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Phlox

Phlox is a genus comprising approximately 70 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants belonging to the family Polemoniaceae, primarily native to North America with one species also occurring in Siberia. These plants are renowned for their vibrant, clustered flowers featuring five petal-like lobes arranged around a long, narrow corolla tube, often displaying intense colors that inspired the genus name from the Greek word phlox, meaning "flame." Phlox species exhibit diverse growth habits, ranging from low-growing mat-forming ground covers to upright plants reaching several feet in height, and they thrive in a variety of habitats including woodlands, prairies, rocky slopes, and deserts across their native range. The leaves of Phlox are typically small, lanceolate, and arranged oppositely on the stems, with some species having thick, glossy foliage while others feature needle-like leaves adapted to drier conditions. Flowers bloom profusely from spring through fall, attracting pollinators such as butterflies and hummingbirds, and many species are prized in horticulture for their ease of cultivation and extended display of color. Notable examples include the tall Phlox paniculata, commonly known as garden phlox, which produces large panicles of fragrant blooms, and the creeping Phlox subulata, used as an evergreen ground cover with star-shaped flowers. In addition to their ornamental value, Phlox species play important ecological roles in native ecosystems, supporting biodiversity and providing nectar resources. While most are perennials, some annual varieties exist, and selective breeding has produced numerous cultivars with enhanced disease resistance and color variations. Cultivation typically requires well-drained soil and full sun to partial shade, though specific needs vary by species.

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Phlox derives from the Ancient Greek word φλόξ (phlóx), meaning "flame," in reference to the vivid, fiery colors of the flowers that evoke a blazing appearance.^[1]^[2] This etymological root traces back to the Proto-Indo-European bhel-, signifying "to shine" or "burn," and was originally applied in Greek to plants like wallflowers with striking blooms.^[1] Carl Linnaeus formally established Phlox as a genus in his seminal 1753 publication Species Plantarum, where he described several North American species and adopted the name to capture their intense floral hues.^[3]^[4] In the context of 18th-century botany, Linnaeus and his contemporaries often drew from classical languages to name genera based on prominent visual traits, with Phlox exemplifying this practice by likening the clustered, colorful inflorescences to tongues of flame.^[4]^[5] This naming choice underscored the plants' ornamental appeal, particularly within the Polemoniaceae family.^[2]

Classification

Phlox is classified in the family Polemoniaceae, order Ericales, and the clade Asterids within the eudicots.^[6]^[7] The genus is subdivided into sections, including sect. Phlox (comprising most species, including both annual and perennial forms), sect. Divaricatae, and sect. Pulvinatae.^[8]^[9] Approximately 69 species are currently accepted in Phlox, with ongoing taxonomic revisions informed by genetic analyses.^[6] Phylogenetic studies utilizing molecular data, such as nuclear and chloroplast sequences, support a North American origin for the genus, with key divergences estimated at 10–15 million years ago during the Miocene epoch. Recent phylogenomic analyses (as of 2024) further detail gene flow and hybrid speciation events, particularly in eastern North American clades.^[10]

Description

Morphology

Phlox species exhibit a herbaceous growth habit, predominantly as perennials, though a few annual forms exist within the genus. These plants display considerable variation in stature, ranging from low-growing, creeping varieties that reach heights of approximately 10 cm, such as Phlox subulata, to taller upright species that can attain up to 1.5 m, exemplified by Phlox paniculata. This diversity in height allows Phlox to adapt to various landscape roles, from ground covers to border accents.^[11] The stems of Phlox are typically erect in taller species or prostrate in mat-forming ones, often featuring glandular hairs that contribute to a sticky texture and may deter herbivores or reduce water loss. These stems arise from basal rosettes or rhizomes in perennial forms, providing structural support for the inflorescences. Leaf arrangement is consistently opposite along the stems, with simple blades that vary from lanceolate to linear in shape, possessing entire margins and lengths between 2 and 10 cm; the leaves are usually sessile or subsessile, with prominent venation in many species.^[12]^[13] Flowers are the hallmark of Phlox, characterized by salverform corollas—tubular at the base and expanding into five lobes at the apex—with overall lengths of 1–4 cm. These are borne in dense terminal panicles, cymes, or heads, creating showy displays; lobe shapes may be rounded, notched, or pointed, enhancing visual appeal. Flower colors span a vibrant spectrum including shades of red, pink, white, blue, and purple, often with darker eye zones at the corolla throat. Internally, each flower possesses five stamens inserted within the corolla tube and a superior ovary, typical of the Polemoniaceae family.^[14]^[12] Following pollination, Phlox produces small, dry capsules as fruits, each containing 3–6 seeds that are released upon dehiscence. The capsules are ovoid to globose, measuring about 3–5 mm, and the seeds may be winged in some species to aid dispersal by wind, while others lack wings and rely on gravity or animal vectors. This reproductive morphology supports the genus's propagation strategies in natural settings.^[15]

Reproduction

Phlox species predominantly reproduce sexually through a self-incompatibility system that prevents self-fertilization in most taxa, necessitating cross-pollination for seed set.^[16] This gametophytic self-incompatibility mechanism, controlled by the S-locus, ensures genetic diversity by promoting outcrossing, as observed in species like Phlox drummondii and Phlox pilosa.^[17] Flowering times vary widely across the genus, with spring-blooming species such as Phlox subulata typically producing flowers for 2–3 weeks in April to May, while summer and fall species like Phlox paniculata extend blooms over several months from mid-summer to September.^[18] Following successful cross-pollination, fertilized ovaries develop into dry, loculicidal capsules containing 1–3 small seeds per locule.^[19] These capsules dehisce explosively upon maturity, propelling seeds up to 5 meters from the parent plant to facilitate dispersal.^[20] Released seeds exhibit dormancy influenced by environmental cues like temperature and moisture, with viability generally lasting 1–3 years under suitable storage conditions, though annual species such as Phlox drummondii often lose germinability after two years.^[21] Vegetative reproduction is prevalent in many perennial Phlox species, allowing clonal spread without sexual reproduction.^[22] Certain taxa, including Phlox stolonifera and Phlox divaricata, propagate asexually via stolons—above-ground runners that root at nodes to form new shoots and expand into mats.^[23] Other perennials employ short rhizomes for underground spread, enabling colony formation in favorable habitats.^[24] At the cytological level, Phlox maintains a base chromosome number of x = 7, with diploid (2n = 14) as the most common ploidy level across the genus.^[25] Polyploidy, including tetraploid (2n = 28) and higher forms, occurs in several taxa such as Phlox nana and Phlox paniculata, often resulting from autopolyploidy or allopolyploidy events that enhance hybrid vigor through increased heterozygosity and larger cell size.^[26] This polyploid variation contributes to reproductive success by improving adaptability and fertility in interspecific hybrids.^[27]

Distribution and Habitat

Native Range

The genus Phlox, comprising approximately 65 species, is predominantly native to North America, where it exhibits a broad distribution across the continent.^[28] Eastern species are found from southern Canada southward through the Appalachian Mountains to northern Mexico, occupying diverse habitats in the eastern and central regions.^[11] Western species occur primarily in the Rocky Mountains and California, with extensions into the southwestern United States and Baja California, Mexico, reflecting the genus's adaptation to varied temperate environments.^[29]^[30] Endemism is particularly pronounced in the southeastern United States, where multiple Phlox species are restricted to localized areas, contributing to the region's high botanical diversity. For instance, Phlox pulchra is endemic to Alabama, occurring only in specific coastal plain habitats, while Phlox nivalis subspecies like ssp. texensis are confined to Texas.^[31] This concentration underscores the southeastern U.S. as a key center for Phlox speciation and conservation priority. The current ranges of Phlox species have been shaped by historical biogeographic processes, including post-glacial migrations following the Pleistocene ice ages. One outlier, Phlox sibirica, extends the genus's native range into Asia, occurring in the temperate regions of Siberia and Russia.^[32]

Environmental Preferences

Phlox species thrive in temperate climates across North America, primarily within USDA hardiness zones 4 through 9, where they experience moderate temperatures with cold winters and warm summers.^[33] Most wild populations prefer full sun to partial shade, allowing them to flourish in open woodlands, meadows, and rocky slopes that receive ample light while offering some protection from intense midday exposure.^[11] In their natural habitats, Phlox plants favor well-drained soils, typically sandy or loamy textures that prevent waterlogging and support root development.^[22] These soils generally have a neutral to slightly acidic pH range of 6.0 to 7.0, providing optimal nutrient availability without extremes that could inhibit growth.^[34] Certain species exhibit tolerance to drought once established, particularly in arid environments, due to efficient water conservation mechanisms.^[33] The genus occupies a broad altitudinal range, from sea level in lowland prairies and coastal areas to elevations up to 3,500 meters in mountainous regions such as the Rockies and Appalachians. Western Phlox species often display xerophytic adaptations, including pubescent leaves and stems that reduce water loss in dry, exposed habitats like deserts and rocky outcrops.^[33] In contrast, eastern species tend toward mesophytic traits, suited to moister conditions in forests and stream banks, with broader leaves that facilitate higher transpiration in humid environments.^[11]

Species Diversity

Accepted Species

The genus Phlox currently includes 69 accepted species, as recognized in the Plants of the World Online database, which integrates morphological and molecular data for taxonomic assessment.^[6] These species are broadly grouped by geographic distribution and life history: approximately 20–23 perennial species occur primarily in eastern North America, often in woodland or meadow habitats; 40–45 species are found in western North America, including a mix of annuals, biennials, and mat-forming perennials adapted to arid or montane environments; and a small number of additional taxa, such as P. sibirica in Siberia, extend the range beyond North America.^[35]^[28] Natural hybrids, numbering 3–4 recognized forms like P. × procumbens, arise mainly from eastern species and are accepted as distinct due to stable morphological traits.^[36] Representative examples include Phlox paniculata, a tall perennial (up to 1.5 m) native to eastern and central North America, characterized by large panicles of fragrant flowers; Phlox subulata, a low-mounding evergreen perennial from the eastern U.S. with needle-like leaves and early-spring blooms; and Phlox drummondii, an annual prairie species from Texas with showy, variable flower colors.^[37]^[38] Taxonomic understanding has evolved through seminal morphological treatments, such as Wherry's 1955 monograph organizing species into sections like Phlox, Divaricatae, and Pulvinatae, and subsequent revisions incorporating DNA sequencing.^[15] Molecular phylogenies have resolved several synonyms, confirmed hybrid origins for some taxa, and prompted splits, such as in the western P. austromontana complex, based on genetic divergence.^[39]

Notable Cultivated Species

Phlox paniculata, commonly known as garden phlox, is a staple in perennial borders due to its upright growth and profuse summer flowering. This species typically reaches heights of 1 to 1.5 meters, producing large terminal panicles of fragrant blooms from mid-summer to early fall. Notable cultivars include 'David', which features pure white flowers and exceptional resistance to powdery mildew, recognized as the Perennial Plant of the Year in 2002 by the Perennial Plant Association.^[40] Another popular selection is 'Bright Eyes', characterized by pale pink florets with a distinctive magenta eye, adding vibrant contrast in garden settings.^[41] These cultivars thrive in full sun and moist, well-drained soils, attracting butterflies and hummingbirds while providing long-lasting color.^[14] Phlox subulata, or creeping phlox, serves as an excellent groundcover in rock gardens and edging, forming dense mats of needle-like evergreen foliage that spread up to 0.6 meters wide while remaining low-growing at 15 to 20 centimeters tall. It bursts into bloom in early spring with star-shaped flowers in shades of pink, blue, and white. Cultivars such as 'Emerald Blue' offer intense blue-violet flowers, ideal for cascading over walls or slopes.^[14] 'Candy Stripe' stands out with its bicolored pink-and-white striped petals, enhancing visual interest in sunny, well-drained sites.^[42] This species prefers full sun and tolerates dry conditions once established, making it a low-maintenance choice for erosion control. Phlox drummondii, an annual phlox native to Texas, is widely cultivated for its compact habit and vivid spring-to-summer displays in borders and containers, growing 15 to 30 centimeters tall. It produces clusters of eye-catching flowers in a spectrum of colors including red, pink, purple, and white. The grandiflora cultivars feature larger, showy blooms suitable for cut flowers, while stellaria types offer smaller, star-shaped flowers often with fringed edges or contrasting eyes for added delicacy.^[43] These selections perform best in full sun with fertile, well-drained soil, self-seeding readily in suitable climates.^[44] Hybrids between Phlox divaricata and Phlox pilosa, prized for shade gardens, combine the loose, spreading habit of the parents to form soft mats under trees or in woodland edges. These perennials bloom in spring with lavender to blue flowers, typically reaching 20 to 30 centimeters in height and spreading up to 0.5 meters. Selections like 'Chattahoochee', derived from such crosses, display lavender flowers with maroon spots, providing subtle color in partial shade and moist, humus-rich soils.^[45] They support native pollinators and offer a natural look in low-light landscapes.^[22]

Cultivation and Uses

Gardening Practices

The following practices apply primarily to garden phlox (Phlox paniculata), a common tall perennial; requirements may vary for other species, such as closer spacing (15-30 cm) and gritty soils for creeping phlox (Phlox subulata). Garden phlox (Phlox paniculata) thrives in sites receiving full sun, ideally at least six hours of direct sunlight daily, though some afternoon shade can mitigate heat stress in warmer climates. Spacing plants 30 to 60 cm apart promotes air circulation and reduces disease risk.^[18]^[46]^[34] Soil preparation is essential for successful growth; amend garden beds with compost or other organic matter to enhance fertility, improve drainage, and maintain consistent moisture levels in well-drained, humus-rich soils. Applying a 2- to 3-inch layer of organic mulch, such as shredded bark or pine needles, around plants helps retain soil moisture, suppresses weeds, and regulates temperature.^[34]^[22]^[46] Watering should be moderate, providing about 1 inch per week during dry periods, preferably at the base of the plant to keep foliage dry and minimize fungal issues. Fertilize lightly in spring with a balanced, slow-release formula (such as 10-10-10) at a rate of 1 pound per 100 square feet to support growth without excess nitrogen, which can lead to leggy stems and reduced flowering.^[34]^[47]^[18]^[48] Pruning practices include deadheading spent flowers promptly to encourage reblooming and prevent self-seeding, as well as cutting back perennial stems to 2 inches above ground in late fall after frost to tidy the garden and reduce overwintering pests. For pollinator gardens, phlox pairs effectively with asters and salvias, extending bloom times and attracting a diverse array of bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds.^[18]^[49]^[50]

Additional Uses

Beyond ornamental gardening, phlox species are valued as cut flowers due to their long-lasting blooms and fragrance, particularly P. paniculata. Creeping varieties like P. subulata serve as ground covers for erosion control on slopes. Historically, some Native American groups used phlox leaves to make tea for treating skin conditions such as boils and eczema.^[51]^[52]

Propagation Methods

Phlox plants can be propagated through several methods, including seeds, cuttings, division, and tissue culture, allowing gardeners and commercial producers to reproduce desirable traits while adapting to species-specific needs. Seed propagation is suitable for many annual and perennial species, while vegetative methods like cuttings and division are preferred for maintaining cultivar uniformity in ornamentals such as garden phlox (Phlox paniculata). Tissue culture offers advanced options for large-scale, disease-free production.^[18]^[22] Seed propagation begins with sowing in spring after cold stratification to break dormancy, particularly for perennial species. Seeds require moist chilling at approximately 4°C for 30 to 90 days, depending on the species; for example, Phlox speciosa achieves up to 75% emergence after 90 days of stratification, while shorter periods like 45 days yield lower rates around 10%. Following stratification, sow seeds in a sterile, well-draining potting mix and maintain temperatures of 15-21°C for germination, which typically occurs in 10 to 21 days for species like annual phlox (Phlox drummondii) or up to 45 days for Phlox diffusa. Lightly cover seeds and provide consistent moisture without waterlogging to prevent damping-off.^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56] Vegetative propagation via cuttings is effective for perennials, with softwood stem cuttings taken in summer from non-flowering shoots offering high success rates of 70-90% under optimal conditions. Cuttings, 7-10 cm long, should be dipped in rooting hormone, inserted into a sterile potting mix such as perlite-peat, and provided bottom heat at 18-24°C to promote rooting within 3-4 weeks. Basal cuttings from spring growth or root cuttings in early winter are also viable for species like woodland phlox (Phlox divaricata), using similar media and misting to maintain humidity.^[57]^[58]^[59]^[22] Root division is a straightforward method for established perennial clumps, performed in fall or early spring to minimize stress. Dig up the plant, separate the root mass into sections each with shoots and roots using a sharp tool, and replant immediately in prepared soil; this approach rejuvenates overgrown plants and is recommended every 3-4 years for tall garden phlox to sustain vigor. Success depends on avoiding dry conditions during division to preserve root integrity.^[18]^[22]^[60] Tissue culture is employed in commercial production to generate virus-free cultivars, particularly for ornamentals susceptible to pathogens like powdery mildew. Techniques involve culturing meristems or endosperm on nutrient media such as Murashige and Skoog, often combined with Agrobacterium for genetic improvements, yielding uniform, disease-resistant plants for propagation. This method is especially useful for elite varieties of Phlox paniculata and Phlox drummondii, though it requires specialized facilities.^[61]^[62]^[63]

Ecology

Pollination Interactions

Phlox species exhibit an entomophilous pollination syndrome, characterized by tubular corollas that favor visitation by long-tongued insects such as butterflies and moths.^[64] These flowers often feature nectar guides—contrasting patterns or colors on the petals that direct pollinators to the nectar and pollen rewards at the floral base.^[65] Primary pollinators include members of the order Lepidoptera, with butterflies predominating in many native habitats; for instance, in populations of Phlox drummondii, the pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor) accounts for approximately 88.5% of observed visits.^[66] Bees, particularly bumblebees and honeybees, also visit various species like Phlox paniculata and Phlox divaricata for nectar and pollen, though they are less dominant than lepidopterans in most cases.^[67] Hummingbirds occasionally pollinate certain species, such as Phlox paniculata, drawn by the abundant nectar in tubular blooms.^[68] Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), in particular, forage on P. paniculata as a key nectar source during migration.^[69] This mutualistic relationship benefits both parties: Phlox flowers supply energy-rich nectar and protein-packed pollen to pollinators, while the insects facilitate cross-pollination and gene flow across populations, enhancing genetic diversity and reproductive success.^[70] Observations in native settings underscore the heavy reliance on Lepidoptera, with studies confirming their outsized role in pollination efficacy for species like P. drummondii.^[71]

Pests and Diseases

Phlox plants face several biotic threats from pests and diseases that can compromise their vigor and appearance in both wild and garden settings.^[46] Fungal pathogens, insect herbivores, viruses, and nematodes are primary concerns, often exacerbated by environmental conditions such as humidity or soil quality.^[72] Among fungal diseases, powdery mildew caused by the pathogen Erysiphe cichoracearum is the most prevalent, particularly in humid climates where it thrives on crowded or poorly ventilated plants.^[73] Symptoms include a distinctive white, powdery coating on leaves and stems, leading to yellowing, distortion, and premature defoliation if unchecked.^[46] Effective management involves applying fungicides such as sulfur or potassium bicarbonate at the first signs of infection, with repeated applications every 7-14 days during humid periods.^[74] Insect pests commonly affecting Phlox include spider mites and aphids, which feed on plant sap and cause visible damage. Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) are especially problematic in warm, dry conditions, resulting in stippling, bronzing, and yellowing of leaves due to their piercing-sucking mouthparts.^[72] Aphids, such as species in the genus Aphis, colonize tender shoots and undersides of leaves, causing curling, stunted growth, and honeydew excretion that promotes sooty mold.^[75] Control measures for both include neem oil applications, which disrupt feeding and reproduction, or introduction of natural predators like lady beetles and predatory mites.^[76]^[72] Viral diseases, notably mosaic viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus (Cucumovirus), primarily impact annual Phlox species like Phlox drummondii and can occasionally affect perennials.^[77] These viruses induce mottled patterns of light and dark green on leaves, along with stunting and distorted growth, and are transmitted by aphid vectors during feeding.^[78] Infected plants offer no curative treatment, so removal and destruction of affected individuals, combined with aphid control, are essential to limit spread.^[79] Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) pose a subsurface threat, particularly in poor or compacted soils with inadequate drainage.^[80] These microscopic worms invade roots, forming characteristic galls that impair water and nutrient uptake, leading to wilting, stunted growth, and yellow foliage above ground.^[81] Management focuses on soil solarization or amendment with organic matter to suppress populations, alongside using nematode-resistant cultivars where available.^[81]

Conservation

Threats to Species

Habitat loss from urbanization and agricultural expansion poses a major threat to wild Phlox populations, particularly eastern woodland species that depend on intact forest understories and open woodlands. Development for residential and commercial use, along with conversion to cropland and grazing lands, has fragmented and destroyed suitable habitats, leading to population declines in species such as Phlox carolina and Phlox bifida. For instance, P. carolina faces ongoing habitat destruction through logging, grazing, and herbicide use, while P. bifida is declining due to successional changes and human-induced conversion of prairie and woodland areas.^[82]^[83] Competition from invasive species further endangers Phlox by altering habitat quality and reducing native plant diversity. In eastern woodlands, aggressive vines like Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) form dense covers that shade out understory perennials, limiting light and resources essential for growth and reproduction. This invasive climber thrives in disturbed forest edges and can smother native vegetation, contributing to local extirpations of sensitive Phlox populations. Similarly, western species such as Phlox hirsuta suffer from competition with exotic grasses and weeds that invade their specialized serpentine soils.^[84]^[85] Climate change intensifies these pressures by causing range shifts, increased drought frequency, and altered precipitation patterns that affect Phlox habitats. Western species, including Phlox hirsuta and Phlox solivaga, are particularly vulnerable in arid and semi-arid regions, where prolonged droughts reduce soil moisture and stress plants adapted to specific moisture regimes. Projections suggest significant habitat contraction for drought-sensitive Phlox by mid-century, compounded by interactions with other stressors like habitat fragmentation.^[86]^[87] Overcollection for horticultural purposes threatens rare endemic Phlox, depleting small populations in accessible locations. Species like Phlox hirsuta, confined to limited sites, have experienced declines from illegal digging and removal by enthusiasts seeking ornamental plants, further endangering their survival in fragmented habitats. Similar risks apply to other narrow endemics, such as Phlox buckleyi, whose attractive foliage and flowers make them targets despite legal protections in some areas.^[85]^[88]

Conservation Efforts

Conservation efforts for Phlox species focus on protecting rare taxa through legal designations, ex situ preservation, habitat restoration, and research initiatives. At least two species are federally listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act: Phlox hirsuta (Yreka phlox), endemic to serpentine soils in northern California, and Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis (Texas trailing phlox), restricted to pine savannas in southeastern Texas.^[85]^[89] Additionally, Phlox buckleyi (swordleaf phlox), found in shale barrens of the Appalachians and globally ranked as imperiled (G2), faces ongoing threats like habitat fragmentation.^[90]^[88] State-level protections extend to several other taxa, such as Phlox dolichantha in California, classified as rare and threatened, contributing to over 10 Phlox species or subspecies considered imperiled across U.S. jurisdictions according to NatureServe rankings.^[91] Seed banking and germplasm preservation programs play a central role in safeguarding genetic diversity. The USDA's Ornamental Plant Germplasm Center (OPGC) maintains a collection of over 400 Phlox accessions, including wild-collected materials from native species, to support ex situ conservation and breeding for resilience.^[92] Botanical gardens affiliated with the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) also bank seeds and propagate endangered species, such as P. hirsuta and P. nivalis ssp. texensis, to prevent extinction and enable future restorations.^[93]^[94] Reintroduction efforts are outlined in recovery plans; for instance, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's plan for P. hirsuta specifies conditions for augmenting or reintroducing populations in suitable habitats within its limited range.^[95] Habitat restoration initiatives target key ecosystems for Phlox species. In the Midwest, prairie reconstructions incorporate Phlox pilosa (prairie phlox) to revive tallgrass prairie biodiversity, with native plant nurseries providing plugs and seeds for projects that enhance pollinator habitats and soil stability.^[96] In the Appalachians, conservation focus areas protect shale barren habitats for species like P. buckleyi through land acquisition and management to mitigate fragmentation.^[97] Research supports these efforts by informing conservation strategies. Genetic studies at the OPGC, including analyses of ploidy levels and genome sizes across Phlox taxa, aid in selecting diverse germplasm for long-term viability and potential hybridization to bolster wild populations.^[28] These investigations, combined with over 400 accessions in federal collections, provide a foundation for adaptive management amid ongoing threats like habitat loss.^[92]

References

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[25]
(PDF) Polyploidy and genome size variation in Phlox nana ...
Dec 19, 2017 · This image is of a cell during metaphase and reveals 68-70 chromosomes. The base chromosome number for Phlox is x = 7 (diploid cells exhibit 2n ...
[26]
Population genetics of the Wyoming endemic Phlox pungens Dorn ...
The genus Phlox has a base chromosome number of x = 7 (e.g.,. Flory 1934), and both auto- and allopolyploidy have been inferred. Because of the potential for ...
[27]
Genome size and ploidy levels of creeping phlox and related ...
Polyploidy was considered rare in the genus Phlox, but recent studies have indicated that it is more prevalent than previously reported, and that it may be an ...Missing: x= 7
[28]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304423816301066
[29]
mountain phlox (Phlox austromontana) - iNaturalist
Phlox austromontana is a species of phlox known by the common name mountain phlox. It is native to the southwestern United States and Baja California.
[30]
Phlox pulchra - NatureServe Explorer
Phlox pulchra occurs in the southeastern United States where it is endemic to Alabama. It was historically known from nine counties on habitat that lends ...
[31]
Phlox nivalis - Wikipedia
texensis, the Texas trailing phlox or Texan phlox, is a rare plant federally listed as an endangered species of the United States. The subspecies is endemic to ...
[32]
Reproductive isolation between phylogeographic lineages scales ...
Dec 7, 2013 · Although the contacts probably formed concurrently in response to Holocene expansion from glacial refugia ... phylogeography, admixture ...
[33]
Evolution of the Phlox Family - WordPress.com
(A-D: species of eastern North America). A. Phlox divaricata subsp. divaricata. B. Phlox glaberrima subsp. interior. C. Phlox stolonifera. D. Phlox pilosa subsp ...
[34]
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[35]
Phlox paniculata - North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
Soil Texture: Clay: High Organic Matter: Loam (Silt); Soil pH: Acid (<6.0): Alkaline (>8.0): Neutral (6.0-8.0); Soil Drainage: Good Drainage: Moist; Available ...
[36]
Zale, Peter J. - OhioLINK ETD
(Polemoniaceae) includes approximately 65 species primarily endemic to North America; 20-23 species occur in the eastern U.S. and 40-45 in the west. The eastern ...
[37]
Classification for Kingdom Plantae Down to Genus Phlox L.
Subordinate Taxa of Phlox L. ; Phlox ×glutinosa Buckley (pro sp.) [divaricata × pilosa] - phlox ; Phlox ×procumbens Lehm. (pro sp.) [stolonifera × subulata] - ...Missing: Subdivisions Phloxella
[38]
Phlox paniculata L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Phlox paniculata L. First published in Sp. Pl.: 151 (1753). This species is accepted ... POWO follows these authorities in accepting this name: Bailey, C ...
[39]
Phlox drummondii Hook. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The native range of this species is Central & SE. USA. It is an annual and grows primarily in the subtropical biome. It is has environmental uses.
[40]
Nomenclatural innovations in Phlox (Polemoniaceae), with updated ...
Jul 31, 2020 · In preparation for a forthcoming manuscript on Phlox, seven nomenclatural innovations are made: Phlox austromontana Coville subsp. jonesii ...
[41]
Phlox paniculata 'David' - Mt. Cuba Center
Phlox paniculata 'David' is probably the most well-known cultivar of garden phlox and was even named Perennial Plant of the Year in 2002.Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[42]
Phlox paniculata 'Bright Eyes' - Mt. Cuba Center
Rating 3.0 · Common Name Bright Eyes garden phlox · Bloom Period late July—mid-Aug · Peak Bloom late July · Size 44” x 30” · Fragrance mild · Powdery Mildew ...
[43]
Phlox subulata - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
The genus name is derived from the Greek word phlox meaning flame in reference to the intense flower colors of some varieties. Specific epithet means awl-shaped ...
[44]
[PDF] Phlox drummondii1 - Environmental Horticulture
Some cultivars have small, star-shaped flowers, often edged in white with a contrasting eye. A large planting of Phlox is a spectacular sight ...
[45]
Phlox drummondii - North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
Annual phlox prefers sandy well-drained soils but can be established in any well-drained soil in full sun to partial shade. It has moderate to high drought ...
[46]
Phlox divaricata ssp. laphamii 'Chattahoochee' - Mt. Cuba Center
Phlox divaricata ssp. laphamii 'Chattahoochee' originated in northern Florida and was once believed to be a hybrid between Phlox divaricata and Phlox pilosa.
[47]
Tall garden phlox | UMN Extension
Some cultivars begin blooming in mid-summer, others not until late August. Most tall garden phlox grow two to three feet, with some slightly taller. Garden ...Quick Facts · Planting · How To Care For Tall Garden...<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
Garden Phlox: A Passalong Plant for Modern Landscapes
Aug 5, 2021 · Once established, Phlox is not a heavy feeder either. A light application of a general-purpose fertilizer after spring emergence from winter ...
[49]
Yard and Garden: Handling and Caring for Garden Phlox | News
Jul 21, 2016 · Garden phlox can be divided in spring or late summer. In spring, dig up plants just as new growth begins to appear. Divide each clump into sections with a ...
[50]
Favorite Plants for Pollinator Gardens
Jul 2, 2020 · Perennials they love include: Aster, Asclepias, Monarda, Buddleia, Daylily, Delphinium, Hollyhock, Liatris, Phlox, Echinacea, Salvia, Scabiosa, ...
[51]
[PDF] Plant Propagation Protocol for Phlox speciosa ESRM 412
May 23, 2009 · 45 days of cold, moist stratification resulted in 10% emergence. 90 days of cold, moist stratification resulted in 75% emergence.
[52]
[PDF] Seed Starting Chart for Annual Flowers and Perennials Grown as ...
The fine seed starting mix provides the best medium for germination of seeds but is ... Phlox Drum- mondii. 60-65 y dark. 10-15. 2-Apr. Poppy,. Peony-flow- ered.
[53]
[PDF] Propagation protocol for production of container Phlox diffusa - USDA
Phlox diffusa is propagated by seed. Seeds are pre-chilled for 17 weeks, then sown in flats, and moved to pots after 4-6 weeks. 1 gram of seed produces 36 ...
[54]
Starting Plants Indoors From Seeds - MU Extension
Phlox, annual, Late March, 6 to 10 days, 50 to 55 degrees F, 10 to 11 weeks ... If all the seeds fail to germinate at the same time, cut strips of plastic ...
[55]
[PDF] Tall Garden Phlox for Minnesota Gardens
A complete fertilizer such as 10-10-10 should be tilled into the soil at a rate of 2-3 pounds per 100 square feet when preparing the planting bed. Summer Care.
[56]
New Plants From Cuttings (HO-37-W) - Purdue University
Oct 7, 2025 · Propagating from cuttings involves placing a portion of the plant in an environment to form new roots and/or stems, creating a new plant. Stem ...
[57]
13. Propagation - NC State Extension Publications
Feb 1, 2022 · Plants with large diameter roots are normally propagated outdoors. The root cuttings should be 2 to 6 inches long. Make a straight cut on the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Garden Phlox | UMass Amherst Greenhouse Crops and Floriculture ...
White, pink, red, blue, or purple. Garden Phlox Flowers. Propagation Method. division, every 3-4 years, spring or fall. Landscape Uses. mg; bg. Garden Phlox.
[59]
Genetic Transformation of Phlox paniculata (Garden phlox) and of ...
Explants from tissue culture plants will be incubated in a solution containing Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA 105 that harbored the ESF 39A ...Missing: propagation | Show results with:propagation
[60]
(PDF) Production of triploid plants from endosperm cultures of Phlox ...
Endosperm tissue was firstly cultured with the embryo on the Murashige and Skoog's (MS) medium supplemented with 5 µM 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) + 10 µM α- ...
[61]
Tissue Culture in Ornamentals: Cultivation Factors, Propagation ...
In this review, we have accumulated and discussed an overall update on cultivation factors, propagation techniques in ornamental plant tissue culture.
[62]
(PDF) Pollination syndromes and floral specialization - Academia.edu
Hummingbirds and Their Flowers. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. 115 pp. Grant V, Grant KA. 1965. Flower Pollination in the Phlox Family. New York: Columbia ...
[63]
[PDF] Flowers pollination
Flowers often have contrasting colors on the petals that act as nectar guides to signal a floral reward for visiting the flower. Phlox. Morning glory. (Ipomoea ) ...
[64]
Characterizing each step of pollination in Phlox drummondii reveals ...
Apr 23, 2023 · Phlox drummondii has an active self-incompatibility system and displays low rates of autonomous selfing (~1%; Roda and Hopkins, 2019).Abstract · Temporal Pollinator... · Quantifying Pollen Transfer<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
https://ipps.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/2b_Flowers_pollination_adaptations.pdf
[66]
Phlox paniculata (Garden Phlox) - Missouri Wildflowers Nursery
In stockA reliable nectar source for butterflies & hummingbirds in summer (all phlox species are good for nectar). Garden phlox is one of our most popular plants.
[67]
[PDF] Important plants of the Monarch Butterfly - Pollinator.org
Lists of larval host plants and nectar plants suitable for monarch butterfly habitat plantings are provided in the NRCS Field Office ... Phlox paniculata. PHPA6.<|control11|><|separator|>
[68]
POLLINATION BIOLOGY OF FOUR SOUTHWESTERN SPECIES OF ...
Sep 1, 2005 · All Phlox species were visited by lepidopterans, and the hawkmoth species H. lineata was observed visiting all 4 species. Bees were only ...Results · Discussion · Literature Cited
[69]
Characterizing each step of pollination in Phlox drummondii reveals ...
May 11, 2023 · Characterizing each step of pollination in Phlox drummondii reveals that a single butterfly species predominates in the pollinator assemblage.
[70]
Spider Mites on Garden Phlox - SDSU Extension
Jun 13, 2023 · During warm, dry weather, spider mites are a common pest of phlox, causing speckling, bronzing, and yellowing on leaves due to feeding behavior ...
[71]
Powdery Mildew on Phlox and Monarda - University of Vermont
Powdery Mildew on Phlox and Monarda · one of main diseases of important genera such as these · white powdery growth covering leaves, severe causes leaf drop, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[72]
Powdery mildew in the flower garden | UMN Extension
Low impact fungicides like sulfur, potassium bicarbonate and horticultural oils are recommended.
[73]
[PDF] Scouting for Key Insect and Mite Pests on Key Plants
Key insect and mite pests include: aphids, broad mites, cyclamen mites, ... Polemonium, Phlox, Rudbeckia, and Tanacetum. References: Baker, J. R. 1994 ...
[74]
Aphids in home yards and gardens | UMN Extension
Aphids are small, 1/16- to 1/8-inch-long (2-4 mm), pear-shaped, soft-bodied insects. They can range in color from green, black, red, yellow, brown or gray.
[75]
[PDF] Some Virus Diseases of Greenhouse Crops - UConn IPM Program
CMV has been reported on ajuga, aquilegia, campanula, delphinium, dahlia, lilium, petunia and phlox. Infected plants may show mild mosaic patterns and mottling, ...
[76]
Virus Diseases on Flowers | University of Maryland Extension
Mar 7, 2023 · Symptoms of virus infection include necrotic spots, abnormal dark green and light green mosaic and mottling of leaves, growth distortion, stunting, ring ...
[77]
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) - Plant & Pest Diagnostics
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) affects many plants, causing symptoms like distortion, mosaic, and stunting. It spreads via aphids, and infected plants should be ...
[78]
Phlox | Texas Plant Disease Handbook
Stem Blight (fungus – Pyrenochaeta spp.): Base of stem and roots may rot. They may be covered with a cottony mold. Avoid overwatering, overcrowding and planting ...Missing: pests | Show results with:pests
[79]
Management of Root-Knot Nematodes in Bedding Plants
Jun 22, 2020 · Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) (Figure 1) are the most important and most economically devastating nematodes on ornamentals.
[80]
Phlox carolina ssp. carolina | NatureServe Explorer
Threat Comments: Threats to this taxon include loss of habitat due to development, grazing, logging, herbicide application, and invasion by weedy plant species.
[81]
Phlox bifida ssp. stellaria - NatureServe Explorer
Conservation Status. NatureServe Status ... Declining due to loss of habitat primarily through successional change and human-induced habitat conversion.
[82]
Japanese Honeysuckle Control - Missouri Department of Conservation
Japanese honeysuckle is an aggressive colonizer that shades out native plants and harms natural communities.Japanese Honeysuckle Control · Effect On Natural... · Herbicide Treatment<|control11|><|separator|>
[83]
Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis - NatureServe Explorer
Current threats include continued habitat loss due to canopy closure ... NatureServe Global Conservation Status Factors. Estimated Number of Element ...
[84]
Yreka Phlox (Phlox hirsuta) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Yreka phlox grows only on serpentine soils, which contain high concentrations of magnesium and iron. Serpentine soils are identified by red colored rocks due to ...
[85]
[PDF] Yreka Phlox (Phlox hirsuta) 5-Year Review - ECOS
Feb 3, 2000 · Present or threatened destruction, modification or curtailment of its habitat or range: This factor is organized by occurrence, as it is in the ...
[86]
https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1161.pdf
[87]
Phlox buckleyi - NatureServe Explorer
Threats include mowing, invasion or replacement by weedy exotics, and canopy encroachment. Careful timing of mowing could maintain roadsides and the species ...
[88]
Species Profile for Texas trailing phlox(Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis)
Listing status: Endangered. States/US Territories in which this population is known to or is believed to occur: Texas; US Counties in which this population is ...
[89]
Swordleaf Phlox (Phlox buckleyi) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
ETWP; Review of Plant Taxa for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species. Publication type: CNOR. View Federal Register Document.
[90]
Phlox dolichantha - CNPS Rare Plant Inventory
Phlox dolichantha is ranked 1B.2, Plants Rare, Threatened or Endangered in California and Elsewhere; Moderately threatened in California. Classification ...
[91]
Flower Color and Anthocyanidin Pigment Profiles of the Phlox ...
The signature feature of phlox cultivars is the profuse and vibrantly colored flowers; the majority of cultivars have been selected for unique colors. Novel ...
[92]
Yreka Phlox - Center for Plant Conservation
Yreka phlox is a narrow endemic perennial plant with pink to white flowers. Its found only in the area of the city of Yreka, in extreme northern Calif...
[93]
Texas Trailing Phlox - Center for Plant Conservation
This species was eventually federally listed as endangered in 1991 and, since that time, a handful of new populations have been discovered and reintroduction ...
[94]
[PDF] Recovery Plan for - Phlox hirsuta(Yreka Phlox) - Defenders
Currently known and potential limiting factors include alteration or destruction of habitat resulting from residential development, logging, fire suppression ...
[95]
https://esadocs.defenders-cci.org/ESAdocs/misc/060921.pdf
[96]
[PDF] Action Plan for the Greater Greenbrier Conservation Focus Area
Oct 4, 2021 · Phlox buckleyi. Swordleaf Phlox, Shale Barren Phlox. Plant. Platanthera ... Conservation and Restoration Priorities. Ecological Society of ...