities without descending into escapism or propaganda, positing modernism's fragmented techniques as a truthful response to totalitarianism's illusions and capitalism's spectacles.^[7]^[2]

Political Essays and Polemics

The political essays and polemics published in Partisan Review prioritized dissecting the causal dynamics of ideological extremism, particularly totalitarianism's erosion of individual autonomy through enforced collectivism and suppression of dissent, rather than uncritical partisan advocacy.^[2] These pieces drew on empirical observations of Soviet purges in the 1930s and Nazi Gleichschaltung to argue that totalitarian systems thrive on the subordination of reason to mythologized group loyalties, leading to predictable outcomes like mass terror and economic stagnation, as documented in contemporaneous reports from defectors and émigré accounts.^[32] In addressing McCarthyism during the early 1950s, contributors condemned its broad-brush tactics and risk of alienating potential anti-communist allies, yet grounded their critiques in recognition of verifiable Soviet subversion efforts, including espionage networks uncovered through FBI investigations and later corroborated by Venona decrypts revealing over 300 American agents aiding Moscow by 1945.^[44]^[32] James Burnham's 1953 resignation from the magazine's advisory board exemplified this tension, as he defended Senator McCarthy's exposures of government infiltration—citing cases like Alger Hiss's conviction in 1950—while editors like William Phillips viewed such methods as deviating from evidence-based inquiry into communism's structural threats.^[44]^[32] Debates on the Vietnam War in the 1960s framed U.S. intervention as a causal extension of anti-totalitarian imperatives, countering communist expansionism evidenced by sequential losses in Eastern Europe (e.g., Hungary 1956), China (1949), and Korea (1950), which empirically validated domino theory predictions of regional contagion absent firm containment.^[62] Polemics argued that appeasement would replicate pre-World War II failures, where ideological concessions enabled totalitarian consolidation, prioritizing geopolitical realism over domestic anti-war sentiment driven by misattributed moral equivalences between democratic flaws and monolithic regimes.^[62] Rejecting precursors to identity politics, such as Black Power ideologies in the late 1960s, essays critiqued group-centric demands for separatism as echoing totalitarian factionalism, which historically fragmented societies into rival collectivities vulnerable to elite manipulation, and instead upheld universalist ethics rooted in shared human reason to foster cross-group solidarity against authoritarianism.^[63] This stance reflected a consistent causal realism: group identities, when politicized over individual rights, mirrored the class or racial mythologies that propelled Stalinist and fascist mobilizations, undermining the liberal principles essential for empirical progress.^[63]

Prominent Contributors and Signature Pieces

Lionel Trilling contributed incisive literary criticism to Partisan Review, including essays that explored the tensions between liberal humanism and modern ideology, such as his 1948 piece on E. M. Forster, which emphasized moral realism over ideological conformity.^[64] Mary McCarthy, an early associate editor and frequent contributor, published acerbic political satires and theater reviews, notably her 1937 drama criticism that critiqued Stalinist influences in American arts circles.^[2] Dwight Macdonald provided trenchant polemics on war and culture, including his WWII-era dispatches that dissected Allied propaganda and totalitarianism's intellectual costs.^[24] James Burnham's essays in the late 1930s and early 1940s documented his break from Trotskyism, arguing in pieces like his 1940 critique of dialectical materialism that Soviet communism had devolved into managerial bureaucracy, presaging his later managerial revolution thesis.^[32] Signature works included the "London Letter" series by Macdonald, which from 1943 onward reported on Britain's wartime intellectual scene, highlighting disillusionment with Soviet alliances and the rise of mass conformism.^[64] The 1952 symposium "Our Country and Our Culture," spanning issues XIX:3 through XIX:5, solicited responses from over 30 intellectuals—including Trilling, Hook, and Arendt—on whether alienation from American society persisted amid postwar affluence; contributors largely affirmed a qualified patriotism, rejecting prior Marxist disdain for bourgeois culture.^[65] These pieces exemplified Partisan Review's role in career launches, as Saul Bellow's debut story "Two Morning Monologues" appeared in 1941, gaining him early notice among New York literati before his novels.^[66]

Controversies and Critiques

Allegations of CIA Subversion

Declassified documents and journalistic investigations in 1966–1967 revealed that the Partisan Review received covert financial support from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) between approximately 1953 and 1967, channeled through intermediary organizations such as the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF), a CIA-front group established in 1950 to promote anti-communist cultural initiatives in Europe and the United States.^[67]^[46] This funding, often routed via philanthropic cutouts like the Ford Foundation to obscure origins, totaled undisclosed sums but formed part of broader CIA allocations exceeding $1 million annually to cultural projects by the mid-1950s, aimed at countering Soviet propaganda without direct editorial interference.^[46]^[68] Editors of the Partisan Review, including William Phillips, maintained that the journal accepted grants from seemingly legitimate foundations without awareness of ultimate CIA sourcing and received no instructions on content, preserving its pre-existing independence from communist affiliations severed as early as 1937.^[69] While CIA officials like Thomas Braden later asserted that recipients "knew" the funds' geopolitical purpose, archival evidence indicates no verifiable instances of agency-dictated articles or vetoes in the Partisan Review, distinguishing it from more tightly managed outlets like Encounter.^[69]^[46] This limited role aligned with pragmatic U.S. efforts to sustain non-totalitarian intellectual voices amid Soviet Comintern subsidies to pro-communist publications, effectively neutralizing rather than originating the journal's anti-Stalinist stance developed independently in the 1930s and 1940s.^[46] Left-wing critiques framing such aid as "cultural imperialism" or subversion often exaggerate CIA leverage, projecting tactics akin to those employed by Moscow—where ideological conformity was enforced—onto a recipient whose editorial autonomy predated and outlasted the funding.^[46] Empirical review of the journal's output shows continuity in critiquing both Soviet and American excesses, undermining claims of puppetry, though the secrecy eroded trust among some contributors upon 1967 disclosures.^[70] These allegations, amplified in outlets with systemic anti-Western biases, overlook the causal symmetry: just as Comintern backing did not fabricate leftist dissent, CIA support amplified extant liberal anti-totalitarianism without fabricating it.^[46]

Left-Wing Reproaches for Apostasy

Members of the New Left in the 1960s frequently denounced Partisan Review and its associated New York intellectuals as elitist apostates who had forsaken proletarian solidarity for abstract modernism and alignment with Cold War institutions. Critics like those in emerging radical circles argued that PR's rejection of mass movements, such as student protests and countercultural activism, reflected a detachment from genuine revolutionary energy, prioritizing instead highbrow literary criticism over direct engagement with working-class or anti-imperialist struggles. This view portrayed PR's anti-Stalinism as a convenient pivot toward American liberalism, ignoring the journal's early Trotskyist roots and consistent opposition to Soviet purges documented since the 1930s, such as the Moscow Trials exposés in its pages. Such accusations often stemmed from sources embedded in activist milieus that romanticized Third World revolutions while downplaying empirical evidence of communist regimes' coercive practices, as evidenced by the New Left's selective embrace of figures like Mao despite documented famines and repressions.^[58] Noam Chomsky exemplified this reproach by critiquing intellectuals aligned with PR-style anti-totalitarianism as complicit in U.S. hegemony, framing their anti-communism as a moral failing that obscured imperial aggressions. In his 1967 essay "The Responsibility of Intellectuals," Chomsky lambasted "responsible" thinkers for rationalizing state power, implicitly targeting the New York intellectual milieu—including PR contributors like Sidney Hook and Dwight Macdonald's earlier circle—for endorsing containment policies over pacifist withdrawal from conflicts like Vietnam. Chomsky's perspective, echoed in later works, emphasized CIA-linked cultural funding (addressed elsewhere) as disqualifying, yet disregarded parallel Soviet cultural offensives through fronts like the World Peace Council, which subsidized pro-communist propaganda in Western outlets. This critique, while influential in academic left circles, reflected a bias toward viewing Western anti-communism as uniquely pernicious, sidelining causal analyses of totalitarian outcomes like the 20 million deaths under Stalin, substantiated by post-1991 archival releases.^[71]^[72] The purported "apostasy" of Partisan Review was not opportunistic but rooted in first-hand observation of communism's empirical failures, including the 1936-1938 Great Terror, which claimed over 680,000 executions per NKVD records later declassified, prompting PR's break from party orthodoxy by 1937. New Left reproaches detached from these realities, often privileging ideological purity over causal evidence of centralized planning's inefficiencies, such as the Holodomor famine of 1932-1933 killing 3-5 million Ukrainians, which PR intellectuals cited as grounds for rejecting Marxist-Leninist dogma. Sources advancing these attacks, frequently from 1960s campus radicals or outlets like The Nation, exhibited a systemic tendency to equate anti-Stalinism with hawkishness, underestimating the journal's role in fostering non-Soviet socialism, as seen in debates with democratic socialists like Irving Howe. This framing overlooked PR's sustained critique of both superpowers' excesses, grounded in verifiable historical data rather than partisan loyalty.^[2]^[58]

Right-Wing and Conservative Critiques

Conservative commentators in the mid-20th century dismissed Partisan Review's anti-communism as undermined by its persistent secularism and detachment from religious and traditional moral foundations, arguing that such liberalism lacked the philosophical depth needed to sustain a robust defense against ideological threats.^[32] William F. Buckley Jr.'s National Review, launched on November 19, 1955, explicitly positioned itself as a conservative alternative to Partisan Review's residual progressivism, critiquing the latter's intellectual circle for prioritizing abstract modernism over concrete cultural preservation.^[73] Critics like Russell Kirk faulted Partisan Review for advancing modernist aesthetics that eroded communal values and fostered cultural fragmentation, viewing its literary endorsements—such as those of Joyce and Kafka—as symptomatic of a broader elite disdain for inherited Western traditions.^[74] Similarly, Partisan Review's qualified sympathies for New Deal-style interventions were seen by conservatives as tacit endorsements of welfare-state expansion, which they contended incentivized dependency and centralized power in ways paralleling socialist experiments the magazine purported to oppose. The 1953 resignation of James Burnham from Partisan Review's advisory board, prompted by editors' opposition to his defense of Senator Joseph McCarthy's anti-communist investigations, exemplified for right-wing observers the journal's hesitancy to pursue domestic subversion with sufficient vigor, prioritizing liberal decorum over empirical threats.^[44]^[32] Notwithstanding these rebukes, conservatives credited Partisan Review with pioneering exposures of Soviet atrocities in the 1930s and 1940s, through pieces by ex-Trotskyists like Burnham himself prior to his departure, which highlighted totalitarianism's allure for fellow travelers in a manner that prefigured broader recognitions of liberalism's blind spots.^[34] This prescience, however, was often underappreciated in Buckley-era circles, where Partisan Review's evolution was deemed too incremental to anchor a full conservative restoration.^[75]

Internal Factionalism and Debates

In the early 1940s, Partisan Review grappled with profound internal divisions over U.S. entry into World War II, pitting pacifist opposition against advocates for intervention against fascism. A 1940 questionnaire in the magazine solicited views from intellectuals on the prospects of war involvement, highlighting tensions between those who saw American participation as an extension of imperialist conflict and others who prioritized defeating totalitarianism.^[7] Dwight Macdonald, a co-editor, vehemently opposed entry, arguing it would entrench bureaucratic statism and betray radical principles; his stance clashed with editors Philip Rahv and William Phillips, who increasingly favored aiding the Allies to combat Nazi aggression.^[76] This rift culminated in Macdonald's resignation from the editorial board in 1943, protesting the publication's evolving pro-intervention tilt, after which he launched the rival pacifist journal Politics in 1944.^[77] These debates were aired through symposia and open exchanges rather than expulsions, allowing contributors to challenge one another empirically—citing historical precedents like World War I's disillusionments—without enforcing ideological uniformity.^[24] Such forums preserved the magazine's coherence by prioritizing argumentative rigor over consensus, contrasting with rigid Communist outlets that purged dissenters. The resulting factionalism, far from debilitating, honed an anti-dogmatic approach, as evidenced by the retention of diverse voices post-split, which sustained Partisan Review's intellectual vitality into the postwar era. By the 1960s, intramural tensions resurfaced over the New Left and student movements, particularly amid events like the 1968 Columbia University protests, where radicals occupied buildings against university ties to military research and urban expansion.^[63] Some contributors, influenced by earlier Trotskyist roots, viewed these upheavals as authentic extensions of anti-authoritarian struggle, while others dismissed them as chaotic, anti-intellectual outbursts laced with romantic Third World rhetoric and outmoded Marxism.^[58] William Phillips critiqued the New Left's participatory democracy as naive and its community organizing as detached from working-class realities, fostering debates that exposed rifts between purist radicals seeking unbroken continuity with 1930s activism and pragmatists wary of mob dynamics eroding rational critique.^[78] Resolution again came via published polemics, such as 1968 discussions on Black Power and campus revolts, which dissected causal factors like generational alienation without mandating alignment.^[63] This process reinforced causal realism in analysis—linking student fervor to cultural shifts rather than inevitability—strengthening Partisan Review's ethos against monolithic leftism, where dissent was stifled, and enabling nuanced appraisals that outlasted transient movements. Unlike uniform organs that fragmented externally, these internal frictions empirically validated the value of debate in sustaining intellectual independence.^[79]

Enduring Influence and Reappraisal

Shaping Anti-Totalitarian Intellectualism

Partisan Review played a pivotal role in developing an anti-totalitarian intellectual framework by hosting debates that rejected both Stalinist communism and fascism as comparable totalitarian threats, drawing on historical evidence from events like the Moscow Trials and the rise of Nazi Germany.^[24] Contributors such as James Burnham, who broke with Trotskyism in 1940 after contributing to the magazine since 1938, analyzed totalitarianism through empirical lenses, as in his 1941 book The Managerial Revolution, which posited managerial elites as enabling totalitarian structures across ideologies.^[32] This approach emphasized causal mechanisms of power concentration over ideological rationalizations, fostering discourse grounded in verifiable regime behaviors rather than abstract sympathies.^[32] The magazine popularized the concept of totalitarianism as a distinct category of regime—characterized by ideological monopoly, terror, and mass mobilization—distinct from mere authoritarianism, thereby challenging leftist tendencies to equate Western democracies with dictatorships.^[80] Through symposia and essays in the 1940s, such as those engaging World War II's implications for intellectuals, Partisan Review countered moral equivalences by citing data from Soviet purges and fascist expansions, elevating analytical standards beyond partisan loyalty.^[81] This framework debunked utopian delusions, like proletarian inevitability, by marshaling historical counterexamples, including Victor Kravchenko's 1946 defamation trial victory exposing Soviet labor camps.^[80] Partisan Review's networks bridged early anti-Stalinist Trotskyism to later neoconservatism, influencing figures like Norman Podhoretz, who contributed essays in the 1950s and absorbed its evidence-driven anti-totalitarianism.^[82] Ex-Trotskyist alumni, including Burnham and Sidney Hook, evolved toward robust defenses of liberal democracy against Soviet expansion, seeding neoconservative emphases on ideological vigilance and empirical realism in foreign policy critiques.^[83] This continuity manifested in shared rejection of détente, prioritizing causal assessments of totalitarian dynamics over appeasement narratives.^[83]

Impact on Postwar American Thought

The Partisan Review exerted influence on postwar American thought primarily through its role in cultivating an elite anti-communist consensus, where essays critiquing Soviet totalitarianism provided intellectual ammunition for U.S. Cold War strategies. Contributors such as James Burnham, writing in the magazine during the late 1940s, sharpened analyses of Soviet expansion that resonated with policymakers, even as Burnham himself later challenged George Kennan's containment doctrine in favor of more aggressive rollback approaches published in Partisan Review pages.^[32]^[84] This anti-Stalinist turn among New York intellectuals, centered on the journal, helped legitimize containment as a pragmatic response to communism, with the magazine's modest circulation of 5,000 to 15,000 copies reaching influential circles in academia, government, and media by the early 1950s.^[4]^[59] Culturally, Partisan Review defended core Enlightenment values—rational inquiry, individualism, and objective standards—against emerging relativism and mass-culture populism, embedding these in postwar literary discourse. Its promotion of modernism and high-critical standards, as seen in symposia and reviews championing authors like Kafka and Orwell, reinforced a canon resistant to ideological conformity, with enduring effects traceable to the persistence of such works in university curricula and intellectual traditions.^[7]^[2] Lionel Trilling's contributions, for instance, underscored the "liberal imagination" as a bulwark for humane realism, linking Partisan Review's ethos to broader defenses of Enlightenment legacies amid totalitarian threats.^[85] While accelerating the American left's self-critique by exposing Stalinist apologetics—thus purging fellow-traveling from elite progressive thought—the journal's achievements were tempered by its insularity.^[86] Its East Coast, urban focus prioritized abstract polemics over accessible engagement, alienating working-class and Midwestern audiences and confining impact to policymaking echo chambers rather than widespread cultural shifts.^[87] This elitism, evident in circulation patterns and contributor demographics, underscored a causal gap between Partisan Review's victories in intellectual realignment and tangible mass mobilization against communism.^[4]

Modern Evaluations and Limitations

In reassessments following the journal's cessation in 2003, scholars have affirmed Partisan Review's prescience in critiquing the New Left's cultural radicalism, which anticipated the factional fractures of contemporary identity politics by highlighting the substitution of universalist principles with group-based particularism.^[63] For instance, Partisan Review's 1960s symposia on Black Power and the counterculture exposed the New Left's power-seeking tendencies divorced from empirical class analysis, a dynamic echoed in modern multiculturalism's prioritization of identity over shared rationality.^[58] This foresight contrasts with left-academic narratives that sanitize such shifts as progressive, often overlooking Partisan Review's causal emphasis on how cultural indulgences erode anti-totalitarian vigilance.^[88] Limitations in Partisan Review's framework include its relative neglect of empirical economic data, subordinating material causation to cultural and ideological polemics, which constrained broader causal realism in addressing capitalism's structural dynamics beyond anti-Stalinist abstraction.^[89] Conservative evaluations further critique the journal's insufficient traditionalism, viewing its modernist aesthetic commitments and secular urban intellectualism as alienating broader societal moorings in favor of elite cosmopolitanism.^[90] This New York-centric elitism, while enabling incisive anti-totalitarian insights, limited engagement with rural or traditional American empirics, rendering some analyses causally incomplete against populist undercurrents.^[32] Notwithstanding these flaws, Partisan Review's core legacy in dissecting totalitarianism's causal mechanisms—prioritizing individual agency against collectivist coercion—endures as a bulwark of truth-seeking, unmarred by the partisan sanitization prevalent in mainstream retrospectives that downplay its breaks with leftist orthodoxy.^[91]

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