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Planetary core

The planetary core is the central, densest region of a differentiated planet, primarily composed of heavy metallic elements such as iron and nickel that sink toward the center during the planet's formation due to gravitational settling in a molten state.^[1] This process, known as planetary differentiation, requires sufficient heat—typically exceeding 1,300 K—to allow denser materials to separate from lighter silicates, resulting in a layered internal structure that persists as the planet cools.^[1] Cores vary significantly in size and makeup across planetary types, influencing a planet's overall density, magnetic field, and potential for habitability.^[2] In terrestrial planets like Earth, Mercury, Venus, and Mars, the core typically consists of an iron-nickel alloy, often with trace lighter elements such as silicon or sulfur.^[3] Earth's core, for instance, accounts for about one-third of the planet's mass and features a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core, where the inner portion is primarily iron alloyed with silicon in exotic crystal forms under extreme pressures exceeding 840,000 atmospheres and temperatures around 4,200°C.^[3] Mercury exemplifies an extreme case, with its core comprising roughly 85% of the planet's volume and dominated by iron, while smaller bodies like the Moon have cores estimated at 20% of their volume, containing iron, sulfur, and nickel.^[2] Gas giant planets, such as Jupiter and Saturn, possess deeper, more massive cores of rock, metal, and ice—estimated at 10–25 Earth masses—surrounded by vast envelopes of compressed hydrogen and helium that constitute about 75% and 25% of their atmospheres by mass, respectively.^[1] These cores form the seed for the planet's growth in protoplanetary disks, accreting lighter gases once reaching sufficient mass to trigger runaway accumulation.^[1] In contrast to terrestrial cores, those of gas giants are enveloped by metallic hydrogen layers, and their exact compositions remain under study through missions like Juno, which probe elemental distributions including potential water content.^[4] Planetary cores play a crucial role in generating dynamo effects that produce magnetic fields, which protect atmospheres from stellar winds and enable conditions for life, as seen in Earth's core-driven magnetosphere.^[2] Ongoing research, including NASA's Psyche mission targeting a metallic asteroid core remnant, continues to refine models of core formation and evolution across the solar system and beyond.^[2]

Introduction

Definition and general properties

A planetary core is the innermost layer of a differentiated planet, formed through the gravitational segregation of denser materials toward the center during planetary formation. It primarily consists of heavy elements such as iron and nickel, which sink below lighter silicate materials to form this central region, often surrounded by a mantle and, in terrestrial planets, a crust.^[2]^[5] In terrestrial (rocky) planets, cores exhibit high densities, typically ranging from 10 to 13 g/cm³ due to their iron-rich composition under extreme pressure. These cores often feature a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core, with sizes varying widely: for example, Earth's core has a radius of approximately 3,480 km (about 55% of the planet's radius) and accounts for roughly 32% of its mass, while Mercury's disproportionately large core occupies about 85% of its volume. The state of the core—solid or liquid—depends on temperature, pressure, and composition, with the liquid outer core enabling convective motions in many cases.^[6]^[2] In contrast, the cores of gas giant (Jovian) planets are more diffuse and less well-defined, often described as "fuzzy" due to gradual transitions in composition rather than sharp boundaries. These cores consist of heavier elements like rock, metals, and ices, with estimated masses of 10–20 Earth masses for Jupiter and Saturn, potentially extending to several tens of percent of the planet's radius in fuzzy core models, as revealed by recent observations from NASA's Juno mission (as of 2025). Their densities are lower overall than terrestrial cores, blending into surrounding layers of metallic hydrogen and helium.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] The presence of a dense core affects a planet's mass distribution and gravitational field, as quantified by the normalized moment of inertia factor I / MR^2, where I is the moment of inertia, M the mass, and R the radius. For a uniform-density sphere, this factor is 0.4, but Earth-like bodies with concentrated cores yield values around 0.33, indicating central mass excess that shapes oblateness and gravitational harmonics.^[11]

Significance in planetary evolution

Planetary cores drive the process of differentiation, where denser metallic materials sink to form a central core, resulting in layered planetary structures consisting of a core, mantle, and crust. This separation occurs primarily during early accretion when high temperatures from impacts and radioactive decay facilitate metal-silicate fractionation.^[12] Core formation thus establishes the foundational architecture of terrestrial planets, with initial temperatures and core segregation playing pivotal roles in the timing and extent of this layering.^[12] Convection within the core and overlying mantle, sustained by residual heat from differentiation, generates buoyancy-driven flows that promote mantle upwelling and volcanism, shaping surface geology and volatile release over billions of years.^[13] Cores enable the generation of dynamo-driven magnetic fields through convective motions in their liquid outer layers, which shield planetary atmospheres from erosion by stellar winds and cosmic radiation. On Earth, this geodynamo, active for at least 4.2 billion years, has preserved the atmosphere and hydrosphere, creating stable conditions essential for the emergence and persistence of life.^[14] Such protection is crucial for long-term habitability, as the absence of a magnetic field can lead to significant atmospheric loss, altering climate and surface environments.^[14] Core-mantle interactions exert torque and dissipative coupling that influence planetary rotation rates and obliquity, the axial tilt determining seasonal variations. These couplings, arising from viscous friction and pressure gradients at the core-mantle boundary, can dampen or excite rotational variations, stabilizing or altering the planet's spin axis over geological timescales.^[15] For instance, inertial and dissipative effects from core-mantle friction contribute to secular changes in obliquity for both Earth and Mars, affecting orbital dynamics and surface climate patterns.^[15] As repositories of primordial heat from accretion and core formation, planetary cores release thermal energy gradually through conduction and convection, sustaining internal dynamics and geochemical processes.^[16] Cores also sequester siderophile elements like osmium, iridium, and tungsten, which, through partitioning during differentiation, deplete the mantle and influence long-term cycles of melting, metasomatism, and isotopic evolution in the silicate portions.^[17] This sequestration affects mantle heterogeneity and the recycling of elements via volcanism and subduction, driving planetary geochemical differentiation.^[17] Core solidification, as a late evolutionary stage, can halt convection and dynamo activity, leading to the shutdown of magnetic fields and exposing the planet to atmospheric stripping. On Mars, core cooling and partial solidification contributed to the cessation of its dynamo around 3.7 billion years ago.^[18] This process underscores how core evolution dictates the trajectory of planetary habitability and surface modification.^[13]

History of Discovery

Earth's core

The discovery of Earth's core began in the early 20th century through analyses of seismic wave propagation from earthquakes. In 1906, Richard Dixon Oldham identified a "shadow zone" in seismograms where shear (S) waves were absent beyond about 100–105 degrees from the epicenter, suggesting a central region that did not transmit these waves, indicative of a liquid-like interior.^[19] This was refined in 1913 by Beno Gutenberg, who used travel-time data from multiple earthquakes to pinpoint the core-mantle boundary (CMB) at approximately 2900 km depth, marking the abrupt increase in seismic velocity and density at the interface.^[20] Gutenberg's work established the core as a distinct layer comprising about half of Earth's radius, with P (compressional) waves refracting sharply at the CMB while S waves ceased entirely, creating the shadow zone due to the outer core's inability to support shear stress.^[21] Further evidence emerged in 1936 when Inge Lehmann, analyzing reflected P waves (PKiKP phases) in the shadow zone, detected a discontinuity at around 5100 km depth, proposing a solid inner core surrounded by the liquid outer core.^[22] These reflections indicated higher P-wave velocities in the inner core compared to the outer, consistent with a phase transition from liquid to solid. Early models interpreted the outer core as liquid iron-rich material, explaining the absence of S waves (effectively zero shear velocity) and the refraction of P waves at reduced speeds within it.^[23] The inner core was modeled as solid, with increased rigidity allowing P-wave propagation and reflection, though its exact size and boundary were initially imprecise due to sparse data.^[24] Prior to 2000, these models faced historical debates, particularly on the core's overall state and dimensions. Early 20th-century arguments, led by figures like Emil Wiechert, favored a fully solid core to match density estimates, but the lack of S-wave transmission prompted contention, resolved in 1926 by Harold Jeffreys who confirmed the outer core's liquidity through refined travel-time curves.^[25] Variations in estimated CMB depth (ranging 2700–3000 km) and inner core radius persisted until better global seismograph networks in the mid-20th century narrowed them. Confirmations came from Earth's free oscillations excited by large earthquakes, such as the 1960 Chile event; spectral analysis in the 1970s revealed mode splittings consistent with a solid inner core's elasticity, supporting Lehmann's boundary at ~5100 km. Parallel laboratory experiments on iron alloys under high pressure and temperature, including shock-wave studies in the 1950s–1980s, demonstrated melting curves where iron solidifies at inner core conditions (above ~300 GPa and 5000 K), aligning seismic velocities with a solid iron-nickel phase.^[26] By the late 1990s, consensus solidified around the dual-structure model, with the outer core spanning ~2200 km thick and the inner core ~1200 km in radius.^[27]

Cores in other Solar System bodies

The detection of planetary cores beyond Earth has historically relied on indirect methods due to the challenges of deploying seismometers on most bodies, unlike the direct seismic networks available for Earth. Orbital measurements of gravity fields, magnetic signatures, and rotational parameters have been primary tools, but they often yield ambiguous results requiring models to infer core properties, with limitations in resolution compared to seismic wave propagation that can directly probe density contrasts and phase boundaries.^[28] For the Moon, initial evidence of a small core emerged from analysis of seismic data collected by the Apollo Passive Seismic Experiment in the 1970s, which detected low-velocity zones suggestive of a partially molten interior structure. Reinterpretation of these Apollo 12, 14, 15, and 16 recordings indicated a core with a radius of approximately 200-300 km, later refined to ~300-400 km through improved modeling of reflected waves.^[29]^[30] As of November 2025, further analysis confirmed a solid inner core radius of approximately 258 km within a liquid outer core of about 362 km radius.^[31] On Mars, the core was first inferred in the late 20th century from moment of inertia estimates, but definitive detection came from the InSight lander's seismic and magnetotelluric observations between 2018 and 2022, which captured core-reflected phases like PcP and ScS. These data revealed a core consisting of a solid inner core with a radius of ~610 km surrounded by a liquid outer core extending to a total radius of ~1,830 km, larger than prior geophysical models predicted, highlighting the value of single-station seismology for remote bodies.^[32]^[33] Venus's core models originated from the Magellan spacecraft's gravity mapping in the 1990s, which measured tidal Love number k₂ ≈ 0.295 from Doppler tracking data, indicating a liquid outer core capable of deforming under tidal forces but lacking an active dynamo to generate a global magnetic field. This inference relied on combining gravity anomalies with rotational dynamics, as no seismic data exist for Venus.^[34] Mercury's disproportionately large core, comprising ~85% of the planet's radius, was confirmed by the MESSENGER mission's topographic and gravity measurements from 2008 to 2015, which showed high-density anomalies and a low moment of inertia consistent with a massive iron-rich interior partially molten at the boundary. Unlike seismic methods, these orbital data exploited Mercury's weak tidal response to constrain core size without direct wave sampling.^[35] Early indications of cores in gas giants arose from Pioneer 10 and 11 flybys in the 1970s and Voyager 1 and 2 encounters in the late 1970s and 1980s, which detected strong magnetic fields implying dynamo action in conductive interiors, likely metallic hydrogen overlying rocky/icy cores. For Jupiter, the Juno orbiter's gravity data since 2016 confirmed a diluted, fuzzy core extending approximately 30–50% of the planet's radius, blending gradually into the surrounding envelope rather than forming a sharp boundary.^[36]^[10]^[37]

Formation Mechanisms

Planetesimal accretion and differentiation

The formation of planetary cores begins during the accretion phase of planet formation, where dust grains in the protoplanetary disk aggregate into larger bodies. These dust particles, initially micrometer-sized, grow through collisions and sticking mechanisms influenced by turbulence and gas drag, eventually forming kilometer-scale planetesimals typically 1–10 km in diameter.^[38] This planetesimal formation occurs via processes such as the streaming instability, which concentrates solids in pressure bumps within the disk, enabling rapid gravitational collapse over timescales of about 100–1000 years per local region. Planetesimals then collide and merge, growing into planetary embryos (moon- to mars-sized bodies) through runaway and oligarchic accretion, a process spanning 1–10 million years after the disk's formation.^[39] Core formation proceeds via differentiation, where denser metallic components separate from lighter silicates under the influence of gravity. During accretion, frequent impacts between planetesimals generate significant heating, raising temperatures above 2000 K in the interiors of larger embryos, sufficient to melt iron-nickel alloys while partially or fully melting surrounding silicates.^[40] The molten metal, being denser (ρ ≈ 7–8 g/cm³ compared to silicate melt at ρ ≈ 3 g/cm³), sinks toward the center, driven by buoyancy instabilities. This segregation releases gravitational potential energy, which further contributes to heating and sustains partial melting.^[41] A key mechanism for this metal descent is the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, occurring at the interface between the overlying lighter silicate layer and the underlying denser molten metal pond formed by percolating droplets. In this model, small metal blebs (dihedral angle <30°) percolate through a porous, partially molten silicate matrix at rates of 1–10 m/year, accumulating into a layer that becomes unstable when its thickness exceeds ~1 km, triggering large-scale sinking plumes on timescales of hours to days.^[42] Experimental validations under high-pressure conditions confirm that this instability operates effectively at mantle pressures up to 10 GPa, facilitating efficient core assembly without requiring complete mantle melting.^[43] An emerging alternative mechanism, proposed in 2025, suggests that in some cases, particularly for sulfur-rich environments, molten sulfide rather than metal may percolate through solid rock to initiate core formation, lowering the melting point and enabling differentiation without extensive silicate melting. This model, supported by 3D imaging and geochemical analysis of meteorites, implies earlier core formation timelines and could revise radiogenic isotope dating, such as Hf-W, for planets like Mars.^[44] Core formation timescales vary but generally complete within 10–100 million years following the dispersal of the protoplanetary gas disk, constrained by short-lived radiometric chronometers like the Hf-W system, which records metal-silicate equilibration during early accretion.^[45] The energy released during differentiation arises primarily from the gravitational potential difference between undifferentiated and separated states. For a simplified uniform sphere, the total gravitational potential energy is E = -\frac{3}{5} \frac{G M^2}{R}, so the release upon core-mantle separation approximates \Delta E \approx \frac{3}{5} G \left( \frac{M_c^2}{R_c} - \frac{M_m^2}{R_m} \right), where subscripts denote core (c) and mantle (m) masses and radii; this can contribute up to 10–20% of a planet's initial thermal budget.^[46] This process differs across planetary types: in terrestrial planets, rapid accretion and high impact energies enable near-complete core formation concurrently with growth, often finishing by ~10 million years. In contrast, gas giant cores form more slowly via planetesimal accretion to ~10 Earth masses before runaway gas capture, extending differentiation over tens of millions of years due to the insulating envelope suppressing heat loss.^[41]

Giant impacts and core merging

Giant impacts, occurring primarily in the final 10-100 million years of terrestrial planet formation, play a crucial role in determining the ultimate size and composition of planetary cores by merging the iron-rich cores of colliding bodies. These collisions involve protoplanets with masses comparable to Mars, adding 1-2% to the target's total mass while facilitating the blending of metallic cores. For instance, in the Earth-Moon system, the impact of Theia—a Mars-sized body—resulted in the rapid merger of Theia's core with proto-Earth's, contributing to a hybrid core structure enriched in Theia's material. This process is supported by dynamical models showing that the cores of miscible iron alloys blend efficiently upon collision, often as a sinking metallic diapir through the mantle, completing in less than 1 million years for impactors larger than 100 km in radius.^[47]^[48] Recent analyses of iron meteorites (October 2025) indicate protracted core formation in outer Solar System planetesimals, involving multi-stage differentiation disrupted by early high-energy impacts around 1–2.5 million years after calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs). These events extracted sulfur-rich protocores initially, followed by sulfur-poor core segregation, shaping compositions in carbonaceous chondrite-related bodies and highlighting impact disruptions in smaller progenitors.^[49] The dynamics of core merging during these events typically involve complete thermal mixing for large impacts, enhancing the target's core heat budget and potentially driving transient dynamos, though incomplete chemical equilibration can occur if the diapir remains stratified. High-resolution smoothed particle hydrodynamics simulations demonstrate that planetary cores survive such collisions intact, even for impactor-to-target mass ratios up to 0.1 (or 10:1 inversely), with the impactor's core sinking and integrating without significant disruption. In some cases, however, the merging process introduces thermal stratification that temporarily inhibits convection in the core. These outcomes depend on impact parameters like velocity (6-10 km/s) and angle (30-60°), but the core's integrity is preserved across a wide range of giant impact scenarios.^[50]^[48]^[51] Planetary migration models, such as the Grand Tack hypothesis, further illustrate how giant impacts shape inner Solar System cores by altering the impactor flux. In this scenario, Jupiter's inward-then-outward migration scatters planetesimals, reducing material available for inner planet growth and promoting late-stage collisions that refine core compositions. Evidence from hafnium-tungsten (Hf-W) isotope dating corroborates this late accretion phase, indicating that Earth received an additional 0.5-1% of its mass after primary core formation, primarily through such impacts, as inferred from the mantle's tungsten isotopic anomaly.^[52] Specific examples highlight the diverse effects on core properties. The Earth-Moon-forming impact not only merged cores but also homogenized isotopic signatures, with Theia's contribution explaining similarities in Earth and lunar tungsten isotopes. On Mars, the Borealis basin-forming giant impact is proposed to have induced core asymmetry through uneven heating and iron addition, generating a deep thermal anomaly and potentially contributing to hemispheric differences in crustal thickness and mantle evolution. These cases underscore how giant impacts finalize core merging, influencing long-term planetary differentiation and dynamics.^[47]^[53]^[54]

Chemical Composition

Determination methods

The determination of planetary core compositions relies on a suite of indirect geophysical, geochemical, and computational techniques, as direct sampling is impossible for most bodies. These methods infer core properties from surface observations, laboratory simulations, and theoretical models, providing constraints on elements like iron, nickel, and light alloys in the core.^[55] Seismic methods are primary for Earth, analyzing wave propagation through the interior to derive core-mantle boundary depth, density, and elastic properties. By measuring P- and S-wave travel times, attenuation (which indicates material damping), and anisotropy (variations in wave speed by direction), researchers model core wave speeds and composition; for instance, the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) integrates global seismological data to specify radial variations in density and velocities, revealing an outer core with shear-wave velocity near 0 km/s due to its liquid state.^[56]^[57] For other planets, such as the Moon or Mars, limited seismic data from lander missions (e.g., Apollo seismometers or InSight) provide analogous constraints on core size and state, though with lower resolution.^[58] Gravimetric and magnetic data offer complementary insights into core mass distribution and dynamo activity. Spacecraft measurements of gravitational harmonics, such as the J₂ oblateness coefficient, combined with moment of inertia factors (typically 0.3–0.4 for rocky planets), constrain core radius and density; for example, Mercury's low moment of inertia suggests a large, iron-rich core comprising over 70% of its radius.^[59] Paleomagnetic records from crustal rocks preserve ancient field directions and intensities, indicating core convection and composition via dynamo models; Martian meteorites, for instance, show evidence of a past reversing dynamo consistent with a liquid iron core.^[60]^[61] Geochemical proxies examine siderophile (iron-loving) element abundances in mantle-derived rocks to infer core sequestration. Partitioning coefficients for elements like nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and gold (Au) between metal and silicate phases during differentiation reveal core-mantle separation efficiencies; Earth's mantle depletions in these elements (e.g., Ni at ~0.2× chondritic) imply ~90% of planetary Ni resides in the core under equilibrium conditions at high pressures.^[62]^[63] These ratios, calibrated against meteoritic compositions, extend to other bodies like Mars, where mantle siderophile patterns suggest core formation at lower pressures than Earth.^[64] High-pressure experiments replicate core conditions using diamond anvil cells (DACs) to measure phase stability and partitioning. Laser-heated DACs achieve pressures exceeding 100 GPa and temperatures of 3000–6000 K, simulating core-mantle boundaries; these tests show that light elements like sulfur or silicon alloy with iron-nickel at these extremes, lowering core density to match seismic profiles.^[65]^[66] Numerical modeling, particularly ab initio quantum mechanical calculations, computes equations of state for candidate core materials. Density functional theory simulations of Fe-Ni alloys at core pressures (up to 360 GPa) and temperatures predict thermodynamic stability, elasticity, and sound velocities; for example, such models indicate that 5–10 wt% nickel stabilizes the hexagonal close-packed phase in Earth's inner core.^[67]^[68] These computations benchmark experimental data and extend inferences to extrasolar planets lacking direct observations.^[69] Despite these advances, determining core compositions remains indirect, especially for non-Earth bodies, where methods rely on Earth analogs or sparse mission data, introducing uncertainties in scaling pressure-temperature effects and light element roles.^[70]^[55]

Earth's core composition

Earth's core is primarily composed of iron, with nickel making up approximately 5-10% of its mass, and the remainder consisting of lighter elements that account for the observed density deficit relative to pure iron. Seismological models indicate that the outer core has a density of about 9.9 to 12.2 g/cm³, while the inner core ranges from 12.8 to 13.1 g/cm³, compared to pure iron's density of roughly 13.0 to 13.5 g/cm³ under core conditions. This deficit, estimated at 4-10% by volume or 6-10% by weight, necessitates the incorporation of light elements to reduce the overall density while maintaining the core's seismic properties.^[71]^[72]^[73] The leading candidates for these light elements include sulfur (S), oxygen (O), silicon (Si), hydrogen (H), and carbon (C), collectively comprising 5-10% of the core's mass. Sulfur is inferred from geochemical models showing that up to 90% of Earth's total sulfur resides in the core, supported by sulfur isotope ratios in mantle-derived rocks that indicate depletion during core formation. Oxygen's presence is suggested by the mantle's relative depletion in siderophile elements, implying co-segregation with iron during differentiation. Silicon and hydrogen are viable based on partitioning experiments under high-pressure conditions, while carbon emerges as a key component from recent atomic-scale simulations.^[74]^[71]^[75] Isotopic studies provide further constraints on core composition. Iron isotope fractionation between the core and mantle, with the core enriched in lighter isotopes (δ⁵⁶Fe ≈ -0.01 to -0.1‰ relative to the mantle), arises from equilibrium partitioning during metal-silicate separation under high pressure and temperature. The hafnium-tungsten (Hf-W) chronometer reveals that core formation occurred rapidly, within about 30 million years after solar system formation, influencing the distribution of light elements through high-temperature equilibration.^[76]^[77] Compositional differences exist between the inner and outer core. The outer core likely hosts higher concentrations of sulfur (up to 2-6 wt%), as evidenced by its lower density and seismic velocities consistent with liquid Fe-Ni-S alloys, whereas the inner core may be enriched in carbon. A 2025 study using density functional theory simulations demonstrates that approximately 3.8 wt% carbon is required to initiate inner core solidification by lowering the nucleation barrier, enabling crystallization under realistic thermal gradients without excessive supercooling. Silicon and sulfur, in contrast, hinder this process by stabilizing the liquid state.^[78]^[75] Recent 2025 analyses of potassium isotopes in mantle rocks have uncovered traces of a primordial "lost world," representing remnants of proto-Earth material that survived the planet's violent accretion and core formation. These ancient reservoirs, detected as isotopic imbalances (ε⁴⁰K deficits of approximately 65 ppm), suggest preserved pre-impact mantle heterogeneity with implications for early planetary differentiation including core formation.^[79]

Evidence from meteorites

Iron meteorites are widely regarded as direct samples of the metallic cores from differentiated planetesimals that formed early in the Solar System.^[80] These meteorites, comprising primarily iron-nickel alloys, represent fragments exposed through subsequent collisions and disruption of their parent bodies.^[81] Chemical groupings such as IIAB and IVA reflect distinct core compositions from these planetesimals, with nickel contents typically ranging from 5% to 20%, indicating variations in the metallic reservoirs during differentiation.^[82] Pallasites, another class of stony-iron meteorites, provide evidence of core-mantle interfaces in differentiated bodies, featuring intimate mixtures of olivine crystals embedded in a Fe-Ni metal matrix.^[83] The metal phase in pallasites consists of approximately 90% Fe-Ni alloy, with the olivine representing mantle material, suggesting these meteorites originated near the boundary between a metallic core and a silicate mantle in their parent asteroid.^[84] This structure mimics the transitional zones expected in planetary interiors, offering insights into the physical separation of core and mantle materials during early differentiation.^[85] Patterns of siderophile elements—those with affinity for metal phases—further link meteorites to core formation processes, showing depletions in planetary mantles that correspond to enrichments in iron meteorite cores.^[17] For instance, highly siderophile elements like osmium, iridium, and platinum are strongly partitioned into metallic cores, as evidenced by their elevated abundances in iron meteorites compared to mantle-derived samples.^[86] These patterns align with the late addition of such elements to mantles via impacts, balancing the core enrichment observed in meteoritic analogs.^[87] The Widmanstätten patterns, characteristic interlocking structures of kamacite and taenite lamellae in iron meteorites, record the slow cooling histories of these ancient cores.^[88] These patterns form through diffusion-controlled exsolution during subsolidus cooling, with bandwidth measurements indicating rates of approximately 1–10 K per million years for most groups, consistent with burial depths of several kilometers in parent bodies.^[89] Recent isotope studies from 2024 and 2025 have connected meteoritic compositions to heterogeneity in the protoplanetary disk, revealing nucleosynthetic variations that influenced the incorporation of light elements into cores.^[90] For example, analyses of titanium and aluminum isotopes in meteorites suggest inherited presolar signatures that contributed to disk-scale differences, affecting light element budgets like carbon and sulfur in metallic cores.^[91] Similarly, iron-nickel isotope systematics in iron meteorites indicate distinct reservoirs in the inner Solar System, informing models of light element partitioning during core formation.^[92] Despite their value, meteorites serve as proxies primarily from small planetesimals rather than large planets, limiting direct comparisons to full-scale planetary cores.^[93] No meteorite provides an exact match to Earth's core, as these samples derive from disrupted asteroids with different sizes, accretion environments, and evolutionary paths.^[94]

Physical Structure and Dynamics

Internal structure models

Models of planetary cores typically describe a layered internal structure, consisting of a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core, with potential transitional zones at the boundaries. For Earth, the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) delineates the inner core as a solid iron-rich sphere with a radius of approximately 1,220 km, where compressional wave velocity (Vp) jumps to about 11 km/s and shear wave velocity (Vs) to 3.5 km/s at the inner core boundary (ICB), marking the transition from the liquid outer core.^[95] Above the outer core lies the mantle, and at the core-mantle boundary (CMB), a possible F-layer—a thin, stably stratified region in the lowermost outer core—may exist, spanning 150–300 km thick and influencing seismic wave propagation.^[96] Planetary models vary significantly by body type. Mercury features a disproportionately large core occupying about 85% of its radius, overlain by a thin silicate mantle roughly 400–600 km thick, consistent with Messenger mission gravity data indicating a partially molten outer core.^[97] In contrast, Jupiter's core is not sharply defined but exhibits a gradual dilution from a central rocky-metallic region of 7–25 Earth masses into surrounding metallic hydrogen layers, as inferred from Juno spacecraft measurements of gravitational harmonics.^[98]^[99] Recent 2025 simulations incorporating carbon as a light alloying element in Earth's inner core have refined models of seismic anisotropy, showing how carbon enhances lattice preferred orientation and explains observed variations in wave speeds up to 3–4% faster along polar paths.^[100]^[101] Similarly, Juno data analyses in 2025 confirm Jupiter's blended core structure, with heavy elements dispersing outward over thousands of kilometers rather than forming a compact boundary, challenging prior giant impact formation scenarios.^[102] The radius of Earth's ICB is derived from contrasts in seismic wave speeds and Poisson's ratio (\sigma), where the liquid outer core exhibits \sigma \approx 0.5 due to negligible shear modulus. The formula for Poisson's ratio is:

\sigma = \frac{V_p^2 - 2 V_s^2}{2(V_p^2 - V_s^2)}

At the ICB, the discontinuity in V_s from 0 km/s (outer core) to 3.5 km/s (inner core), combined with V_p increasing from ~8 km/s to 11 km/s, constrains the boundary radius through travel-time inversions in models like PREM. Uncertainties persist regarding transitional regions, such as potential mushy zones at the ICB where partial melting creates a slurry of crystals and liquid over 4–8% of the volume, or iron snowing in the outer core, where solid iron crystals form and settle from the upper outer core, forming piles up to 200 km thick.^[103]^[104] These features complicate precise boundary definitions and may influence core dynamics.

Heat sources and convection

The primary heat sources in planetary cores include residual heat from accretion during formation, possible minor radiogenic decay of potassium-40 in the outer core, though primary radiogenic heating occurs in the mantle from uranium, thorium, and potassium, latent heat released during inner core solidification, and compositional buoyancy arising from the exclusion of lighter elements like sulfur or oxygen during crystallization.^[105]^[106]^[107]^[108]^[109] Accretional heat originates from the gravitational energy released as planetesimals collided and sank toward the center, providing an initial thermal endowment that persists as stored internal heat even after differentiation.^[110] Radiogenic contributions, while dominant in the mantle, are estimated to supply a smaller but sustained portion in the core, with potassium-40 potentially playing a key role due to its siderophile partitioning into metallic phases.^[111] Latent heat from inner core growth represents a major ongoing source, as the exothermic solidification of the liquid outer core releases approximately 3 terawatts (TW) in Earth's case, powering convection by adding thermal energy to the fluid.^[107] Compositional buoyancy further drives motion, as the growing solid inner core rejects lighter elements into the outer core, creating density contrasts that promote upward flow of less dense material.^[108] These sources collectively sustain a heat flux at the core-mantle boundary estimated at around 15 TW for Earth, which is crucial for maintaining vigorous fluid motion.^[112] Convection in planetary liquid outer cores is primarily double-diffusive, involving coupled temperature and composition gradients where thermal diffusion outpaces chemical diffusion, leading to instability and layered fluid motions.^[113] This process is driven by adverse gradients: cooling at the core-mantle boundary promotes downward thermal plumes, while inner core growth supplies both latent heat and lighter-element enrichment at the inner boundary, enhancing upward compositional plumes. The resulting convective power can be approximated by the equation for buoyancy-driven work,

P = \rho g \alpha \Delta T F,

where \rho is fluid density, g is gravitational acceleration, \alpha is the thermal expansivity, \Delta T is the temperature contrast driving convection, and F is the heat flux; this power balance links heat transport to the vigor of fluid motion and, indirectly, to dynamo activity in active cores.^[114] Over planetary lifetimes, core heat budgets evolve through secular cooling at rates of about 100 K per billion years (Gyr) for Earth, which drives inner core expansion at roughly 1 mm per year by lowering the freezing point of the liquid.^[115]^[116] This gradual solidification modulates convection by increasing compositional contrasts while reducing the liquid volume available for thermal stirring. In smaller bodies like Mars, faster cooling due to higher surface-to-volume ratios and lower radiogenic inventory leads to weaker convection, as the core loses heat more rapidly and transitions to conduction-dominated regimes sooner.^[117]^[118]

Magnetic dynamo generation

The magnetic dynamo in planetary cores generates self-sustaining magnetic fields through the inductive action of convective flows in electrically conducting fluids, primarily liquid iron or iron alloys. This process, known as dynamo theory, relies on the motion of the conducting fluid stretching and twisting existing magnetic field lines, thereby amplifying the field until it balances dissipative effects. The theory posits that without such motion, magnetic fields would decay due to ohmic diffusion, but convection provides the necessary energy input to maintain the field over geological timescales.^[119] Key requirements for dynamo generation include vigorous convection exceeding a critical threshold, quantified by the Rayleigh number (Ra) surpassing approximately 10^4, which ensures instability in the fluid layer; high electrical conductivity of the core material, typically greater than 10^5 S/m for liquid iron to enable sufficient magnetic Reynolds numbers (Rm > 10-100) for field amplification; and rapid planetary rotation to impose the Coriolis force, which organizes flows into columnar structures aligned with the rotation axis and breaks symmetry for field generation. These conditions are met in planets with molten metallic cores where thermal or compositional buoyancy drives convection against stable stratification.^[120]^[121]^[122] In Earth's geodynamo, convective motions in the liquid outer core produce a strong zonal toroidal magnetic field of approximately 1-5 mT within the core, while the poloidal component emerges at the surface as a dipole field of 0.3-0.6 gauss (30-60 μT). This configuration arises from the ω-effect, where differential rotation shears poloidal fields into toroidal ones, and the α-effect, where helical convection regenerates poloidal fields from toroidal ones. The governing physics is captured by the induction equation,

\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} = \nabla \times (\mathbf{u} \times \mathbf{B}) + \eta \nabla^2 \mathbf{B},

where \mathbf{B} is the magnetic field, \mathbf{u} is the velocity, and \eta is the magnetic diffusivity; this equation demonstrates how advection (first term) can overcome diffusion (second term), circumventing anti-dynamo theorems like Cowling's, which prohibit axisymmetric fields in spherical geometries without additional asymmetries from rotation.^[123]^[119] Dynamo-generated fields exhibit variations across planetary types: gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn produce multipolar, non-dipolar fields due to deep-seated convection in metallic hydrogen layers with slower effective rotation relative to core size; in contrast, dynamos in Mars and Venus are extinct, attributed to core solidification that halted convection by removing light elements and reducing fluidity. Numerical simulations have advanced understanding, with models incorporating light elements like carbon, which lower electrical conductivity compared to pure iron, thereby influencing dynamo onset and field morphology by altering Rm and requiring adjusted convective vigor for sustainability.^[122]^[124]

Stability and recent observations

The stability of planetary cores is maintained primarily through a delicate thermal balance that regulates the rate of inner core solidification, releasing latent heat and compositional buoyancy to sustain convection in the outer core and prevent complete freezing. This process ensures the longevity of the geodynamo, as excessive cooling could lead to dynamo decay, as observed in ancient Martian cores that ceased generating a magnetic field approximately 4 billion years ago due to insufficient convective vigor following planetary cooling. Instabilities, such as convective overshoot at the core-mantle boundary (CMB), can disrupt this equilibrium by allowing hot plumes to penetrate the mantle or cold material to sink, potentially altering heat flux and core dynamics over geological timescales.^[125]^[126]^[127] Recent seismic observations of Earth's inner core, spanning the past two decades, reveal dynamic changes that challenge notions of its long-term solidity and uniformity. Studies from 2025 indicate that the inner core's surface is less rigid than previously assumed, exhibiting structural transformations likely driven by interactions with the fluid outer core, including variations in shear wave velocities suggestive of a superionic iron-carbon alloy state. Over the last 20 years, seismic data have documented alterations in the inner core's shape, with evidence of hemispheric asymmetry where the eastern hemisphere displays distinct anisotropy compared to the western, potentially linked to differential growth rates. Additionally, the inner core's rotation has slowed relative to the mantle since around 2010, with some analyses suggesting a temporary reversal or backtracking at rates of about 0.05–0.15° per year, part of a ~70-year oscillatory cycle.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[131]^[132]^[133]^[134] At the CMB, recent evidence points to instabilities influenced by subducted oceanic slabs, which accumulate as ultra-low velocity zones (ULVZs) and may form a "secret realm" of heterogeneous material affecting core-mantle coupling. These structures, detected globally through seismic imaging, retain water and other volatiles, potentially triggering reactions that produce iron hydrides and alter boundary dynamics, with implications for heat transfer and mantle convection. Such couplings could link core evolution to surface phenomena, including subtle variations in Earth's length-of-day, as inner core slowdowns propagate torque changes through the outer core to the mantle.^[135]^[136]^[137] For gas giants, 2025 data from NASA's Juno mission have refined models of Jupiter's core stability, showing a gradual blending of heavy elements into the surrounding metallic hydrogen envelope rather than a sharp boundary. This dilute, fuzzy core structure, extending over thousands of kilometers, suggests ongoing erosion and mixing driven by deep convection, challenging earlier compact-core paradigms and indicating long-term stability through dilution rather than solidification. These observations highlight broader trends in core evolution, where thermal imbalances can lead to dynamo weakening, as inferred from paleomagnetic records of extinct fields on smaller bodies like Mars.^[138]^[102]

Cores in the Solar System

Terrestrial planets and Moon

The cores of the terrestrial planets and the Moon represent the densest, metal-rich interiors of these rocky bodies, primarily composed of iron and nickel with varying amounts of lighter elements such as sulfur. These cores are inferred from geophysical measurements including gravity fields, seismic data, and magnetic observations, revealing a range of sizes, states (solid, liquid, or partially molten), and dynamo activities that reflect differences in planetary size, thermal evolution, and composition. Unlike the gaseous cores of outer planets, these are metallic and occupy significant fractions of the planetary volume, influencing surface geology and magnetic histories. Mercury possesses an unusually large core that extends to approximately 85% of the planet's radius, with a radius of about 2,074 km, making it the most core-dominated terrestrial body. This oversized core, comprising up to 80% of Mercury's mass, is surrounded by a thin silicate mantle only about 300-400 km thick, and it likely contains significant sulfur to account for its density of around 6.5-7 g/cm³ in models incorporating light elements. Data from NASA's MESSENGER mission indicate a solid inner core nearly as large as Earth's, surrounded by a liquid outer core, which supports the generation of Mercury's weak magnetic field through dynamo action. Venus's core is estimated to occupy roughly 50% of the planet's radius, with a radius of about 3,000-3,200 km based on interior structure models constrained by gravity and rotation data. Likely fully liquid due to the planet's high internal temperatures and lack of a solid inner core, this iron-rich core does not currently sustain a dynamo, as evidenced by Venus's absence of a global magnetic field despite its similar size to Earth. Inferences from spacecraft such as Pioneer Venus and Venus Express suggest a core density around 10-12 g/cm³, potentially alloyed with light elements, but without seismic confirmation. Earth's core comprises about 55% of the planet's radius, with an outer liquid layer extending from approximately 2,900 km depth to an inner solid core boundary at around 5,150 km from the center, totaling a core radius of 3,480 km. This structure, determined from seismic wave analyses and Earth's moment of inertia, features a liquid outer core of molten iron-nickel alloy that drives a geodynamo, generating the planet's protective magnetic field. The solid inner core, growing through crystallization at its boundary, has a radius of about 1,220 km and a density exceeding 12 g/cm³. Mars harbors a core that occupies approximately 50% of its radius, with a total radius of 1,810 ± 150 km as measured by seismic data from NASA's InSight mission. This core is primarily liquid, lacking a confirmed solid inner core until recent 2025 analyses suggesting a small solid inner core of about 600 km radius, and it does not currently support a dynamo, consistent with Mars's weak remnant crustal magnetism. The core's density is estimated at 5.5-6.5 g/cm³, enriched in sulfur to explain the planet's overall lower density compared to Earth. The Moon's core is notably small, extending to only about 20% of the lunar radius, with a radius of roughly 330-380 km, comprising just 1.5-2% of the Moon's mass. Seismic data from lunar experiments and moment of inertia measurements indicate a partially molten structure, possibly with a solid inner core and liquid outer layer, but too weak to generate a present-day dynamo. Paleomagnetic analyses of Apollo mission samples reveal evidence of an ancient magnetic field, implying a transient dynamo active from ~4.2 Ga to between ~3.5 and 1 Ga that has since ceased. Across the terrestrial planets and Moon, core radius fractions generally decrease with increasing heliocentric distance—from Mercury's ~85% to the Moon's ~20%—reflecting accretion from increasingly volatile-rich materials in the inner Solar System. This trend is accompanied by progressive enrichment in sulfur and other light elements in the cores outward, which lowers core densities and influences dynamo cessation in smaller bodies like Mars and the Moon.

Icy moons and gas giants

Among the icy moons of the outer Solar System, Ganymede stands out for its substantial core, which constitutes approximately 50% of the moon's radius and consists primarily of rock and iron, overlain by a rocky mantle and thick ice layers.^[139] This differentiated structure was inferred from gravity measurements and the detection of an intrinsic magnetic field by the Galileo spacecraft's magnetometer, indicating an active dynamo driven by convection in a partially liquid metallic core.^[140] The dynamo process likely involves fluid motion in the core, generating a field that interacts with Jupiter's magnetosphere to produce auroral emissions observed on Ganymede's surface.^[141] The gas giants exhibit cores that are more diluted and extended compared to those of terrestrial planets, blending gradually into surrounding layers of metallic hydrogen. For Jupiter, interior models derived from NASA's Juno mission data reveal a fuzzy core with a mass of 10-20 Earth masses, composed of rock and ice that mixes with the overlying hydrogen envelope, resulting in a gradual increase in density rather than a sharp boundary.^[142] This "fuzzy" model, based on precise gravity measurements, suggests the core formed through erosion or giant impacts during the planet's early history, extending up to 50% of Jupiter's radius.^[143] Saturn possesses a similarly dilute core of 10-20 Earth masses, enriched in rock and ice but diffused into the metallic hydrogen layer, as constrained by Cassini mission gravity data and ring-seismology observations that reveal wave patterns indicative of internal density gradients.^[9] The planet's weaker magnetic field compared to Jupiter's implies reduced convection in the core region, possibly due to compositional stratification that inhibits dynamo efficiency.^[144] Uranus and Neptune harbor icy-rocky cores estimated at 10-15 Earth masses, surrounded by mantles rich in water, ammonia, and methane ices that transition into hydrogen-helium envelopes.^[145] Their magnetic fields are notably tilted relative to the rotation axis, a feature potentially resulting from giant impacts that displaced core material and altered the dynamo geometry during the planets' formation.^[146] Voyager 2 flyby observations provided the primary data on these fields, confirming non-axisymmetric multipolar structures generated in partially convective interiors, while Ulysses contributed polar magnetosphere insights for Jupiter as a comparative baseline.^[147] A key trend across these bodies is the increasing fraction of ice in core compositions moving outward from Jupiter to Neptune, reflecting formation in colder regions where volatiles condensed more readily onto rocky nuclei.^[148] These cores contribute to internal heat budgets through residual formation energy and differentiation, sustaining convection that powers dynamos and, in turn, auroral activity via interactions with solar wind particles.^[149] Cassini and Voyager missions have been instrumental in mapping these dynamics, highlighting how diluted cores enable prolonged thermal evolution in volatile-rich environments.^[150]

Remnant and transitional cores

Remnant cores represent the exposed or partially preserved metallic interiors of ancient planetesimals that underwent differentiation but were later disrupted by collisions, providing direct samples of early planetary core formation. Iron meteorites, primarily composed of iron-nickel alloys, are widely regarded as fragments from the shattered cores of these protoplanetary bodies, which formed within the first few million years of the Solar System's history. These meteorites exhibit Widmanstätten patterns indicative of slow cooling in a core environment, supporting their origin as remnants from planetesimals in the terrestrial planet-forming region.^[151] A prominent example is the asteroid 16 Psyche, hypothesized to be a largely exposed core of a differentiated planetesimal stripped of its mantle and crust through violent impacts; NASA's Psyche mission, launched in 2023, is en route to orbit the asteroid in 2029 to test this hypothesis via in-situ measurements of its composition and magnetic properties.^[152] Transitional core-mantle fragments, such as pallasites and mesosiderites, offer insights into the interfaces between metallic cores and overlying silicate layers in disrupted bodies. Pallasites consist of olivine crystals embedded in a nickel-iron matrix, interpreted as samples from the core-mantle boundary of a differentiated asteroid, where metal intruded into mantle material during partial melting or collision-induced mixing.^[153] Mesosiderites, in contrast, are breccias of metallic iron-nickel with basaltic and gabbroic silicates, suggesting they formed from high-velocity impacts that fragmented and reaccreted core and crustal materials, with minimal mantle involvement.^[154] These stony-iron meteorites highlight the dynamic processes of core-mantle differentiation followed by catastrophic disruption in the early Solar System. In the Solar System, remnant cores persist in smaller bodies like asteroids, where seismic and gravitational data infer their presence. For instance, the Dawn mission's observations of Vesta revealed evidence consistent with partial differentiation and retention of a dense iron-rich interior despite subsequent impacts. Recent 2025 analyses of Vesta's moment of inertia from Doppler tracking and imaging refine this to a very small metallic core with a radius of ~45 km (possibly up to 150 km or absent), suggesting incomplete differentiation or a fragmented origin from a larger protoplanet reshaped by early collisions, indicating limited convective activity in its early history.^[155] Fossilized remnants of ancient dynamos, which powered core-generated magnetic fields, are preserved in magnetized lunar rocks and Martian crustal strips; these paleomagnetic signatures in lunar samples suggest a dynamo active from ~4.2 Ga to between ~3.5 and 1 Ga, while Martian stripes record a dynamo active over 4 billion years ago before cessation.^[156]^[157] Beyond intact remnants, 2025 studies emphasize the role of collisions in creating "patchwork" planetesimals, where repeated impacts disrupted early cores, scattering metallic fragments that later reaggregated into heterogeneous bodies; this links core formation to widespread early Solar System violence, as evidenced by isotopic and structural analyses of meteoritic materials.^[155] Observational techniques, including near-infrared spectroscopy to detect metallic absorption features on asteroid surfaces and radar imaging to probe subsurface densities, enable identification of these remnants; for example, radar surveys of M-class asteroids reveal high metal content consistent with exposed cores.^[158]^[159] Fossilized cores extend to extrasolar contexts through white dwarf debris disks, where polluted atmospheres and circumstellar disks contain heavy metals from disrupted planetary remnants accreted onto the stellar core. These disks, often composed of rocky and metallic debris from inner planets destroyed during post-main-sequence expansion, exhibit infrared excesses and metal lines (e.g., iron, nickel) indicative of core-like compositions vaporized and falling inward.^[160] Recent observations of white dwarfs like LSPM J0207+3331 show ongoing accretion of such planetary debris, providing a window into the end states of core evolution in other systems.^[161]

Extrasolar Planetary Cores

Theoretical models

Theoretical models for extrasolar planetary cores extend the core accretion paradigm, which posits that solid cores form from planetesimals in protoplanetary disks before accreting gaseous envelopes if they reach a critical mass threshold. In this framework, core properties such as mass and composition are influenced by disk metallicity Z, orbital migration, and dynamical instabilities during formation and evolution. For instance, the expected core mass scales approximately as M_{\rm core} \approx \left( \frac{Z}{0.02} \right)^{3/2} M_\oplus, where Z = 0.02 represents solar metallicity, reflecting higher solid material availability in metal-rich disks that enables larger cores.^[162] This relation arises from models integrating planetesimal accretion rates with disk properties, extended to migration scenarios where inward orbital drift concentrates solids and accelerates core growth.^[163] Chthonian planets represent a class of stripped rocky cores hypothesized to form when close-in sub-Neptune or mini-Neptune exoplanets lose their hydrogen-helium envelopes through photoevaporation driven by stellar radiation. Theoretical models predict such remnants with sizes of approximately 2-10 Earth radii and high densities around 5-8 g/cm³ due to exposed iron-rich surfaces after loss of lighter volatiles.^[164] These objects are expected in the Neptunian desert, where intense irradiation prevents gas retention, leaving behind bare cores that may retain trace atmospheres of refractory elements.^[165] Diamond planets, or carbon-dominated worlds, are modeled as cores under extreme pressures where carbon compresses into diamond layers overlying iron-nickel alloys, particularly in systems with carbon-to-oxygen ratios exceeding solar values. The concept arises in core accretion scenarios around carbon-enhanced stars, where high-pressure mineralogy (beyond 100 GPa and temperatures above 2000 K) stabilizes diamond phases comprising potentially 20-50% of the planetary radius.^[166] Early models suggested 55 Cancri e as a candidate with up to one-third diamond by mass, but JWST observations as of 2024 indicate a rocky super-Earth with a secondary atmosphere rich in CO or CO₂ from a magma ocean, challenging the diamond hypothesis.^[167] Hypothetical dense cores may form from debris of tidally disrupted planets around white dwarfs, where dynamical instabilities scatter planetary fragments, allowing reassembly of metal-polluted material into iron-dominated bodies. In such scenarios, remnants can have compositions mirroring the progenitor planet's heavy elements, including up to 90% iron by mass in low-mass objects, with radii under 0.5 Earth radii but masses exceeding 2 M_\oplus, stable against further tidal forces at separations beyond 0.1 AU.^[168] Hot ice planets feature rocky cores enveloped by high-pressure ices in water-rich super-Earths, where supercritical fluid interfaces separate the core from exotic phases like superionic or ice VII under pressures of 10-100 GPa and temperatures of 1000-3000 K. Theoretical interior models indicate these ices form during core accretion in disks with high ice-to-rock ratios, migrating inward to retain hot mantles that conduct heat and possibly sustain dynamo activity, with core masses around 1-5 M_\oplus comprising silicates and metals. The supercritical boundary facilitates material transport, potentially eroding the core over gigayears while maintaining structural integrity. Dynamical instabilities further shape these cores, including erosion in hot Jupiters where convective mixing dissolves rocky interiors into metallic hydrogen envelopes, reducing core masses by 10-30% over 1-5 Gyr via double-diffusive processes at the core-mantle boundary. In close binary systems, core mergers during giant impacts or disk instabilities can form hybrid compositions, blending iron-rich and volatile-depleted materials to yield inflated envelopes in resulting hot Jupiters, with merger rates enhanced by orbital perturbations.^[169]^[170]

Inferred from observations

Indirect evidence for the presence and composition of extrasolar planetary cores is primarily derived from transit photometry, radial velocity measurements, and atmospheric spectroscopy, which constrain planetary masses, radii, and compositions without direct imaging. These methods reveal density profiles that suggest rocky or metallic cores in various planet types, though interpretations often rely on mass-radius relationships calibrated against theoretical interior models. For instance, transit timing variations (TTVs) in multi-planet systems provide dynamical masses that, when combined with radii from transits, yield bulk densities indicative of core-dominated structures. In the Kepler-36 system, TTVs measured from precise transit timings of the inner rocky planet Kepler-36b and outer Kepler-36c imply masses of approximately 4.45 Earth masses for b and 8.08 Earth masses for c, leading to densities of about 7.5 g/cm³ and 3.7 g/cm³, respectively. These values suggest that Kepler-36b possesses a substantial rocky core comprising silicates and iron, while Kepler-36c likely has a similar core enveloped by a hydrogen-helium layer, highlighting how TTVs can differentiate core masses in close-orbiting systems. Radial velocity observations, which measure minimum planetary masses through stellar wobble, combined with transit-derived radii, enable density calculations that infer core sizes via mass-radius relations. Super-Earths with densities exceeding 5 g/cm³, such as HD 219134 b (density ≈5.8 g/cm³ from a mass of 4.7 Earth masses and radius of 1.6 Earth radii), are interpreted as having iron-rich cores making up 50-70% of their mass, surrounded by silicate mantles and thin volatile layers. This high density places HD 219134 b firmly in the rocky regime, contrasting with lower-density mini-Neptunes and supporting core formation mechanisms similar to Earth's.^[171] Atmospheric spectroscopy from transmission observations during transits can reveal depleted volatiles or high-metallicity compositions, suggesting atmospheric stripping that exposes underlying cores. For GJ 1214 b, early Hubble Space Telescope spectra showed a flat transmission spectrum, interpreted as indicative of a high-mean-molecular-weight atmosphere possibly from a stripped hydrogen-helium envelope, leaving a chthonian-like core of rock and ice with depleted light volatiles. Recent analyses reinforce this as a potential remnant core scenario, though hazy aerosols complicate unambiguous confirmation. As of 2025, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observations have provided new insights into hot Neptunes, revealing stripped envelopes and exposed cores in several systems. For example, JWST near-infrared spectra of the hot sub-Neptune TOI-421 b indicate a low-mean-molecular-weight atmosphere with minimal haze, consistent with partial envelope stripping that exposes a rocky core, bridging the radius valley between super-Earths and sub-Neptunes. Similarly, ultra-hot Neptune LTT 9779 b shows spectral features suggesting core exposure through hydrodynamic escape, with enhanced metallicity in the remaining atmosphere.^[172]^[173] White dwarf pollution spectra offer another line of evidence for planetary core fragments, as these remnants accrete debris from disrupted planets, revealing core compositions via atmospheric metal lines. Recent 2025 spectroscopic surveys of polluted white dwarfs detect spikes in iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg) abundances, consistent with accretion from rocky cores similar to those in super-Earths, with Fe/Mg ratios matching differentiated planetary interiors. For instance, the hydrogen-rich white dwarf LSPM J0207+3331 exhibits extreme pollution with 13 heavy elements, including elevated Fe and Mg, pointing to ongoing accretion from core fragments of former planets.^[174]^[175] A notable example of an inferred eroded core is TOI-849b, a Neptune-sized planet with a density of approximately 5.2 g/cm³ derived from radial velocity mass (≈39 Earth masses) and transit radius (3.45 Earth radii), suggesting it is the stripped remnant of a gas giant whose hydrogen-helium envelope was photoevaporated by its host star. This object occupies the "hot Neptune desert," providing a snapshot of core survival post-envelope loss. Inferring core properties remains challenging due to degeneracies in mass-radius-composition space, where similar densities can arise from varying core sizes and envelope thicknesses, requiring multi-wavelength observations to resolve. No direct imaging of exoplanet cores has been achieved, limiting constraints to indirect methods that often yield bimodal solutions (rocky vs. gaseous).^[177]^[178]

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The Internal Constitutions of the Inner Planets and the Moon
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A Comprehensive Review of High-Pressure Laser-Induced ... - MDPI
Laser-heated diamond anvil cell (LH-DAC) experimentation has emerged as a leading technique for materials processing at extreme pressures and temperatures.
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Experimentally determined subsolidus metal-olivine element ...
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Compositions of iron-meteorite parent bodies constrain the ... - PNAS
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[PDF] THE COOLING RATES OF IRON METEORITES
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Mercury: Facts - NASA Science
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Double diffusive convection in the Earth's core and the morphology ...
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Earth's inner core is growing more on one side than the other
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[PDF] Mars' core and magnetism
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Modelling of thermal stratification at the top of a planetary core
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USC study confirms the rotation of Earth's inner core has slowed
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Psyche Mission Overview - NASA Science
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Pallasite meteorites, which consist primarily of olivine and metal, may be remnants of disrupted core-mantle boundaries of differentiated asteroids or ...
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Variations in the Magnetic Properties of Meteoritic Cloudy Zone
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Circumstellar disks of planetary debris are now known or suspected to closely orbit hundreds of white dwarf stars.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Formation of planetary populations – I. Metallicity and envelope ...
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an extended upper atmosphere of neutral hydrogen around the ...
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The HARPS-N Rocky Planet Search - I. HD 219134 b
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Tracing Planetary Accretion in a 3 Gyr old Hydrogen-rich White Dwarf
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We conclude that self-consistent atmosphere–interior models efficiently break degeneracies in the structure of both transiting and directly imaged exoplanets.