Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Perna canaliculus

Perna canaliculus, commonly known as the green-lipped mussel or Greenshell mussel, is a bivalve mollusc in the family Mytilidae, endemic to the coastal waters surrounding New Zealand's three main islands.^[1]^[2] It is classified under the order Mytilida and genus Perna, with the species first described by Gmelin in 1791.^[1] The mussel attaches to rocky substrates or other surfaces using byssal threads and is characterized by its elongated shell covered in a distinctive bright green periostracum, reaching lengths of up to 20 cm.^[3]^[4] Primarily inhabiting subtidal zones in moderately exposed areas, it prefers warmer northern waters but occurs nationwide, often forming dense beds that support local marine ecosystems.^[5]^[2] P. canaliculus underpins New Zealand's premier aquaculture sector, where suspended longline culture yields annual production values exceeding NZ$300 million, predominantly for export markets.^[6] This industry leverages the species' rapid growth and high biomass accumulation, with spat collection and farm-based rearing driving economic output since the 1970s.^[4]^[7] Beyond food consumption, lipid extracts from the mussel are incorporated into dietary supplements marketed for joint health, with some clinical trials indicating modest reductions in osteoarthritis symptoms, though systematic reviews highlight inconsistent evidence and call for larger, rigorous studies to substantiate anti-inflammatory claims.^[8]^[9] The species' resilience to environmental stressors, including moderate tolerances for temperature and salinity variations, supports its commercial viability, yet ongoing research addresses challenges like summer mortalities and biofouling in intensive farming.^[10]^[11]

Taxonomy and Biology

Classification and Etymology

Perna canaliculus belongs to the domain Eukarya, kingdom Animalia, phylum Mollusca, class Bivalvia, subclass Pteriomorphia, order Mytilida, family Mytilidae, genus Perna, and species P. canaliculus.^[12]^[13]^[14] The species was originally described as Mytilus canaliculus by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his 1791 edition of Systema Naturae.^[14] The generic name Perna derives from the Latin perna, meaning "ham" or "thigh", a term historically applied to certain sea mussels due to their shape.^[15]^[16] The specific epithet canaliculus comes from the Latin canāliculus, a diminutive of canālis meaning "channel" or "pipe", likely referring to the grooved or channeled features of the shell margins.^[17]^[18]

Morphology and Life Cycle

Perna canaliculus exhibits a distinctive shell morphology characterized by a glossy, smooth, slightly rectangular shape with prominent angles, attaining lengths of up to 260 mm, widths of 110 mm, and depths of 90 mm, which is more elongated and curved than that of Mytilus edulis.^[2] The shell comprises three layers: an outer periostracum that is proteinaceous and initially green but darkens to black upon sunlight exposure, a thick middle prismatic layer consisting of approximately 90% calcium carbonate, and an inner shiny nacreous layer formed by aragonite sheets.^[19] Coloration ranges from green to black externally, with juveniles displaying brighter green tones and a characteristic green lip along the inner margin.^[19]^[20] Internally, the mussel features a single large posterior adductor muscle that closes the valves, paired light tan W-shaped gills equipped with cilia for filter-feeding on phytoplankton and oxygen extraction, a muscular foot containing a byssal gland for secreting attachment threads, and gonads embedded in the mantle and mesosoma that appear reddish-orange in mature females and creamy white in mature males.^[19] The mantle tissue secretes the shell, regulates water flow, stores energy, and participates in reproduction, while the digestive system includes a stomach with a crystalline style aiding enzymatic breakdown and an intestine for nutrient absorption and waste expulsion.^[19] As dioecious broadcast spawners, adult P. canaliculus release eggs (approximately 0.05 mm in diameter) and sperm into the water column for external fertilization, achieving sexual maturity at around 1 year of age or 14-24 months in regions like Marlborough Sounds.^[19]^[21] Embryos develop into free-swimming trochophore larvae, rapidly progressing within 24-48 hours to D-shaped veligers (75-135 μm), then to umbonate veligers (136-250 μm with eyespots), and finally pediveligers (220-350 μm), which remain planktonic for 3-6 weeks while feeding on phytoplankton via ciliary action.^[19]^[21]^[4] Pediveligers actively select settlement substrates using their foot, preferring filamentous materials such as macroalgae, hydroids, or aquaculture ropes in shallow waters, before metamorphosing into post-larval spat exceeding 0.3 mm shell length within 3 days and secreting byssal threads for attachment.^[19]^[4] Juveniles retain mobility via crawling or mucus drifting until approximately 6 mm in size, after which they become sessile filter-feeders.^[19]^[21] Growth to commercial harvest sizes of 80-115 mm occurs over 14-24 months, modulated by environmental factors including temperature, food density, and population crowding, with adults capable of living several years and reaching up to 240 mm.^[19]^[4]

Habitat and Ecology

Distribution and Environmental Requirements

Perna canaliculus is endemic to the coastal waters of New Zealand, including the North Island, South Island, Stewart Island, and [Chatham Islands](/page/Chatham Islands).^[22]^[23] It occurs around the mainland coasts but achieves higher densities in the warmer northern regions, such as the Northland area.^[23]^[5] The species inhabits intertidal and subtidal zones, typically on rocky substrates in moderately exposed coastal environments.^[24]^[5] Natural populations form dense aggregations or reefs in shallow waters, extending from the low intertidal to depths of approximately 20-40 meters.^[25] It prefers sites with strong tidal currents and wave action to facilitate feeding and larval dispersal.^[5] Environmental requirements include full marine salinity levels of around 33-35 ppt, with tolerance limited in estuarine or low-salinity conditions.^[2] Water temperatures range from 5.3°C in southern latitudes to 27°C in northern areas, though the species exhibits optimal growth and reproduction in warmer regimes between 15-22°C.^[23] Upper thermal limits approach 26°C, beyond which physiological stress increases, as evidenced by reduced larval survival and metabolic disruptions.^[26] Abundant phytoplankton is essential for filter-feeding, supporting high biomass in productive coastal upwelling zones.^[2]

Ecological Role and Interactions

Perna canaliculus serves as a foundational species in New Zealand's intertidal and subtidal coastal ecosystems, forming dense mussel beds that provide structural habitat for epifaunal and infaunal organisms, enhance biodiversity, and stabilize substrates against erosion.^[27] These reefs facilitate settlement of other species, including algae and invertebrates, while mitigating wave energy in soft-sediment environments.^[28] In wave-exposed lower intertidal zones, P. canaliculus exhibits superior physiological performance, dominating zonation patterns and outcompeting species like barnacles and other mussels for space.^[29] As a suspension filter feeder, P. canaliculus clears substantial volumes of seawater, removing phytoplankton, organic particles, and pollutants, thereby improving water quality and contributing to ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling through biodeposition.^[30] Pseudofeces deposition influences benthic respiration and nutrient fluxes, potentially enhancing denitrification in underlying sediments.^[31] This filtration capacity supports coastal food webs by concentrating energy from the water column into benthic communities.^[21] Ecological interactions include predation by sea stars (Stichaster australis), fish, and birds like king shags (Leucocarbo carunculatus), which exert top-down control on mussel populations and bed structure.^[32] ^[33] Competition occurs with conspecifics, other bivalves such as Mytilus galloprovincialis, and macroalgae for larval attachment substrates and space, influencing recruitment success and community dynamics.^[28] ^[34] P. canaliculus shells also act as biosorbents for organic pollutants, aiding microbial remediation in polluted sediments.^[35]

Commercial Exploitation

Aquaculture Practices and History

The aquaculture of Perna canaliculus, known as the green-lipped or Greenshell™ mussel, developed in response to the depletion of wild stocks from commercial dredging in the 1950s, which collapsed fisheries by the early 1960s.^[5] Initial farming trials using ropes on rafts or pontoons began in the mid-1960s, with the first commercial harvest occurring in 1971, yielding 7 tonnes.^[5] The discovery of abundant mussel spat on seaweed at Ninety Mile Beach in 1974 enabled reliable seed supply, which was air-freighted to farms, marking a key advancement.^[36] Japanese-style longline systems were adopted in the mid-1970s, facilitating mechanized operations and scaling up production, while selective breeding programs commenced around 2000 to improve traits like growth rate.^[5] Farming practices rely predominantly on wild-collected spat, accounting for approximately 85% of seed used, with spat caught via specialized lines or collected from seaweed aggregations at sites like Kaitaia.^[37] Collected spat, typically juvenile mussels settled naturally, are first reared at high densities (1,000–5,000 per meter) on nursery lines before transfer to grow-out longlines, which consist of 110-meter backbone ropes with 5–10 meter looped culture ropes suspended at depths of 5–30 meters in sheltered coastal waters.^[5] Seeding densities range from 150–200 spat per meter, with mussels reaching harvestable size (90–120 mm) in 12–18 months under optimal conditions of nutrient-rich, clean waters.^[5] Principal farming regions include the Marlborough Sounds, Coromandel Peninsula, Hauraki Gulf, Tasman Bay, and areas near Stewart Island, where farms typically span 3–5 hectares, though larger operations exceed 20 hectares.^[5] Harvesting employs specialized vessels capable of processing over 100 tonnes per day, yielding about 40 tonnes per 3,500 meters of cultivation rope.^[5] While hatchery production has been explored to reduce dependence on variable wild spat, commercial-scale hatcheries remain limited as of the early 2000s.^[5]

Production and Economic Importance

Perna canaliculus, known commercially as the Greenshell™ mussel, is produced almost exclusively through aquaculture in New Zealand, where it constitutes the dominant shellfish species farmed. Production relies on collecting wild spat primarily from northern beaches such as 90 Mile Beach, which supplies over 80% of seed for nationwide farms, followed by on-growing on suspended longline systems in sheltered coastal waters like the Marlborough Sounds and Hauraki Gulf. Mussels reach harvestable size of 90-110 mm in 12-18 months, with no significant wild commercial harvest of adults due to sustainability measures and reliance on natural recruitment.^[38]^[7] Annual harvest volumes support exports of approximately 30,000 tonnes of processed product, primarily as frozen half-shell mussels, whole frozen, or extracts.^[39] In 2023, mussel exports generated NZ$390 million, a 30% increase from 2022, driven by demand for value-added products like half-shell formats which alone contributed NZ$288 million.^[40] The industry, valued at around NZ$394 million annually, represents New Zealand's largest aquaculture sector by value and second-largest seafood export, accounting for over 96% of domestic shellfish production.^[41]^[39] Economically, Perna canaliculus farming sustains over 3,000 direct and indirect jobs in processing, farming, and support services, concentrated in coastal regions. Approximately 80% of output is exported to markets in Asia (e.g., China, Japan), Europe, and the United States, with growing segments for human consumption, nutraceuticals targeting joint health, and aquaculture feeds. The sector's expansion has been supported by government initiatives, though challenges like spat supply variability limit growth potential.^[6]^[42]^[40]

Sustainability and Environmental Considerations

Aquaculture of Perna canaliculus represents a sustainable shift from historical wild harvesting, which collapsed in the late 1960s due to overexploitation, prompting the development of suspended longline farming methods that now account for nearly all commercial production.^[43] These operations require no supplemental feed, as mussels are filter-feeders, resulting in minimal resource inputs and a low environmental footprint compared to fed aquaculture species. Life-cycle assessments indicate a global warming potential of approximately 2.0 kg CO₂ equivalents per kg of frozen half-shell mussel meat, substantially lower than beef (up to 50 kg CO₂e per kg protein) or poultry, with dominant contributions from diesel use in farming and shell formation.^[44] Eutrophication and acidification potentials are also low (e.g., 0.002 kg PO₄³⁻ equivalents per kg meat), reflecting efficient nutrient cycling without external inputs.^[44] Farms enhance local biodiversity by providing artificial reefs that aggregate wild fish and invertebrates, while filtering phytoplankton to improve water clarity.^[4] Localized environmental effects include biodeposition of feces and pseudofeces, causing minor organic enrichment and potential smothering in underlying sediments, though impacts are confined to within 20-50 meters of farm boundaries in well-flushed sites and do not extend to broader ecosystem changes.^[45] Phytoplankton depletion under large farms (e.g., <10% in 1200-ha operations in the Firth of Thames) recovers rapidly without long-term shifts in water column communities, as evidenced by multi-year monitoring.^[4] Reliance on wild spat collection via suspended collectors supplies about 85% of seed stock, raising concerns over potential depletion of natural recruitment if overharvested, though targeted methods minimize damage to wild beds and support sustainable yields.^[46]^[47] Other risks, such as biofouling by invasive mussels and entanglement of marine mammals in farm lines, are managed through regular maintenance, but cumulative effects from farm proliferation warrant ongoing assessment. Disease transmission remains low, with no major outbreaks linked to farming intensification.^[45] Sustainability is bolstered by regulatory frameworks from New Zealand's Ministry for Primary Industries, including site-specific environmental monitoring for chlorophyll a, sediment chemistry, and benthic communities, alongside adaptive management like stocking density limits and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture trials to offset nutrient loads.^[45] Emerging threats from climate-driven stressors, including marine heatwaves and ocean acidification, could reduce mussel resilience and spat quality, necessitating selective breeding and forecasting models for long-term viability.^[48] Overall, P. canaliculus farming imposes a small burden relative to output, positioning it as one of the more ecologically benign animal protein sources, though optimization of transport (favoring sea over air freight) and spat hatchery development could further enhance resilience.^[4]^[44]

Health Threats

Parasites and Pathogens

Perna canaliculus populations in New Zealand have historically exhibited low susceptibility to severe parasitic and pathogenic infections, with surveys indicating no major disease-associated mortality prior to recent decades.^[49] However, histological and molecular analyses during summer mortality events and seasonal sampling have revealed the presence of protozoan parasites and bacterial pathogens, particularly in stressed or unhealthy individuals, often correlating with environmental factors like elevated temperatures.^[50] These agents can cause tissue damage, inflammatory responses, and elevated mortality rates, though their role as primary drivers versus opportunistic colonizers remains under investigation.^[51] Protozoan parasites include Perkinsus olseni, a haplosporidian detected in connective tissues, gills, mantle, gonads, and digestive tubules, with overall prevalence of 56% across seasons and up to 86% in unhealthy mussels during mortality events.^[51]^[50] Infections exhibit seasonal variation, peaking at 70-95% in autumn (March-July), and are associated with digestive tubule atrophy (large lumens and thin epithelia, p=0.001) and gill damage (ciliary loss, p=0.030).^[51] An unidentified apicomplexan (Apicomplexan X, APX) shows higher prevalence of 78%, primarily in winter (up to 100% in June-September), affecting connective tissues, hemolymph, gills, and muscle, though without strong correlation to overt health decline (p>0.05).^[51]^[50] Microsporidian Microsporidium rapuae occurs at low levels (1-4%), alongside rare intracellular micro-colonies (IMCs).^[51] Bacterial pathogens predominate in unhealthy tissues, with rod- and cocci-shaped forms identified in 71% of moribund mussels via stains like Giemsa and Gram (detecting 44-53% presence), localized in gills, mantle, and digestive glands.^[50] Photobacterium swingsii is a confirmed virulent species, quantified via qPCR showing peak DNA loads in adductor muscle, gills, and digestive gland at 12 hours post-challenge, with haemolymph colony-forming units and mortality peaking at 48 hours.^[52] Coinfections with Vibrio species, such as V. mediterranei, exacerbate juvenile and adult mortality during summer, triggering non-specific inflammation and haemocytosis.^[53]^[54] Vibrio challenges under elevated temperatures (e.g., 20-25°C) induce gaping and rapid die-offs, highlighting vulnerability to bacterial proliferation in warming waters.^[55] Metazoan parasites are less impactful but include the pea crab Pinnotheres novaezelandiae, infesting up to 5.3% of farmed mussels, where females reside in the mantle cavity, potentially reducing host fitness through competition for food and tissue irritation.^[56] Copepods occur sporadically at 1-4% prevalence.^[51] No acid-fast or Gram-positive bacteria were confirmed in recent surveys, and viral pathogens remain poorly documented, underscoring gaps in comprehensive screening.^[50] Tissue responses to infections involve ceroid accumulation (80% medium levels in unhealthy samples) and hemocytic infiltration (22%), indicating immune activation but potential overwhelm in co-infected hosts.^[50] Emerging risks from exotic introductions via aquaculture pathways could heighten threats, given susceptibility gaps.^[57]

Disease Management in Farming

Farmed Perna canaliculus stocks have experienced relatively few disease outbreaks compared to other bivalve aquaculture species, attributed to the mussel's inherent immunological resilience and New Zealand's geographic isolation, which limits exotic pathogen incursions.^[58] Primary threats include bacterial pathogens such as Vibrio coralliilyticus and coinfecting opportunists, which proliferate under elevated seawater temperatures exceeding 23°C, triggering summer mortality events that can affect juvenile and adult mussels through haemolymph invasion and tissue necrosis.^[59] ^[53] Parasitic risks, including protozoans like Perkinsus olseni, are monitored but have not caused widespread epizootics in commercial farms as of 2023.^[51] Biosecurity forms the cornerstone of disease management, with industry standards mandating protocols for spat harvesting, transport, and farm operations to minimize pathogen transmission via anthropogenic vectors such as equipment, vessels, and stock transfers.^[60] These include disinfection of gear, quarantine of imported materials, and surveillance for notifiable diseases under New Zealand's Biosecurity Act 1993, which has effectively curtailed risks from high-pathogenicity agents like Bonamia ostreae or ostreid herpesvirus absent in local populations.^[61] Risk pathway analyses prioritize prevention over treatment, identifying wild stock collection and international trade as key entry points, with recommendations for enhanced molecular screening of spat for latent infections.^[62] Immunological interventions complement biosecurity through selective breeding programs targeting heritable resistance traits, such as improved haemocyte function and antimicrobial peptide production, yielding lines with up to 20% higher survival under challenge.^[58] Probiotics (e.g., Lactobacillus spp.) and immunostimulants like β-glucans are administered via feed to modulate gut microbiota and enhance phagocytosis, reducing Vibrio susceptibility in trials by 15-30%.^[58] Environmental management mitigates stress-induced vulnerability, including farm site selection to avoid thermal extremes and density controls to limit pathogen amplification, though antibiotic use remains minimal due to regulatory restrictions and efficacy concerns.^[63] Ongoing histological and multi-omics monitoring during mortality episodes informs adaptive strategies, emphasizing causal links between abiotic stressors and opportunistic infections over unsubstantiated viral hypotheses.^[50]

Nutritional and Bioactive Properties

Chemical Composition

The proximate composition of Perna canaliculus fresh whole tissue consists of 76–82% moisture, 12–14% protein, 3–6% carbohydrates, 1.6–2.2% lipids, and 2–3% ash, with values varying by season, location, and environmental factors.^[64] Dried whole meat shows concentrated solids at 0–5% moisture, 36–67% protein, 10–25% carbohydrates, 6–12% lipids, and 2–25% ash.^[64] The ash fraction reflects mineral content, including iron, zinc, magnesium, calcium, iodine, selenium, and phosphorus, though specific concentrations depend on habitat and bioaccumulation.^[64] Processed forms like powder exhibit further variability; for instance, one commercial GSM powder reports 5.8% moisture, 43% crude protein, 21.9% carbohydrates, 8.1% fat, and 21.2% ash.^[65] Lipids, comprising saturated (e.g., palmitic acid at ~20%), monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (including ~29% n-3 PUFA such as EPA at 13.5% and DHA at 10.7% of total fatty acids in powder), constitute a key component despite low overall levels in fresh tissue.^[65] Carbohydrates include glycosaminoglycans like chondroitin sulfate, estimated at ~3% in whole powder.^[64] Vitamins such as niacin and B12 are present but not quantified in proximate analyses.^[64]

Key Bioactive Compounds

Perna canaliculus, the green-lipped mussel, harbors a range of bioactive compounds, predominantly in its lipid and glycosaminoglycan fractions, which have been investigated for anti-inflammatory and chondroprotective effects.^[64] The lipid content constitutes about 2-3% of the mussel's dry weight, featuring polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) enzymes.^[64] Glycosaminoglycans, comprising roughly 1-2% of the tissue, support cartilage matrix integrity.^[64] Among the lipids, omega-3 PUFAs are prominent, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3), which reduce pro-inflammatory leukotrienes and promote resolvins.^[64] Uniquely, P. canaliculus contains novel omega-3 PUFAs such as 7,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA, C20:4 n-3), 5,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid (OTA, C18:4 n-3), and others like C19:4 n-3 and C21:5 n-3, which exhibit potent anti-inflammatory activity in preclinical models by suppressing cytokine production.^[66] ^[64] Polar lipids, including phospholipids (e.g., phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine) and plasmalogens (3-12% of total lipids), provide antioxidant properties and enhance PUFA bioavailability.^[64] Furan fatty acids (FuFAs), present in trace amounts, demonstrate strong anti-inflammatory effects in lipid extracts, outperforming EPA in some in vivo assays by inhibiting neutrophil migration.^[67] The glycosaminoglycan fraction includes glucosamine, a monosaccharide that stimulates chondrocyte proliferation and proteoglycan synthesis, and chondroitin sulfate, a polysaccharide that inhibits cartilage-degrading enzymes like matrix metalloproteinases.^[64] These compounds, extracted via stabilization processes in commercial products, contribute to observed reductions in osteoarthritis biomarkers, though their efficacy varies with processing methods that preserve bioactivity.^[64] Additional minor components, such as non-methylene-interrupted PUFAs (e.g., 20:2 NMI Δ5,11 and 22:2 NMI Δ7,13), may offer complementary anti-inflammatory mechanisms through novel eicosanoid pathways.^[64]

Therapeutic Applications

Historical and Traditional Uses

Perna canaliculus, known to the Māori as kūtai, served as a vital staple seafood (kaimoana) for coastal indigenous communities in New Zealand, with intertidal harvesting practices documented since the 1700s. It was consumed fresh, steamed in earth ovens (umu), dried for storage, or fermented into toroi—a preserved delicacy mixed with greens such as pūhā or watercress via lactic acid processes for long-term viability. These methods facilitated intergenerational food security, and kūtai featured in Māori proverbs as a nourishing food suitable for infants to strengthen digestion.^[64] In traditional Māori practices, kūtai was recognized for its supportive role in health, particularly through dietary incorporation that correlated with lower observed rates of joint disorders among coastal populations. Indigenous knowledge attributed anti-inflammatory benefits to the mussel, leading to its application in alleviating arthralgias and muscle issues in both humans and animals, predating formalized extracts.^[68]^[69]^[70] Such uses embodied kaitiakitanga (guardianship), integrating harvesting with environmental cues to sustain populations as mahinga kai (customary food sites), though specific medicinal formulations within rongoā Māori systems remain orally transmitted rather than extensively codified in written records.^[70]^[64]

Evidence from Clinical Studies

Clinical studies on Perna canaliculus, particularly its lipid extracts and stabilized powders, have primarily investigated efficacy for osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), with mixed results favoring modest benefits for OA pain relief over placebo. A 2008 systematic review of five randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 300 patients with OA found that green-lipped mussel (GLM) supplementation was superior to placebo in reducing pain and improving function in mild to moderate cases, though evidence quality was limited by small sample sizes and variable preparations.^[71] Similarly, a 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis of nine clinical trials, including five suitable for pooled analysis, reported moderate and clinically meaningful reductions in OA pain scores with GLM extracts, comparable to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in some metrics, but emphasized heterogeneity in dosing and extract stabilization.^[72] For OA specifically, a 1998 double-blind RCT of 63 patients with RA or OA demonstrated that a lipid extract of P. canaliculus (Lyprinol) reduced pain, morning stiffness, and joint swelling by 30-50% after three months, outperforming placebo with sustained effects up to six months.^[73] A 2017 RCT involving 79 participants with moderate to severe knee OA tested a novel stabilized lipid extract (BioLex), finding significant improvements in pain (via WOMAC scores) and function after 12 weeks compared to placebo, with no serious adverse events.^[74] However, studies using unstabilized freeze-dried mussel powder have shown inconsistent outcomes, with a 2005 review of five trials concluding limited compelling evidence for pain relief due to preparation instability affecting bioavailability.^[75] Evidence for RA is weaker and less consistent. The same 1998 RCT noted benefits in RA subgroups, but a 2005 systematic review of available trials found no robust support for GLM powder in RA symptom management, attributing variability to product quality and calling for standardized extracts.^[76] Overall safety profiles across trials indicate GLM is well-tolerated, with mild gastrointestinal side effects reported in under 10% of participants, comparable to placebo rates; no hepatotoxicity or severe allergies were linked in reviewed studies.^[77] Larger, long-term RCTs are needed to confirm durability of effects and optimal dosing, as current data derive from small cohorts (n<100 per trial) and short durations (8-24 weeks).^[78]

Criticisms and Methodological Limitations

Clinical trials investigating Perna canaliculus extracts for conditions like osteoarthritis have been criticized for small sample sizes, often ranging from 20 to 100 participants, which limit statistical power and generalizability.^[72] Many studies suffer from low methodological quality, as assessed by scales like the Jadad score, with deficiencies in randomization, blinding, and handling of withdrawals/dropouts scoring 1–2.5 out of 5 in over half of reviewed trials.^[72] ^[71] Short intervention durations, typically 3–6 months, fail to capture long-term effects or progression of chronic conditions.^[72] Heterogeneity in study outcomes is pronounced, with only a subset of randomized controlled trials (e.g., 2 out of 5) demonstrating benefits over placebo, while others report no significant pain reduction or functional improvement.^[79] This inconsistency arises partly from variability in extract preparations, including whole powder (doses 1050–3000 mg/day), lipid extracts (210–1200 mg/day), and processing methods like freeze-drying versus stabilization, which affect bioactive compound stability and bioavailability.^[72] ^[79] Lack of standardization in active ingredients, such as glycosaminoglycans or omega-3 lipids, complicates meta-analyses, yielding high statistical heterogeneity (I²=53.7% in some reviews).^[72] Few trials compare P. canaliculus to conventional therapies like NSAIDs, leaving gaps in assessing relative efficacy and cost-effectiveness.^[71] Potential biases, including industry funding in product-specific studies and open-label designs in pilots, further undermine credibility, as do uneven participant demographics (e.g., predominantly female cohorts without menopausal status controls).^[79] ^[72] Systematic reviews conclude that while moderate symptom relief is suggested in some cases, the overall evidence remains inconclusive due to these flaws, necessitating larger, rigorously designed RCTs for validation.^[72] ^[71]

Recent Research and Future Prospects

Advances in Immunology and Physiology

Recent transcriptomic analyses have identified tissue-specific immune responses in Perna canaliculus to Vibrio sp. infections, with haemolymph showing elevated expression of antimicrobial peptides and oxidative burst enzymes, while gills exhibited stronger phagocytosis-related gene upregulation.^[80] Elevated temperatures combined with Photobacterium swingsii infection exacerbate mortality, reducing survival to below 20% in challenged groups at 24°C, with haemolymph immune parameters like lysozyme activity declining by 40-60% under dual stress.^[63] A 2023 review of immunological drivers highlights Vibrio spp. as primary pathogens, with virulence factors including quorum sensing and biofilm formation enabling tissue invasion, and notes advances in haemocyte functional assays revealing ROS production as a key defense mechanism against bacterial adhesion.^[58] In vitro studies on P. canaliculus extracts demonstrate extraction-method-dependent immunomodulation: supercritical CO₂-extracted oil, when combined with low-molecular-weight fucoidan, boosts TNF-α and IL-2 secretion by 1.5-2-fold in macrophage and lymphocyte lines, indicating immunostimulatory potential via NF-κB pathway activation, whereas solvent extracts suppress these cytokines by up to 50%, suggesting anti-inflammatory roles through PPARγ agonism.^[81]^[82] These findings align with empirical data from haemocyte challenges, where copper exposure at 50 μg/L modulates phagocytosis by 30% via MAPK signaling disruption, underscoring metal ions as physiological regulators of innate immunity.^[83] Physiological research has advanced through refined dynamic energy budget (DEB) models, reparameterized in 2025 with empirical growth and reproduction data, enabling accurate predictions of somatic maintenance costs (0.8-1.2 μJ/individual/day) and reserve dynamics under varying food regimes, facilitating aquaculture optimization.^[84] Selective breeding experiments reveal genetic variation in heat stress resilience, with one family achieving 42% survival at sustained 26°C versus 5% in others, linked to differential gene expression (e.g., 2769 heat-responsive genes in sensitive lines) and microbiome shifts favoring Vibrio abundance.^[85] Metabolic depression studies show MgCl₂ immersion at 40 g/L suppresses heart rate by 97% and oxygen consumption by 76%, preserving energy reserves during post-harvest stress, as validated by metabolomic profiling of reduced glycolysis intermediates.^[86]^[39] These mechanisms reflect adaptive physiological plasticity, with low dissolved oxygen (40% saturation) similarly curtailing respiration by 50% without mortality.^[10]

Responses to Climate Change and Emerging Threats

Perna canaliculus exhibits physiological responses to elevated seawater temperatures associated with climate change, including metabolic adjustments within aerobic energy production pathways during transient heatwaves of 25.5–26.5 °C, though such exposures induce up to 61% mortality in affected populations.^[87] Under prolonged heat stress up to 24 °C, the species regulates energy metabolism via metabolite changes, enabling short-term adaptation, but histopathological alterations in tissues signal underlying stress and increased susceptibility to pathogens like Photobacterium swingsii.^[88] ^[89] Genetic factors and developmental stage (ontogeny) modulate thermal resilience, with selectively bred lines showing differential biomarker expression, such as heart rate, oxygen consumption, and gaping behavior, positioning P. canaliculus as a potential biosensor for monitoring heat stress in changing marine environments.^[48] ^[26] Ocean acidification, driven by rising CO2 levels, elevates energy demands in P. canaliculus, as evidenced by increased electron transport system activity and reduced energy reserves following 14-day exposures to lowered pH, compromising bioenergetic balance and growth.^[90] Larval stages prove particularly sensitive, with pre-veliger development hindered by reduced aragonite saturation states, though increased food availability can partially mitigate calcification deficits at the expense of exacerbated growth suppression.^[91] ^[92] In aquaculture contexts, strategies like crushed shell enrichment enhance seawater carbonate buffering, supporting larval development under near-future acidification scenarios, though broader industry vulnerabilities persist without scaled interventions.^[93] Emerging threats compounded by climate variability include intensified pathogen interactions and harmful algal blooms. Elevated temperatures synergize with bacterial pathogens, rendering P. canaliculus more vulnerable to infections like those from Photobacterium swingsii, contributing to summer mortality events in aquaculture.^[63] ^[53] Annual blooms of Alexandrium spp. since 2011 in key farming regions impair larval and juvenile development via paralytic shellfish toxin accumulation, with marine heatwaves altering toxin uptake dynamics but depleting glycogen reserves and heightening metabolic stress.^[94] ^[95] Acute events such as coastal flooding induce spawning responses without immediate mortality, yet highlight limited tolerance to salinity shifts and freshwater incursions, potentially disrupting reproductive cycles.^[96] Paternal heat exposure further propagates transgenerational effects, slowing larval development and reducing veliger growth rates, underscoring risks to population resilience amid rising marine heatwave frequency.^[97] Overall, while innate responses afford partial buffering, empirical data indicate thresholds beyond which cumulative stressors threaten wild stocks and farmed yields, necessitating targeted risk assessments for pathogens and environmental shocks in New Zealand's mussel industry.^[62]

References

[1]
https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=397169
[2]
Perna canaliculus (green shell mussel) | CABI Compendium
P. canaliculus is endemic to New Zealand. It occurs on the coasts of all three main islands but is more common in the north of the country.<|separator|>
[3]
Species - Perna canaliculus - nimpis
Aug 22, 2022 · Perna canaliculus is a large marine mussel that attaches to surfaces (eg rocks boats, piers) using threads (the 'beard'). It has a bright green periostracum.Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[4]
Greenshell™ mussel | Earth Sciences New Zealand - NIWA
Greenshell™ mussels, also known as green-lipped mussels, are indigenous to New Zealand, with scientific name Perna canaliculus, and can grow to 20 cm or more.Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[5]
Perna canaliculus Gmelin, 1791 [Mytilidae]
Perna canaliculus is endemic to New Zealand. It occurs throughout the country but it is more common in the warmer North. It prefers moderately exposed ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[6]
Identifying the source populations supplying a vital economic marine ...
Jun 8, 2023 · Aquaculture of New Zealand's endemic green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) is an industry valued at NZ$ 336 M per annum and is ~ 80% ...
[7]
Inefficiency of conversion of seed into market-ready mussels in New ...
Nov 15, 2022 · The Greenshell™ mussel (Perna canaliculus) industry is New Zealand's largest and most valuable aquaculture industry, and yet despite its success ...
[8]
An Evidence-Based Systematic Review of Green-Lipped Mussel ...
Jul 10, 2009 · Its most popular use, besides as food, is to help relieve joint pain and inflammatory joint disorders; while there is some evidence supporting ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
Green-Lipped Mussel: Benefits, Forms, and Effectiveness - Healthline
Feb 1, 2021 · However, only sparse and inconsistent evidence supports the use of green-lipped mussel supplements for inflammatory conditions like asthma, ...
[10]
Responses of the New Zealand green-lipped mussel, Perna ...
Feb 15, 2024 · The aquaculture industry of P. canaliculus has been expanding over the past three decades due to high market demands (Toone et al., 2022). The ...
[11]
locations of green-lipped mussel aquaculture areas in New Zealand,...
The New Zealand Greenshell™ mussel (Perna canaliculus) supports the largest aquaculture industry in the country. However, summer mortality events and ...
[12]
World Register of Marine Species - Perna canaliculus (Gmelin, 1791)
Perna canaliculus (Gmelin, 1791) · Biota · Animalia (Kingdom) · Mollusca (Phylum) · Bivalvia (Class) · Autobranchia (Subclass) · Pteriomorphia (Infraclass) · Mytilida ...Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
[13]
Taxonomy browser (Perna canaliculus) - NCBI
THE NCBI Taxonomy database allows browsing of the taxonomy tree, which contains a classification of organisms.
[14]
Perna canaliculus (Gmelin, 1791) - GBIF
Species Accepted. Perna canaliculus (Gmelin, 1791). In: GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Basionym: Mytilus canaliculus Gmelin, 1791 · 2,265 occurrences.
[15]
Mussel - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
... mussel... pearl · Perhaps from Vulgar Latin *pernula, diminutive of Latin perna, which in Sicily meant "pearl," earlier "sea-mussel," literally... barnacle.
[16]
Meaning of the name Perna
Aug 5, 2025 · The name Perna is of Latin origin, derived from the word 'perna,' which means 'ham' or 'thigh.' In ancient Rome, it was sometimes used as a ...
[17]
canaliculus - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
From Latin canāliculus (“small channel, pipe or gutter”), diminutive of canālis (“channel; pipe, gutter”), from canna (“cane, reed”), from Ancient Greek κάννα ...Missing: shell | Show results with:shell
[18]
canaliculus, n. meanings, etymology and more
canaliculus is a borrowing from Latin. Etymons: Latin canāliculus. See etymology. Nearby entries. canal boat, n.1770–; canal-built, adj.1861–; canal cell, n ...Missing: shell | Show results with:shell
[19]
[PDF] Biology of the New Zealand Greenshell Mussel - Bloomscool
Overview and bibliography of research on the Greenshell mussel, Perna canaliculus, from New Zealand waters. Journal of Shellfish. Research 18(2):347-360.
[20]
Perna canaliculus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Perna canaliculus, or New Zealand Greenshell mussel, is a species of Green-lipped mussel found off the waters of New Zealand.Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[21]
Life of a green-lipped mussel - Science Learning Hub
Jun 14, 2013 · Mussels spend up to 6 weeks as larvae and can live for many years as adults. Farmed mussels, however, are harvested after about 18 months in the adult form.
[22]
Perna canaliculus, New Zealand green mussels - SeaLifeBase
Perna canaliculus, or New Zealand green mussel, is a benthic bivalve found in the Southwest Pacific, with a max length of 15cm. It has a high resilience and ...Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific
[23]
[PDF] Green-lipped Mussels in GLM 9 - Fisheries New Zealand
The green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) is the most valuable aquaculture species in New. Zealand, valued at $260 million of production in 2009. The industry ...
[24]
Mapping the Green-Lipped Mussel (Perna canaliculus) Microbiome
Jan 29, 2022 · The New Zealand green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) is an endemic bivalve commonly found within intertidal and subtidal coastal habitats.
[25]
The influence of ocean environmental factors on trace element ...
The mean seawater depth of 17 coastal sites is 22 m, mostly 17–23 m, while the mussel spat collection sites and mussel farm sites are about 30–40 m in depth.
[26]
Mussels, Perna canaliculus, as biosensors for climate change
Perna canaliculus (kūtai; green-lipped mussel) is a culturally, ecologically, and commercially important mussel endemic to Aotearoa/New Zealand, and there is a ...Missing: native depth<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
The benefits of bivalve reef restoration: A global synthesis of ...
Nov 12, 2020 · In all but one instance, however, the restoration sites themselves are afforded protection from harvest, with Perna canaliculus being the ...
[28]
Macroalgae and conspecifics serve as critical attachment substrates ...
The restoration of green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) reefs in New Zealand is similarly impeded by a lack of natural recruitment into populations of ...
[29]
Mussel zonation in New Zealand - Inter-Research Science Publisher
The possibility that environmental stress might affect the zonation pattern, with more severe effects on. Perna canaliculus, was suggested by the domination of.
[30]
Predicting habitat suitability of filter-feeder communities in a shallow ...
In New Zealand, the annual production of green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) ... Ecosystem Services, No. (2014). A.C. Alfaro et al. Green-lipped Mussels ...
[31]
Ecosystem services provided by the exotic bivalves Dreissena ...
Filter-feeding dreissenids remove ... Effects of mussel (Perna canaliculus) biodeposit decomposition on benthic respiration and nutrient fluxes.
[32]
Impacts of sea star predation on mussel bed restoration - Wilcox
May 15, 2018 · ... Perna canaliculus, in soft-sediment systems in northeastern New Zealand. ... competitor and its principal predator. Oecologia 15: 93–120.<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
[PDF] Potential effects of mussel farming on New Zealand's marine ...
Butler, D.J. 2003: Possible impacts of marine farming of mussels (Perna canaliculus) on king shags. (Leucocarbo carunculatus). DOC Science Internal Series 111.
[34]
New Zealand intertidal zones | Research Starters - EBSCO
Processes such as predation and competition on New Zealand shores are ... Perna canaliculus, and the red coralline alga Corallina officinalis in the ...
[35]
Perna canaliculus as an Ecological Material in the Removal of ... - NIH
Nov 5, 2021 · Perna canaliculus is a recognized biosorbent of organic pollutants. Therefore, microbial biostimulation with Perna canaliculus shells is used to eliminate the ...
[36]
Green-lipped mussels | Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Mar 2, 2009 · The native green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) was used to trial a cultivation technique in which young mussels (mussel spat) were grown on ...
[37]
Nutritional condition of wild and hatchery‐reared, green‐lipped ...
Nov 28, 2023 · New Zealand's Greenshell™ mussel (Perna canaliculus) aquaculture industry relies almost exclusively (∼85%) on wild caught spat, with the vast ...1 Introduction · 2 Methods · 3.3 Biochemical Composition
[38]
[PDF] Review of sustainability measures for green-lipped mussel (GLM 9 ...
There is no targeted commercial harvest of adult green-lipped mussels in GLM 9, but New Zealand's mussel farming industry is heavily reliant on wild-caught.
[39]
Metabolomic and physiological insights to ameliorate post-harvest ...
Jun 26, 2025 · In the past year, 30,000 tonnes of P. canaliculus were exported overseas, with a value of $380 million NZD (~$230 million USD; Aquaculture New ...
[40]
Our mussels and salmon set new export records in 2023
Mussel export earnings were 30% up on the 2022 calendar year to $390m, with frozen half shell mussels leading that charge, up 44% to $288m.
[41]
World Aquaculture - December 2024
This species now has an annual production valued at $394 million NZD (Aquaculture New Zealand 2023). ... New Zealand's green-lipped mussel industry. Optimising ...Missing: tonnage | Show results with:tonnage
[42]
[PDF] Aquaculture environmental performance annual report 2024
Value of mussels, oysters and salmon for year 2023 estimated by Aquaculture New Zealand. Regional jobs & income. 3,000+people employed in aquaculture. $.
[43]
Farming green-lipped mussels – introduction - Science Learning Hub
Jun 25, 2013 · Green-lipped mussels (kūtai, Perna canaliculus) are endemic to New Zealand. Discover how these mussels are farmed, and how a tiny parasitic ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[44]
[PDF] LCA of New Zealand mussels and oysters
Oct 20, 2021 · Significant impact from blue mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis biofouling on aquaculture production of green-lipped mussels in New Zealand.
[45]
[PDF] Overview of Ecological Effects of Aquaculture
This chapter provides an overview of the ecological effects associated with farming New. Zealand's two main shellfish species: green-lipped mussels (Perna ...
[46]
Nutritional condition of wild and hatchery‐reared, green‐lipped ...
Nov 28, 2023 · New Zealand's Greenshell™ mussel (Perna canaliculus) aquaculture industry relies almost exclusively (∼85%) on wild caught spat, with the vast ...Missing: overfishing | Show results with:overfishing
[47]
Boosting efficiency of mussel spat collection for ecological ...
Jun 7, 2024 · They effectively avoid damaging wild mussel beds and enable control of spat collection time and volume, making them an ecologically sustainable ...
[48]
Differential responses of selectively bred mussels (Perna ...
It is also the first published study to investigate the effects of heat-stress on the green-lipped mussel whole transcriptome and associated microbiome. 2 ...
[49]
[PDF] Pathogens and Parasites of the Mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis ...
Dec 1, 2007 · Previous surveys suggest that Perna canaliculus in New Zealand faces no great pathological threat. Hine (1989) reported no disease-associated ...
[50]
Histological Examination of Perna canaliculus Mussels during a ...
Apr 12, 2024 · A histological approach was used to identify pathogens and parasites, as well as immunological tissue responses in unhealthy- and healthy-looking P. canaliculus
[51]
Perkinsus olseni and other parasites and abnormal tissue structures ...
Oct 19, 2022 · This study provides information regarding the infections of potential parasites and pathogens for the first time in P. canaliculus, their seasonal variations.
[52]
Quantification of Photobacterium swingsii and characterisation of ...
Even though the P. canaliculus mussel industry has experienced relatively few disease issues, the presence of pathogens and parasites continue to be reported ( ...
[53]
Investigating the effect of bacterial coinfections on juvenile and adult ...
Oct 3, 2023 · This study demonstrates that coinfections by the pathogens P. swingsii and V. mediterranei cause high mortality in Greenshell™ mussels. The ...
[54]
Effects of seawater temperature and acute Vibrio sp. challenge on ...
Perna canaliculus summer mortality affects both juvenile and adult mussels (Newton and Webb, 2019). In adult mussels, wide gaping is often the first sign of ...
[55]
Effects of seawater temperature and acute Vibriosp. challenge on ...
Aug 15, 2022 · The New Zealand Greenshell™ mussel (Perna canaliculus) is an endemic bivalve species with cultural importance, that is harvested ...
[56]
Mate locating and access behaviour of the parasitic pea crab ...
Mar 18, 2015 · Recent research on green-lipped mussel farms has shown that 5.3% of the mussels were infected with this pea crab which would suggest that the ...<|separator|>
[57]
Disease threats to farmed green-lipped mussels Perna canaliculus ...
Jun 27, 2019 · We present an initial assessment of GLM vulnerability to disease threats and the potential risk pathways for mussel pathogens and parasites into New Zealand.
[58]
A review on green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus immunology
Green-lipped mussels, trademarked as Greenshell™ mussels (Perna canaliculus) are endemic to the inshore coastlines of New Zealand (NZ) and are classified as ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[59]
Cause of massive summer mortality in New Zealand's Greenshell ...
Dec 18, 2023 · The study is the first to explore the mechanisms of pathogen coinfection in Greenshell mussels and support efforts to strengthen biosecurity ...Missing: control | Show results with:control
[60]
[PDF] new zealand greenshell™ mussel industry biosecurity standards
Good biosecurity measures help protect the coastal marine environment and can be low cost compared to productivity and product quality loses if a pathogen (an ...
[61]
Anthropogenic Vector Ecology and Management to Combat Disease ...
Jan 22, 2024 · We developed a risk analysis framework to identify disease risks and management gaps associated with anthropogenic vector movements in New Zealand's main ...
[62]
(PDF) Disease threats to farmed green-lipped mussels Perna ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We present an initial assessment of GLM vulnerability to disease threats and the potential risk pathways for mussel pathogens and parasites into New Zealand.
[63]
Interactive effects of elevated temperature and Photobacterium ...
Overall, this work confirms that Photobacterium swingsii is pathogenic to P. canaliculus and indicates that mussels may be more vulnerable to bacterial ...<|separator|>
[64]
Greenshell Mussel Products: A Comprehensive Review of ... - MDPI
The composition of dried whole meat is comprised of approximately 36–67% protein, 10–25% carbohydrate, 2–25% ash, 6–12% fat and 0–5% moisture (Figure 2) [42].
[65]
The Preventive Effects of Greenshell Mussel (Perna canaliculus) on ...
Jul 15, 2019 · Nutritive value of Greenshell mussel (GSM) powder and the composition of fatty acids. Proximate composition (g/100 g). Fat, 8.1. Crude protein ...
[66]
3 PUFAs from the New Zealand green-lipped mussel, Perna ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The present study has identified in the marine mollusc, Perna canaliculus, an homologous series of novel omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ...
[67]
Furan fatty acid as an anti-inflammatory component from the green ...
Oct 4, 2011 · A lipid extract of Perna canaliculus (New Zealand green-lipped mussel) has reportedly displayed anti-inflammatory effects in animal models ...
[68]
Perna canaliculus (Green-Lipped Mussel): Bioactive Components ...
P. canaliculus has traditionally been used as a therapeutic to treat various arthralgias in both humans and animals; however, clinical research reports provide ...<|separator|>
[69]
New Zealand Green-Lipped Mussel Uses, Benefits & Dosage
Feb 19, 2025 · Limited clinical studies suggest that Perna mussel extracts may have efficacy in the treatment of diseases with inflammatory components, such as arthritis and ...Overview · History
[70]
Using Māori knowledge to assist understandings and management ...
Sep 9, 2018 · Kūtai or green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) are an important traditional, inter-generational food source for coastal Māori.
[71]
Systematic review of the nutritional supplement Perna Canaliculus ...
Jan 25, 2008 · This systematic review evaluates the efficacy of the nutritional supplement Perna Canaliculus (green-lipped mussel, GLM) in the treatment of OA
[72]
Green-lipped (greenshell™) mussel (Perna canaliculus) extract ...
In contrast, a second meta-analysis assessing 29 studies found oral supplementation with glucosamine or chondroitin sulphate significantly reduced pain in knee ...
[73]
The treatment of arthritis with a lipid extract of Perna canaliculus
Objective: to assess the efficacy of a lipid extract of the New Zealand green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus in rheumatoid and osteoarthritis and compare ...<|separator|>
[74]
A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial to investigate the ...
Aug 22, 2017 · New Zealand Green Lipped Mussel (GLM, Perna canaliculus) lipid extracts have shown promise as a treatment for OA [5] with several clinical ...
[75]
the effectiveness of the New Zealand green-lipped mussel Perna ...
Oct 12, 2005 · Reports of clinical studies, using freeze-dried mussel powder, show mixed outcome measures and are not conclusive, with only two of five ...
[76]
the effectiveness of the New Zealand green-lipped mussel Perna ...
There is little consistent and compelling evidence, to date, in the therapeutic use of freeze-dried green-lipped mussel powder products for rheumatoid or ...
[77]
A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial to investigate the ...
Aug 22, 2017 · New Zealand Green Lipped Mussel (GLM, Perna canaliculus) lipid extracts have shown promise as a treatment for OA [5] with several clinical ...
[78]
An Evidence-Based Systematic Review of Green-Lipped Mussel ...
Jul 10, 2009 · An Evidence-Based Systematic Review of Green-Lipped Mussel (Perna canaliculus) by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration · Full Article ...Missing: trials | Show results with:trials
[79]
Green-Lipped Mussels for Arthritis | Skeptical Inquirer
Jul 22, 2021 · “There is little consistent and compelling evidence, to date, in the therapeutic use of freeze-dried green-lipped mussel powder products for ...
[80]
Tissue-specific immune responses to Vibrio sp. infection in mussels ...
Feb 1, 2019 · In this study, we investigated immune responses in gill, hepatopancreas and haemolymph of mussels (Perna canaliculus Gmelin, 1791) following experimental ...
[81]
Antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of Perna canaliculus oil ...
The preparation and chemical composition of these extracts are explained in detail in the previous study (Cardim Lessa et al., 2024). The chemical composition ...
[82]
Investigation of the In Vitro Immunomodulatory Effects of Extracts ...
Mar 15, 2024 · The New Zealand green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) contains natural components extensively studied in vitro for their immunomodulatory ...
[83]
Copper-induced immunomodulation in mussel (Perna canaliculus ...
Copper-induced immunomodulation in mussel (Perna canaliculus) haemocytes · Article information · Search articles by author · Journals · Books · Databases · More.
[84]
Leveraging targeted experiments for advancements in mussel ...
Jan 15, 2025 · A DEB model for Perna canaliculus was reparameterised with targeted experimental and literature data. The model can realistically predict the growth, ...<|separator|>
[85]
Differential responses of selectively bred mussels (Perna ... - Frontiers
The green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) is a culturally and ecologically significant bivalve endemic to Aotearoa New Zealand. It is also Aotearoa New ...
[86]
Pre-treatments to reduce metabolism in adult green-lipped mussel ...
Jul 6, 2024 · Aquaculture of the green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus, is an important industry for New Zealand, which increasingly exports to live markets.
[87]
The effect of simulated marine heatwaves on green-lipped mussels ...
A transient 25.5–26.5 °C exposure resulted in 61 % mortality, with surviving animals showing a metabolic adjustment within aerobic energy production.Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[88]
Metabolite Changes of Perna canaliculus Following a Laboratory ...
This work provides evidence that P. canaliculus has the potential to adapt to heat stress up to 24 °C by regulating its energy metabolism.
[89]
Histopathological changes in the greenshell mussel, Perna ...
This research provides further insight into the complex host-pathogen-environment interactions for P. canaliculus in response to prolonged elevated temperature.
[90]
Ocean acidificationf affects the bioenergetics of marine mussels as ...
Feb 1, 2023 · The 14-day acidification exposure increased the energy demands of mussels, resulting in increased electron transport system (ETS) activity and decreased ...
[91]
The Effects of Aragonite Saturation State on Hatchery-Reared ...
Dec 26, 2019 · The pre-veliger larvae of Perna canaliculus were found to be sensitive to the aragonite saturation state of their incubation seawater. Embryos ...
[92]
Parameterisation and simulations for the green-lipped mussel
Jun 15, 2020 · Increased food supply mitigates ocean acidification effects on calcification but exacerbates effects on growth. Sci. Rep., 8 (2018), pp. 1-9.
[93]
Effects of crushed mussel, Perna canaliculus, shell enrichment on ...
May 4, 2021 · Perna canaliculus is an aquaculture species vulnerable to ocean acidification (OA). Returning shell waste to the sea after commercial ...
[94]
Exposure to Alexandrium spp. impairs the development of Green ...
Perna canaliculus early life stages (ELS) were exposed to two Alexandrium species. •. A 48 h exposure of embryos to whole cells of A. pacificum caused larval ...
[95]
Impacts of marine heatwave stress and harmful algal (Alexandrium ...
Sep 26, 2025 · Peak MHW-exposed mussels had depleted glycogen reserves, suggesting increased metabolic demand, and accumulated 1.8X less PSTs than mussels at ...Missing: waters | Show results with:waters
[96]
Implications of flooding events for the green-lipped mussels (Perna ...
Prominent among these organisms, the green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus, is an important marine ecosystem engineer and one of New Zealand's key aquaculture ...
[97]
Paternal heat exposure affects progeny larval development in green ...
ABSTRACT: The green-lipped mussel Perna canaliculus is critically important to the New Zealand aquaculture industry. However, the rise in marine heatwave (MHW) ...Missing: native | Show results with:native