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Photoplethysmogram

A photoplethysmogram (PPG) is the waveform representation of the pulsatile blood volume changes in the microvascular tissue of the skin, captured through photoplethysmography, a non-invasive optical technique that employs light absorption and reflection to detect variations in blood flow synchronous with the cardiac cycle.^[1] This method, first introduced by Alrick B. Hertzman in 1937 as a photoelectric means to assess skin blood volume fluctuations, relies on the Beer-Lambert law, where light attenuation through tissue is proportional to the concentration of light-absorbing substances like hemoglobin.^[1] The PPG signal comprises two primary components: the alternating current (AC) portion, which reflects the pulsatile arterial blood flow driven by each heartbeat, and the direct current (DC) portion, representing the baseline absorption from non-pulsatile venous blood, surrounding tissues, and static factors such as thermoregulation or respiration.^[2] In practice, PPG is implemented using a light-emitting diode (LED, typically in green, red, or infrared wavelengths) as the source and a photodetector to measure transmitted or reflected light, enabling deployment in transmissive (e.g., finger clips) or reflective (e.g., wrist-worn) configurations.^[3] This low-cost, portable technology has evolved from clinical tools like pulse oximeters—where dual-wavelength PPG (660 nm red and 880 nm infrared) estimates arterial oxygen saturation by differential absorption in oxygenated versus deoxygenated hemoglobin—to widespread use in wearable devices for continuous monitoring.^[1] Key applications include heart rate and heart rate variability assessment, blood pressure estimation via pulse transit time, detection of atrial fibrillation, evaluation of autonomic nervous system function, and even indirect measures of respiratory rate or stress levels, making it invaluable in both hospital settings and mobile health scenarios.^[2] Despite its simplicity and advantages in accessibility, PPG signals are susceptible to motion artifacts and environmental noise, necessitating advanced signal processing techniques like filtering or machine learning for reliable interpretation.^[3]

Introduction and History

Definition and Overview

A photoplethysmogram (PPG) is a non-invasive optical technique that detects volumetric changes in blood flow within the microvascular tissue by measuring the absorption and reflection of light. This method relies on the principle that light passing through or reflecting off tissue is modulated by the varying blood volume, allowing for the capture of physiological signals without direct contact beyond the sensor placement. The core purpose of PPG is to measure pulsatile blood volume changes that are synchronized with the cardiac cycle, providing a volumetric representation of peripheral blood flow dynamics. These measurements enable the assessment of hemodynamic variations associated with each heartbeat, distinguishing PPG from other plethysmographic techniques by its simplicity and optical basis. Key components of a PPG system include a light source, such as a light-emitting diode (LED) that emits wavelengths in the green, red, or infrared spectrum, and a photodetector, typically a photodiode, which captures the transmitted or reflected light intensity. The resulting signal forms a waveform composed of an alternating current (AC) component representing the pulsatile blood flow and a direct current (DC) component reflecting the static absorption by non-pulsatile tissues and baseline blood volume. The PPG waveform is characterized by distinct features that correspond to phases of the cardiac cycle, including the systolic peak marking the maximum blood volume during ventricular contraction, the dicrotic notch indicating aortic valve closure, and the diastolic trough representing the minimum volume during ventricular relaxation. These identifiers allow for the delineation of systolic and diastolic periods within each pulse.

Historical Development

The origins of photoplethysmography (PPG) trace back to 1937, when American physiologist Alrick B. Hertzman developed the first photoelectric plethysmograph to noninvasively measure changes in blood volume within peripheral tissues. Using a light source and photoelectric cell to detect variations in transmitted or reflected light caused by pulsatile blood flow, Hertzman initially applied the technique to the nasal septum, demonstrating its sensitivity to microvascular dynamics in human subjects. This innovation, detailed in his seminal paper, established PPG as a practical tool for studying cutaneous circulation without invasive procedures.^[4] In the post-World War II era, the 1940s and 1950s brought refinements to PPG, primarily through Hertzman's continued research and collaborations, focusing on quantifying skin blood flow and signal components. Key advancements included distinguishing arterial pulsations from venous and tissue flow elements in the PPG waveform, as explored in studies on fingers and toes published in 1937 and expanded in 1940. By the 1950s, the technique had been validated across various skin sites, enabling more accurate assessments of peripheral vascular responses to stimuli like temperature and exercise.^[5]^[6]^[7] The 1970s marked PPG's pivotal integration into pulse oximetry, transforming it from a research method into a clinical standard. In 1974, Japanese engineer Takuo Aoyagi at Nihon Kohden Corporation discovered the ratio of pulsatile to nonpulsatile light absorption at red and infrared wavelengths, enabling real-time estimation of arterial oxygen saturation using PPG principles; this invention was later chronicled by anesthesiologist John W. Severinghaus. Commercial pulse oximeters emerged in the early 1980s, gaining FDA recognition as essential monitoring devices by 1986, which spurred their widespread adoption in hospitals for perioperative care.^[8] The digital era from the 1990s onward advanced PPG through miniaturized sensors, including CMOS photodiodes, facilitating portable and battery-powered devices for ambulatory monitoring. The 2000s saw the proliferation of wearable technologies incorporating PPG for heart rate tracking, building on earlier fitness devices and leading to consumer products like Fitbit's first tracker, released in 2009, which popularized continuous physiological sensing despite initial reliance on motion detection before full optical integration. In 2011, the International Organization for Standardization released ISO 80601-2-61, defining performance requirements for pulse oximeters, including PPG signal accuracy and safety, to ensure reliable clinical and consumer applications.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Principles and Technology

Basic Principles

Photoplethysmography (PPG) detects volumetric changes in arterial blood within the microvascular bed of peripheral tissues, which arise from pulsatile blood flow driven by cardiac ejection during each heartbeat. This physiological basis allows PPG to noninvasively capture variations in blood volume that reflect cardiovascular dynamics, including the propagation of pressure waves through arteries and arterioles.^[2] The optical principles of PPG rely on the attenuation of light passing through or reflecting from tissue, governed by the Beer-Lambert law, which describes how light intensity decreases exponentially due to absorption and scattering. The law is expressed as I = I_0 e^{-\mu d}, where I is the transmitted or reflected light intensity, I_0 is the incident intensity, \mu is the total absorption coefficient of the tissue, and d is the effective path length through the tissue. PPG operates in two primary modes: transmissive, where light passes through a thin tissue section (e.g., a fingertip) from an emitter to a detector on the opposite side, and reflective, where light is emitted and detected on the same side after backscattering from deeper tissues, enabling measurements at more varied sites.^[2]^[12] Light-tissue interactions in PPG involve both absorption, primarily by chromophores like hemoglobin, and scattering by tissue structures and blood cells, which modulates the detected signal. Oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin exhibit distinct absorption spectra, with deoxyhemoglobin absorbing more at approximately 660 nm in the red spectrum and oxyhemoglobin absorbing more at 940 nm in the near-infrared spectrum; these wavelengths are commonly used in pulse oximetry to differentiate oxygenation states. Scattering, caused by refractive index mismatches in cells and extracellular matrix, increases the effective path length and can distort the signal, particularly at shorter wavelengths. Wavelength selection optimizes penetration and sensitivity: green light around 525 nm is preferred in wearable devices for its strong absorption by hemoglobin in superficial capillaries, providing robust signals for motion-prone monitoring, while near-infrared light (e.g., 940 nm) is favored in clinical settings for deeper tissue penetration with less scattering.^[2]^[13] The PPG signal comprises an alternating current (AC) component and a direct current (DC) component. The AC component, representing pulsatile arterial blood volume changes synchronous with the cardiac cycle, typically constitutes less than 5% of the total signal amplitude and is the primary feature for deriving physiological metrics like heart rate. The DC component reflects the static baseline absorption from non-pulsatile tissues, venous blood, and other static elements, modulated slowly by factors such as respiration and vasomotor activity.^[2]^[14]

Signal Acquisition and Processing

Photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal acquisition relies on optical hardware components to detect volumetric changes in blood flow. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) serve as the primary light sources, typically operating at wavelengths such as green (around 525 nm) for superficial measurements or infrared (around 940 nm) for deeper tissue penetration, while photodiodes or phototransistors act as detectors to capture transmitted or reflected light modulated by pulsatile blood flow.^[15] The source-detector separation is optimized based on the measurement site, often less than 3 mm for wrist applications to minimize ambient light interference.^[15] Sampling rates for PPG signals generally range from 100 Hz to 1000 Hz to capture higher harmonics essential for accurate morphological analysis, though rates as low as 40-50 Hz suffice for basic heart rate estimation.^[16]^[15] The analog front-end processes the raw optical signal before digitization. A transimpedance amplifier converts the photodiode's current output to a voltage signal, followed by amplification stages to boost the weak PPG amplitude, which is typically in the microvolt range.^[17] Analog filtering includes high-pass filters (cutoff around 0.5 Hz) to remove baseline drift and low-pass filters (cutoff up to 10-15 Hz) to eliminate high-frequency noise such as power-line interference or motion-induced artifacts.^[18] The conditioned signal is then passed through an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), often with 12-16 bit resolution, to produce a digital waveform suitable for further processing.^[19] Digital processing refines the PPG signal to isolate physiological components. Baseline wander, caused by respiration or sensor movement, is removed using a high-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of approximately 0.5 Hz.^[15] Motion artifacts, a major challenge in wearable applications, are mitigated through adaptive filtering techniques that incorporate accelerometer data as a reference signal, such as the TROIKA framework which combines signal decomposition and spectral subtraction.^[15] Peak detection for heart rate estimation employs algorithms adapted from electrocardiography, notably a modified Pan-Tompkins method that applies bandpass filtering (0.5-15 Hz), differentiation, and thresholding to identify systolic peaks in the PPG waveform.^[20] The instantaneous heart rate (HR) is calculated from the inter-peak intervals (RR intervals) as follows:

\text{HR (bpm)} = \frac{60}{\text{RR (seconds)}}

where RR is the time between consecutive detected peaks.^[15] Feature extraction from the processed PPG signal yields quantifiable metrics for physiological assessment. In the time domain, features include pulse width (duration from onset to dicrotic notch) and rise time (from systolic foot to peak), which reflect vascular compliance and provide insights into pulse morphology.^[15] Frequency-domain analysis, often via fast Fourier transform (FFT), extracts respiratory rate by identifying modulation in the 0.1-0.5 Hz band due to cardio-respiratory interactions.^[15] The perfusion index (PI), a key indicator of tissue perfusion, is computed as the ratio of the pulsatile (AC) component amplitude to the baseline (DC) component, multiplied by 100 to express it as a percentage:

\text{PI} (\%) = \left( \frac{\text{AC}}{\text{DC}} \right) \times 100

This metric correlates with blood volume changes and is widely used in clinical monitoring.^[14]

Measurement Sites and Methods

Common Sites

The fingertip represents the most prevalent site for photoplethysmogram (PPG) acquisition, primarily utilizing transmissive mode where light passes through the tissue to detect volumetric changes in the digital arteries. This location benefits from thin overlying skin and a highly vascularized capillary bed, facilitating strong pulsatile signals with minimal attenuation, which enhances signal-to-noise ratio in clinical pulse oximetry and cardiovascular assessments.^[21] The earlobe offers a viable alternative for transmissive PPG measurements, leveraging its thin tissue, lack of cartilage, and large blood supply from the posterior auricular artery, which yields reliable waveforms less prone to motion artifacts compared to digits. However, its superficial positioning renders it more vulnerable to ambient light interference, necessitating shielded probes for optimal accuracy.^[21] Toe measurements, akin to those at the fingertip, employ transmissive mode and are particularly favored in neonatal care or scenarios where upper limb access is compromised, such as during intravenous interventions. Anatomically, the toe's distal position provides insight into peripheral circulation via the digital arteries, though it often exhibits lower baseline perfusion, potentially yielding subtler signals that require amplification.^[22] Wrist-based PPG typically operates in reflective mode, with the photodetector capturing backscattered light from superficial capillaries overlying the radial artery, making it ideal for continuous monitoring in wearable devices. The site's proximity to this major vessel supports heart rate detection, but thicker dermal layers and variable subcutaneous fat can attenuate signals, demanding higher-intensity light sources for fidelity.^[21] Forehead or temple placements utilize reflective mode in critical care settings, targeting the temporal artery's superficial branches to approximate central hemodynamic status and perfusion trends. This region's relatively thin skin and high vascular density minimize distortions from peripheral vasoconstriction, providing robust signals even in hypotensive patients, though hair or perspiration may introduce variability.^[21]^[23]

Factors Influencing Measurement Quality

The quality of photoplethysmogram (PPG) signals is significantly influenced by physiological factors related to the patient's characteristics. Skin pigmentation, particularly higher levels of melanin, reduces light transmission through the tissue, leading to a lower signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and poorer overall signal quality in individuals with darker skin tones.^[24] Age-related changes, such as increased arterial stiffness in elderly individuals due to vessel thickening and reduced elasticity, alter peripheral perfusion and result in attenuated PPG waveforms with diminished amplitude.^[25] Additionally, local temperature variations affect vascular tone; cold conditions induce vasoconstriction, which narrows blood vessels and lowers PPG signal amplitude by reducing pulsatile blood flow.^[26] Environmental conditions also play a critical role in PPG measurement reliability across sites like the fingertip. Ambient light interference introduces additive noise to the detected signal, necessitating shielding or cancellation techniques to maintain accuracy, as external illumination can overwhelm the weak pulsatile component.^[27] Motion artifacts, such as those induced by walking, generate broadband noise that overlaps with the PPG frequency range (typically 0.5–5 Hz) and can include higher-frequency components up to 10 Hz or more, severely distorting the waveform and complicating heart rate extraction.^[28] Device-related parameters further impact signal fidelity. Excessive sensor contact pressure can cause venous congestion by compressing superficial veins, leading to increased venous pulsations that contaminate the arterial PPG signal and reduce its purity.^[29] Inadequate sampling rates risk aliasing of high-frequency components in the PPG waveform; according to the Nyquist theorem, the rate must exceed twice the highest signal frequency (often around 10–20 Hz for features like the dicrotic notch), with practical rates of at least 40–50 Hz recommended to prevent distortion.^[15] Signal quality is quantitatively assessed using metrics derived from the PPG waveform. The perfusion index (PI), calculated as the ratio of the pulsatile (AC) to non-pulsatile (DC) components multiplied by 100, indicates peripheral perfusion; low PI values suggest poor perfusion and potential measurement challenges. The SNR, often computed as \text{SNR} = 20 \log_{10} \left( \frac{\text{[AC](/page/AC)}}{\sigma_{\text{[noise](/page/Noise)}}} \right) in dB where \sigma_{\text{[noise](/page/Noise)}} is the standard deviation of the noise, quantifies the relative strength of the pulsatile signal against noise, providing a direct measure of detectability and robustness.

Physiological and Clinical Applications

Cardiovascular Monitoring

Photoplethysmography (PPG) plays a key role in real-time cardiovascular monitoring by enabling non-invasive assessment of heart rate through detection of pulsatile blood volume changes. Heart rate is derived from peak detection in the PPG waveform, where each systolic peak corresponds to a cardiac cycle, allowing calculation of beats per minute (BPM). In controlled settings, PPG-based heart rate measurements achieve accuracy within ±5 BPM compared to electrocardiography (ECG), the gold standard, particularly during rest or low-motion activities.^[30] Beyond basic rate monitoring, PPG facilitates detailed cardiac cycle analysis via waveform morphology, which delineates systolic and diastolic phases. The systolic phase is identified from the onset to the peak of the PPG pulse, representing ventricular ejection, while the diastolic phase spans from the dicrotic notch to the next onset, reflecting ventricular filling. These timings provide insights into cardiac performance, with systolic duration typically 0.2–0.3 seconds and diastolic 0.4–0.5 seconds in healthy adults at rest. Additionally, the second derivative of the PPG signal (SdPPG), also known as the acceleration plethysmogram, enhances analysis by highlighting inflection points for arterial stiffness assessment. The augmentation index (AI) from SdPPG is calculated as

AI = \frac{P_2}{P_1} \times 100

where P_1 is the amplitude of the early systolic peak and P_2 is the late systolic peak due to wave reflection; elevated AI values (>10–20%) indicate increased arterial stiffness, correlating with cardiovascular risk.^[31] PPG also supports arrhythmia detection by analyzing variability in inter-beat intervals (IBI), extracted from successive PPG peaks. For atrial fibrillation screening, metrics like the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) quantify IBI irregularity; values exceeding 50 ms suggest arrhythmic patterns, enabling opportunistic detection during routine monitoring with sensitivity >90% in validation cohorts. This approach leverages simple signal processing for peak detection, as detailed in prior sections on acquisition.^[32] In blood pressure estimation, PPG approximates pulse wave velocity (PWV), a marker of arterial compliance, using the formula

PWV = \frac{\text{distance}}{\text{pulse transit time (PTT)}}

where PTT is the delay between PPG peaks at distant sites or relative to ECG R-wave, and distance is the anatomical path length (e.g., 30–40 cm from heart to finger). Cuffless methods integrating PWV with PPG morphology can achieve mean errors of approximately 3-6 mmHg for diastolic and mean arterial pressures, but around 6 mmHg with standard deviation >8 mmHg for systolic pressure against oscillometric references, approaching Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) criteria in some ambulatory validation studies.^[33] As of 2025, machine learning enhancements to PPG analysis have improved arrhythmia detection sensitivity to over 95% in large cohorts and refined cuffless BP estimation to better approach validation standards.^[34] Validation studies consistently demonstrate PPG's reliability against ECG for heart rate, with Pearson correlation coefficients exceeding 0.95 (r > 0.95) across diverse populations, including during exercise and clinical exams, underscoring its utility in continuous cardiac surveillance.^[35]

Respiratory and Perfusion Monitoring

Photoplethysmography (PPG) enables respiratory rate extraction by capturing baseline wander in the signal, which is modulated by respiration at frequencies between 0.1 and 0.5 Hz due to variations in venous return, intrathoracic pressure, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia.^[36] Techniques such as empirical mode decomposition (EMD) decompose the PPG waveform into intrinsic mode functions, isolating the respiratory component for rate estimation with typical accuracy within ±2 breaths per minute compared to reference methods.^[37] These approaches leverage the signal's low-frequency content to differentiate respiratory modulations from cardiac pulsations, providing a non-invasive alternative to traditional respiratory monitoring.^[38] PPG also facilitates perfusion assessment through the perfusion index (PI), defined as the ratio of the pulsatile (AC) to non-pulsatile (DC) components of the signal, expressed as PI = \frac{AC}{DC} \times 100\%. This metric quantifies microvascular blood flow, with low values below 1% indicating hypoperfusion, often associated with conditions like shock or vasoconstriction that reduce peripheral circulation.^[1] In clinical settings, PI trends help evaluate tissue oxygenation adequacy, serving as an early indicator of circulatory compromise when integrated with pulse oximetry devices.^[39] For detecting hypo- and hypervolemia, PPG amplitude variations reflect changes in stroke volume, with decreased pulsatile amplitude signaling hypovolemia due to reduced cardiac output and intravascular volume.^[40] Conversely, trends in the DC component provide insights into overall volume status, where elevated baseline shifts occur in hypervolemia from fluid overload, increasing tissue blood volume and light absorption.^[41] In intensive care unit (ICU) contexts, PPG supports ventilator weaning by analyzing respiratory-induced modulations, including respiratory sinus arrhythmia derived from heart rate variability, to assess spontaneous breathing readiness. Validation studies demonstrate strong agreement with capnography, yielding correlation coefficients of 0.8 to 0.9 for respiratory rate estimates in critically ill patients. This application enhances weaning protocols by providing continuous, contact-based monitoring of respiratory stability without additional invasive sensors.

Anesthesia and Hemodynamic Assessment

In perioperative settings, the photoplethysmogram (PPG) plays a key role in assessing depth of anesthesia and hemodynamic stability by providing non-invasive indicators of fluid status and autonomic responses. The Pleth Variability Index (PVI), a dynamic parameter derived from PPG, measures respiratory-induced variations in the perfusion index (PI) to predict fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients under general anesthesia. PVI is calculated using the formula:

\text{PVI} = \frac{\text{PI}_{\max} - \text{PI}_{\min}}{\text{PI}_{\max}} \times 100

where PI represents the ratio of pulsatile to non-pulsatile blood flow components in the PPG signal. A PVI value exceeding 14% typically indicates that the patient is likely to respond to fluid administration with an increase in cardiac output, helping anesthesiologists optimize volume management to prevent hemodynamic instability.^[42] Additionally, elevated pre-induction PVI levels, such as greater than 13%, have been shown to predict post-induction hypotension, allowing for proactive interventions like fluid loading or vasopressor administration.^[43] PPG contributes to hemodynamic monitoring by tracking changes in waveform amplitude, which reflect alterations in peripheral perfusion and vascular tone during anesthesia. For instance, administration of vasopressors often leads to a decrease in PPG amplitude due to induced vasoconstriction, providing real-time feedback on therapeutic effects and guiding dosage adjustments to maintain blood pressure stability.^[44] Furthermore, integrating PPG-derived variability metrics with the Bispectral Index (BIS), a measure of hypnotic depth, enables evaluation of autonomic nervous system balance. This combination, as seen in indices like the Composite Variability Index, helps assess the nociception-antinociception equilibrium, ensuring balanced anesthesia that minimizes sympathetic overactivation or inadequate analgesia.^[45] During surgery, PPG is particularly valuable for detecting hypovolemia, where real-time declines in PI signal ongoing blood loss through early peripheral vasoconstriction as a compensatory mechanism. Studies demonstrate PPG's sensitivity to volume changes as small as 10%, with PI reductions occurring prior to significant shifts in heart rate or stroke volume, facilitating timely transfusion or fluid resuscitation.^[46] In contrast, fluid challenges for hypervolemia assessment show increases in PPG amplitude with effective volume expansion, highlighting risks of overload such as pulmonary edema. Pulse oximetry, which utilizes PPG for detecting pulsatile blood flow, is required by the American Society of Anesthesiologists as part of standard perioperative monitoring to assess oxygenation and circulatory function. Some studies show PPG waveform trends correlating with invasive cardiac output monitoring using techniques like the Swan-Ganz catheter (r ≈ 0.85 in trend analysis).^[43]

Advanced and Remote Techniques

Remote Photoplethysmography

Remote photoplethysmography (rPPG) is a non-contact technique that detects physiological signals by analyzing subtle temporal variations in skin color caused by blood volume changes during cardiac cycles, typically captured via video from regions of interest (ROI) such as the face. These variations arise from the pulsatile absorption of light by hemoglobin in the microvascular tissue, which modulates the reflected light intensity; algorithms then amplify and extract the pulsatile component from the video frames to derive vital signs like heart rate (HR). Early demonstrations leveraged video magnification methods, such as Eulerian video magnification, to enhance imperceptible color fluctuations for visualization and signal extraction.^[47] Conventional rPPG systems utilize standard RGB cameras, like webcams, under ambient lighting to approximate the optimal green wavelength (around 520-570 nm) for PPG signal detection through the green channel or combinations of RGB channels, as blood absorption is strongest in this spectrum. A seminal webcam-based approach by Poh et al. in 2010 employed independent component analysis (ICA) on RGB signals from facial ROIs to separate the cardiac pulse from motion and illumination artifacts, enabling automated HR extraction with mean absolute errors of 2.3 beats per minute (BPM) compared to electrocardiography. This method laid the foundation for subsequent developments by demonstrating feasibility in controlled settings without specialized hardware.^[48]^[49] Key algorithms address challenges like motion and illumination variability; the plane-orthogonal-to-skin (POS) method projects RGB signals onto a plane perpendicular to the skin tone vector in chrominance space, providing motion compensation by isolating pulsatile components orthogonal to specular reflections and improving robustness during slight head movements. The chrominance (CHROM) method, introduced by de Haan and Jeanne, normalizes RGB differences to form chrominance signals less sensitive to skin tone variations, achieving HR detection agreement rates over 92% overall compared to contact PPG, with particular skin-tone independence across diverse demographics. In resting conditions, CHROM yields HR accuracies exceeding 95% correlation with reference measures. Both methods prioritize signal quality in the 0.7-4 Hz band for HR while suppressing noise.^[50] rPPG finds applications in telemedicine for non-invasive HR screening, with mobile apps like those from Binah.ai enabling contactless vital signs monitoring via smartphone cameras during virtual consultations. Performance metrics include HR errors typically below 5 BPM versus contact PPG in controlled environments, with 80% of measurements achieving this threshold even under mild motion; respiratory rate (RR) is derived from frequency peaks in the 0.15-0.4 Hz band of the rPPG signal, offering mean absolute errors under 3 breaths per minute. Limitations persist in low-light conditions where signal-to-noise ratios drop below 10 dB, reducing accuracy due to insufficient photon capture.^[51]^[52]

Integration with Wearables and Emerging Technologies

Photoplethysmography (PPG) has become integral to consumer wearables, enabling continuous health monitoring in devices like smartwatches and fitness trackers. The Apple Watch Series 4, introduced in 2018, incorporates PPG sensors for irregular rhythm notifications, which received FDA De Novo clearance (DEN180042) for detecting atrial fibrillation (AFib) through optical heart rate monitoring.^[53] Fitness trackers, such as those from Fitbit and Garmin, utilize PPG for real-time heart rate estimation during activities, typically sampling at 50-100 Hz to capture pulse waves accurately while balancing power consumption.^[54] Emerging technologies enhance PPG's reliability in wearables through multi-wavelength approaches and artificial intelligence. Multi-wavelength PPG systems in devices like upper-arm sensors measure blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) with root mean square errors below 3%, aligning with ISO 80601-2-61 standards for pulse oximeters in the 70-100% range.^[55] Machine learning models, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), improve artifact removal during motion; for instance, hybrid deep learning frameworks achieve up to 98% precision in identifying clean PPG segments from noisy signals contaminated by movement.^[56] Integration with telehealth expands PPG's reach via smartphone-based applications. Binah.ai's 2022 platform uses remote PPG (rPPG) through front-facing cameras to derive vital signs like heart rate and stress levels from video feeds, facilitating contactless assessments in clinical settings.^[57] The advent of 5G networks supports this by enabling low-latency transmission of PPG data for real-time remote monitoring, as seen in systems that stream physiological signals to healthcare providers without compromising signal integrity.^[58] Future developments focus on seamless embedding and multimodal fusion. The Owlet Dream Sock, FDA-cleared in 2023, is an example of a PPG-enabled smart sock that demonstrates textile-integrated sensors for ambulatory monitoring of heart rate and perfusion in infants.^[59] Combining PPG with electrocardiography (ECG) via deep learning enables cuffless blood pressure estimation, with models reporting mean errors under 8 mmHg, meeting AAMI/ANSI standards for validation.^[60] Regulatory frameworks classify many PPG-enabled wearables as FDA Class II devices, requiring 510(k) clearance for moderate-risk features like heart rate monitoring. For example, WHOOP's ECG-enabled strap received clearance in 2025 (K243236) for arrhythmia detection, underscoring the pathway for PPG hybrids in wellness-to-medical transitions.^[61]

Limitations and Future Directions

Sources of Artifacts and Errors

Photoplethysmogram (PPG) signals are susceptible to various artifacts and errors that can distort the pulsatile waveform, leading to inaccuracies in derived parameters such as heart rate and oxygen saturation. These inaccuracies arise from motion, physiological variations, environmental factors, and technical limitations, often resulting in reduced signal-to-noise ratios and unreliable beat detection.^[27] Motion artifacts represent the primary source of error in ambulatory PPG monitoring, where sensor displacement during physical activity introduces noise with amplitudes up to 10 times greater than the underlying physiological signal. This noise typically manifests as baseline shifts and low-frequency wander (0.1–20 Hz), which overlaps with the cardiac pulsatile component (1–4 Hz), complicating feature extraction; accelerometers can detect correlated motion but fail to fully account for uncorrelated shifts that exacerbate baseline drift.^[62]^[63]^[27] Physiological artifacts stem from inherent variability in cardiovascular dynamics, such as arrhythmias that produce irregular peaks in the PPG waveform; for instance, premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) can lead to overestimation of heart rate by up to 20% due to erroneous peak identification. Additionally, vasoconstriction during states like shock diminishes peripheral perfusion, reducing the AC (pulsatile) component of the PPG signal to less than 0.1% of the DC (baseline) level, thereby attenuating detectable volumetric changes. PPG accuracy also varies by skin pigmentation, with pulse oximeters overestimating oxygen saturation (SpO₂) by 3–12% in individuals with darker skin tones, raising equity and safety concerns in diverse clinical populations.^[64]^[65]^[66] Environmental factors contribute to signal degradation through external interferences, including electromagnetic noise in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) environments, where radiofrequency gradients and power-line harmonics at 60 Hz introduce high-frequency artifacts that corrupt the PPG trace. Poor sensor-skin coupling, often due to inadequate pressure or movement, can result in up to 50% loss of signal amplitude by allowing ambient light ingress and reducing light-tissue interaction efficiency.^[67]^[27] Technical errors further compromise PPG reliability, such as aliasing when sampling rates fall below 100 Hz, which folds higher-frequency harmonics (e.g., respiratory or motion components) into the cardiac band, distorting waveform morphology. Wavelength mismatches between the light source and calibration assumptions in pulse oximetry can induce errors in SpO2 estimation of approximately 15%, arising from unaccounted variations in light scattering and absorption paths.^[68]^[69] In noisy conditions, these artifacts collectively degrade beat detection performance, with false positive rates leading to F1 scores below 0.8 for peak identification algorithms, particularly when motion or low perfusion dominates the signal. Factors like temperature can briefly influence quality by altering vascular tone, but motion and coupling issues predominate in ambulatory settings.^[70]^[27]

Mitigation Strategies and Research Trends

To mitigate artifacts in photoplethysmogram (PPG) signals, adaptive filtering techniques, such as the least mean squares (LMS) algorithm, have been employed to suppress motion-induced noise by dynamically adjusting filter coefficients based on reference signals derived from accelerometers or synthetic noise generators.^[71] For instance, filtered X-LMS variants applied during intense exercise demonstrate substantial noise reduction, with performance metrics indicating up to 70% improvement in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) compared to unfiltered baselines in challenging conditions.^[72] Multi-sensor fusion approaches further enhance reliability by integrating PPG with inertial measurement units (IMUs) to compensate for motion artifacts; deep learning-based siamese networks fusing these modalities achieve 95% accuracy in heart rate estimation across diverse user datasets.^[73] Signal enhancement methods complement these by isolating the pulsatile component from noise. Independent component analysis (ICA), particularly temporally constrained variants (cICA), separates the cardiac-related pulsatile signal from motion artifacts by exploiting periodicity, often combined with adaptive filters like LMS to restore amplitude, yielding relative root mean square errors (RRMSE) superior to traditional methods in both synthetic and real-world motion scenarios.^[74] Machine learning classifiers, leveraging representation learning, detect invalid PPG segments due to artifacts with high precision; for example, isolation forest and multivariate normal distribution models achieve area under the curve (AUC) values exceeding 0.9 in movement detection, with personalized variants reaching up to 0.98 AUC on datasets like PPG-Dalia.^[75] Ongoing research trends emphasize AI-driven predictive modeling to advance PPG interpretation. In 2024-2025 studies, generative pre-trained transformer (GPT)-like foundation models, such as GPT-PPG trained on millions of PPG samples, enable waveform denoising (reconstructing up to 50% masked signals) and downstream tasks like heart rate estimation (mean absolute error of 1.98 bpm) and atrial fibrillation detection (F1 score of 0.847), facilitating robust predictive analytics without extensive fine-tuning. Non-contact techniques are evolving, with RGB-based remote PPG (rPPG) assessing local tissue perfusion with metrics like SNR and perfusion index in intraoperative settings (96.8% accuracy in related applications).^[76] Standardization efforts support these advancements by establishing benchmarks for wearable PPG devices. The IEC 63203-402-3:2024 standard outlines protocols for evaluating heart rate accuracy in fitness wearables using PPG, excluding medical-grade devices under ISO 80601 but providing foundational metrics like measurement error limits to guide non-clinical applications.^[77] Clinical trials from 2020-2022 validated PPG-derived pulse oximetry in telemedicine for COVID-19 remote monitoring, with studies showing reduced readmission rates (odds ratio 0.54) and safe home oxygen tracking in discharged patients, though equity concerns in accuracy across skin tones were noted.^[78]^[79] Future directions include novel sensor materials and multimodal integrations for personalized PPG. Preclinical 2025 prototypes incorporate indium phosphide (InP) quantum dot photodetectors, boosting PPG SNR by 4 dB (from 15 to 19 dB) and clarifying pulse waveforms for wearable vital sign monitoring.^[80] Additionally, integrating PPG with genomics via multimodal AI models enhances personalized thresholds; for instance, joint analysis of PPG and ECG waveforms improves genetic risk prediction for cardiovascular traits, enabling subject-specific physiological interpretations beyond population averages.^[81]

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Photoelectric Plethysmography of the Fingers and Toes in Man · A. B. Hertzman · Published 1 December 1937 · Medicine · Proceedings of the Society for Experimental ...Missing: 1938 | Show results with:1938
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DISTINCTION BETWEEN ARTERIAL, VENOUS AND FLOW ...
1937 · 1938 · 1939 · 1940 · 1941 · 1942 ... DISTINCTION BETWEEN ARTERIAL, VENOUS AND FLOW COMPONENTS IN PHOTOELECTRIC PLETHYSMOGRAPHY IN MAN. Alrick B. Hertzman, ...
[7]
THE BLOOD SUPPLY OF VARIOUS SKIN AREAS AS ESTIMATED ...
The blood supply of various skin areas as estimated by the photoelectric plethysmograph. Published Online:31 Oct 1938.
[8]
Tribute to Dr. Takuo Aoyagi, inventor of pulse oximetry - PMC
Dr. Takuo Aoyagi invented pulse oximetry in 1974. Pulse oximeters are widely used worldwide, most recently making headlines during the COVID-19 pandemic.
[9]
pyPPG: a Python toolbox for comprehensive photoplethysmography ...
Apr 8, 2024 · ... 1940s (Dillon and Hertzman 1941). It was not until the 1970s that photoplethysmography became widely used as the sensing technology in pulse ...Missing: 1950s | Show results with:1950s
[10]
Fitbit - Wikipedia
Developer, Google ; Initial release, 21 March 2014; 11 years ago (2014-03-21).
[11]
ISO 80601-2-61:2011 - Medical electrical equipment
ISO 80601-2-61:2011 applies to the basic safety and essential performance of pulse oximeter equipment intended for use on humans, hereafter referred to as ME ...Missing: PPG | Show results with:PPG
[12]
Photoplethysmography—new applications for an old technology
Photoplethysmography (PPG) is a noninvasive optical technique from which many physiologic parameters may be derived, as it produces a waveform which correlates ...
[13]
The advantages of wearable green reflected photoplethysmography
Reflected green light PPG can be useful for pulse rate monitoring because it is less influenced by the tissue and vein region.
[14]
Respiration Signals from Photoplethysmography
The PPG signal is complex and composed of different parts, each having the potential to provide clinically useful information. The respiratory synchronous part ...Missing: less total
[15]
[PDF] Photoplethysmography Signal Processing and Synthesis
This attenuated light intensity is detected by an optical sensor and is recorded as a voltage signal known as the photoplethysmogram (PPG). A raw PPG waveform ...
[16]
The minimal sampling frequency of the photoplethysmogram for ...
Present study aimed to determine the minimal sampling frequency of the PPG signal, which is sufficient for accurate heart rate variability (HRV) analysis.
[17]
14.85 µW Analog Front-End for Photoplethysmography Acquisition ...
Jan 26, 2019 · The AFE circuit is very important because it determines the quality of the sensed PPG signal, which affects the accuracy of the monitoring ...
[18]
PPG EduKit: An Adjustable Photoplethysmography Evaluation ... - NIH
Feb 11, 2022 · The analog front-end is composed of several signal conditioning stages, including a transimpedance amplifier, analog filtering and an inverting ...
[19]
AFE4900 data sheet, product information and support | TI.com
The AFE4900 device is an analog front-end (AFE) for synchronized electrocardiogram (ECG), photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal acquisition. The device can also be ...
[20]
Peak Detection and HRV Feature Evaluation on ECG and PPG ...
The Pan-Tompkins [26] algorithm applies low and high pass filters in order to reduce background noise, such as powerline interference or muscle noise. The ...
[21]
https://doi.org/10.15406/ijbsbe.2018.04.00125
[22]
Non-contact physiological monitoring of preterm infants in the ...
Dec 12, 2019 · A pulse oximeter is often attached to the patient's ear, finger or toe (see Fig. 1c) from which a Photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal is ...
[23]
Perfusion Changes at the Forehead Measured by ... - PubMed Central
May 27, 2019 · Forehead PPG signals can be used to measure perfusion changes to reveal venous pooling induced by the positioning of the subject. Placing the ...Missing: temporal | Show results with:temporal
[24]
A review of the effect of skin pigmentation on pulse oximeter accuracy
Signal quality was poorer in a great proportion of patients with dark skin pigmentation than intermediate or light. Bias ± SD (Intermediate): +2.8 ± 5.2%.
[25]
Photoplethysmography for the Assessment of Arterial Stiffness - MDPI
Arterial stiffness can cause haemodynamic, mechanical, and volumetric changes. In aged vessels, the unhealthy vessels become stiff and thicken, becoming ...
[26]
Differential Sensitivity of Impedance Plethysmography and ... - bioRxiv
Jun 1, 2025 · More specifically, exposure to cold stress causes a reduction in PPG peak amplitudes due to the narrowing of smaller blood vessels.
[27]
Sources of Inaccuracy in Photoplethysmography for Continuous ...
Apr 16, 2021 · It was found that relative amplitude of the AC component to the entire signal (AC + DC) increased as LED/photodiode spacing increased from 4 to ...
[28]
Motion Artifact Reduction in Wearable Photoplethysmography ... - NIH
Mar 9, 2020 · In this paper, we develop a PPG measuring system based on multi-channel sensors with multiple wavelengths and propose a motion artifact reduction algorithm.Missing: wander | Show results with:wander
[29]
Effects of Contact Pressure in Reflectance Photoplethysmography in ...
Dec 16, 2021 · This study explores a controlled in vitro study to investigate the effect of continually applied contact pressure on PPG signals.
[30]
Decreased accuracy of pulse oximetry measurements during low ...
Jun 30, 2006 · Bias exceeding the ± 3% error limit was more common with a perfusion index less than 0.5 than with a perfusion index of 0.5 or greater (Nellcor: ...Missing: PPG | Show results with:PPG
[31]
[PDF] PI-PPG: Motion-Robust and Bias-Reduced Wearable ... - OpenReview
... AC signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) were calculated where,. PI = AC/DC * 100. (1). AC SNR = 20×log10(AC/Noise) [dB]. (2). These metrics are critical indicators of ...
[32]
Validation of Heart Rate Extracted From Wrist-Based ... - NIH
The OHRM could provide an accurate HR (–5 bpm to 5 bpm and –10% to 10% compared to the ECG-derived HR) during both the surgical and recovery phase when the PPG ...
[33]
Photoplethysmogram Analysis and Applications: An Integrative ...
This review aims to examine existing research on photoplethysmogram concerning its generation mechanisms, measurement principles, clinical applications, noise ...
[34]
Photoplethysmography based atrial fibrillation detection: a review
Jan 10, 2020 · This review is a summary of a body of work on AF detection using PPG. A thorough account of the signal processing, machine learning, and deep learning ...
[35]
Pulse Wave Velocity: Methodology, Clinical Applications, and ...
Jul 17, 2024 · Hence, continuously measuring PWV makes it possible to estimate blood pressure changes noninvasively, cuff-less, and constantly (beat-to-beat) ...
[36]
PPG2ABP: Translating Photoplethysmogram (PPG) Signals to ...
A method to estimate the continuous arterial blood pressure (ABP) waveform through a non-invasive approach using Photoplethysmogram (PPG) signals.
[37]
Photoplethysmography as a Potential Alternative to ...
The results showed a high correlation between ECG-derived and PPG-derived HRV data (R2>0.95). Time-domain parameters, frequency-domain parameters and Poincaré ...
[38]
Photoplethysmographic determination of the respiratory rate in ... - NIH
Jan 21, 2019 · The PPG signal includes respiratory synchronous components, seen as frequency modulation of the heart rate (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), ...Missing: weaning | Show results with:weaning
[39]
Empirical mode decomposition for respiratory and heart rate ...
The PPG signals were analysed using a 1-min sliding window with 50% overlap. The RR and HR estimation accuracy was assessed using the unnormalized root mean ...
[40]
[PDF] Empirical Mode Decomposition for Respiratory and Heart Rate ...
We introduce a method based on empirical mode decomposition (EMD) to estimate both respiratory rate. (RR) and heart rate (HR) from the photoplethysmographic ...
[41]
Perfusion index: Physical principles, physiological meanings and ...
Perfusion index (PI) is derived from PPG signal and represents the ratio of pulsatile on non-pulsatile light absorbance or reflectance of the PPG signal.Review · Abstract · Introduction
[42]
Impact of central hypovolemia on photoplethysmographic waveform ...
Nov 4, 2011 · Our study sought to explore changes in photoplethysmographic (PPG) waveform param- eters, during lower body negative pressure (LBNP) which ...
[43]
Relations between ac-dc components and optical path length in ...
Jul 1, 2011 · PPG ac is proportionate to stroke volume, so when PPG dc is increased due to increase in central venous pressure, this increases arterial ...
[44]
[PDF] Pleth Variability Index: A Dynamic Measurement to Help Assess ...
This was the first study to directly demonstrate the ability of PVI to predict fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients during general.
[45]
Pleth Variability Index Predicts Hypotension During Anesthesia ...
Conclusion: Pre-anesthesia PVI can predict a decrease in MAP during anesthesia induction with propofol. Its measurement may be useful to identify high-risk ...
[46]
None
### Summary on PPG Waveform Amplitude for Monitoring Vasopressor Effects or Hemodynamic Changes in Anesthesia
[47]
Accuracy of the Composite Variability Index as a Measure of the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... (BIS) was developed to assess the hypnotic state during anesthesia. ... autonomic nervous system responses, as measured by PPG. Clinical ...
[48]
None
### Summary: Peripheral Perfusion Index (PPI) as an Early Predictor for Central Hypovolemia
[49]
An open-source remote heart rate imaging method with practical ...
Analysis. Webcam-based rPPG relies on a series of image-processing steps to extract blood pulsation from the recorded videos and to determine the heart's ...Missing: magnification | Show results with:magnification
[50]
Non-contact, automated cardiac pulse measurements using video ...
May 10, 2010 · This is the first demonstration of a low-cost accurate video-based method for contact-free heart rate measurements that is automated, motion- ...Missing: et 2011
[51]
https://inria.hal.science/hal-02381138/file/robust-remote-heart-rate-PID5817777.pdf
[52]
Effectiveness of Remote PPG Construction Methods - NIH
Sep 20, 2022 · The best performing rPPG methods in all categories were the POS, LGI, and OMI methods; each performed well in all activities.Missing: compensation | Show results with:compensation
[53]
[PDF] Robust Remote Heart Rate Estimation from Face Utilizing Spatial ...
From the results we can see that most videos (80%) are predicted with an error less than 5 bpm, while the percentage of Niu et al. [13] is 76%. These.
[54]
[PDF] An Assessment of Algorithms to Estimate Respiratory Rate From the ...
The use of the algorithms designed for contact PPG on remote. PPG signals can lead to respiratory rate estimations with a mean absolute error below 3 breaths ...
[55]
[PDF] DEN180042.pdf - accessdata.fda.gov
This means the feature cannot detect all instances of AFib, and people with AFib may not get a notification. Apple Watch may be unable to collect data when ...
[56]
[PDF] Wearable Photoplethysmography Devices - Peter Charlton
Wearables such as fitness bands and smartwatches routinely monitor the photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal, an optical measure of the arterial pulse wave which is ...
[57]
(PDF) Wearable Upper Arm SpO 2 Sensor for Wellness Monitoring
When re-training the algorithm from our first iteration, the multiwavelength PPG sensor showed an SpO2 RMSE of 2.61% with a 7-second average analysis for 25 ...
[58]
An ML-Based Approach to Reconstruct Heart Rate from PPG in ...
In the literature, several works present solutions for the removal of motion artifacts in the PPG signal. ... precision of 98% and a recall of 85%.
[59]
[PDF] The New Way to Extract Health Data Is Software-based - Binah.ai
Binah.ai's award winning Health Data Platform offers healthcare providers an unparalleled advantage by transforming smartphones, tablets and laptops into health.
[60]
Remote patient monitoring: a comprehensive study
Oct 26, 2017 · It has been discussed that a dedicated channel for medical data with 5th Generation (5G) mobile systems can further improve 24 × 7 monitoring ...<|separator|>
[61]
Wearable textile sensors for continuous glucose monitoring
Apr 1, 2025 · (c) PPG smart sock prototype as a proof-of-concept design for wearable health monitoring from the foot (Ferreira et al., 2023). (d) ...
[62]
Cuff-Less Blood Pressure Prediction from ECG and PPG Signals ...
Mar 4, 2022 · This research proposes an algorithm to preprocess photoplethysmography (PPG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) signals and apply the processed signals to the context ...
[63]
Whoop says FDA is 'overstepping' with blood pressure feature warning
Jul 15, 2025 · Whoop has previously received FDA clearance for its ECG feature, which is used to record and analyze a heart's electrical activity to detect ...Missing: 2021 PPG Class II
[64]
Motion Artifact Removal Techniques for Wearable EEG and PPG ...
To get a clean PPG signal, a contaminated PPG signal is preprocessed such as bandpass filtering and baseline drift removal. Furthermore, reference features of ...Missing: wander | Show results with:wander
[65]
An Analytical Model of Motion Artifacts in a Measured Arterial Pulse ...
In this paper, an analytical model of MA in a measured pulse signal by an accelerometer and a PPG sensor is presented. MA causes baseline drift and TVSPs ...
[66]
A Real-Time PPG Peak Detection Method for Accurate ... - NIH
Certainly, significant heart rate estimation error occurs when a peak detection algorithm that is designed for basal heart rate NSR is applied to AF with RVR.
[67]
An autocorrelation modeling method for oxygen saturation ...
Meanwhile, the new method showed a good performance for the oxygen saturation measurement under the condition of lower perfusion (PI = 0.1%).Conclusions The new ...
[68]
Development of a magnetic-resonance-compatible ...
The purpose of the present study was to develop a magnetic resonance (MR) compatible photoplethysmograph. (PPG) system that can measure the raw PPG signal ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Impact of the PPG Sampling Rate in the Pulse Rate Variability ...
The PPG sampling rate has been reduced by decimation, obtaining signals at 500 Hz, 250 Hz, 125 Hz, 100 Hz, 50 Hz and 25 Hz. Five fiducial points were computed: ...
[70]
(PDF) Pulse Oximetry with Two Infrared Wavelengths without ...
Oct 22, 2025 · Errors in SpO2 because of variability in path-lengths difference ... constant is signiﬁcant—about 15% [15]. By using two nearby ...<|separator|>
[71]
None
Nothing is retrieved...<|separator|>
[72]
[PDF] Adaptive Cancellation of Motion Artifact in Wearable Biosensors
A Least Mean Square (LMS) adaptive noise canceler is then designed and validated using our synthetic noise generator. The analysis and results on proposed ...
[73]
(PDF) Motion Artifact Reduction from PPG Signals During Intense ...
This paper proposes an efficient method based on a reference generation using singular value decomposition and then multistage application of filtered X-LMS ...
[74]
A Photoplethysmography and Motion Sensor Fusion Biometric ...
Our evaluations confirm the effectiveness of proposed siamese network with sensor fusion with an average accuracy of 95% and 12% false rejection rate at the 1% ...Missing: multi- IMU
[75]
Motion artifact removal from photoplethysmographic signals by ...
Apr 24, 2014 · This paper presents a new method which combines the cICA algorithm and adaptive filter to extract the underlying PPG signals from the MA contaminated PPG ...
[76]
[PDF] Personalized anomaly detection in PPG data using representation ...
Mar 20, 2024 · Our results demonstrate significant improvements: for movement detection, in the generalized scenario, AUCs improved from barely. 0.5 to above ...
[77]
[PDF] Perfusion Assessment via Local Remote Photoplethysmography ...
This paper presents an approach to assess the perfusion of visible human tissue from RGB video files. We propose metrics derived from remote ...
[78]
IEC 63203-402-3:2024
Jan 9, 2024 · IEC 63203-402-3:2024 specifies terms, a measurement protocol, and a test to evaluate the accuracy of wearables that measure heart rate with ...Missing: draft | Show results with:draft
[79]
High-Detectivity Organic Photodetector with InP Quantum Dots ... - NIH
Aug 13, 2025 · In practical PPG measurements, the SNR improved from 15 to 19 dB, leading to a notable enhancement in the pulse waveform clarity. The ...
[80]
Applying multimodal AI to physiological waveforms improves genetic ...
(2) We observed that M-REGLE improved genomics discovery over existing methods for 12-lead ECG dataset and ECG lead I + PPG dataset for three metrics: Number of ...