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Plastic card

A plastic card is a thin, rectangular object typically measuring 85.6 mm by 54 mm (CR80 standard size), constructed from durable synthetic polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate, or polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and designed for purposes including identification, financial transactions, access control, and loyalty programs.^[1]^[2] These cards often incorporate embedded technologies like magnetic stripes, microchips, radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, or barcodes to store and process data securely.^[1]^[3] The development of plastic cards traces back to the mid-20th century, evolving from earlier cardboard versions to more robust materials. In 1950, the first modern credit card was introduced by Diners Club, made of cardboard for restaurant payments.^[4] In 1959, American Express introduced the first plastic credit card made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC).^[5] The 1960s marked a pivotal shift with the widespread adoption of PVC, prized for its flexibility, durability, and printability, enabling use in banking and identification.^[4]^[2] Subsequent innovations enhanced functionality and security, transforming plastic cards into versatile tools. The 1970s introduced magnetic stripes, facilitating automated reading for transactions and automated teller machines (ATMs).^[4] In the 1980s, anti-fraud measures like holograms emerged, while the 1990s brought smart cards with integrated microchips for encrypted data storage in applications such as healthcare and travel.^[4] Today, contactless features via near-field communication (NFC) and eco-friendly alternatives to traditional PVC address modern demands for convenience and sustainability.^[4]^[3] Plastic cards encompass diverse types tailored to specific needs, broadly categorized by function and technology. Payment cards, including credit, debit, prepaid, and charge variants, enable electronic transactions issued by financial institutions.^[3] Identification and access control cards, such as PVC-based ID badges, proximity cards for door entry, and smart cards for authentication, are prevalent in workplaces, healthcare, and secure facilities.^[3]^[2] RFID cards support asset tracking, inventory management, and anti-counterfeiting in supply chains.^[3] Additionally, non-financial types like loyalty, membership, gift, and discount cards promote customer retention and fundraising in retail and organizational settings.^[3] Despite their ubiquity, plastic cards raise environmental concerns due to non-biodegradable waste, prompting shifts toward recyclable composites.^[3]

Overview and History

Definition and Characteristics

A plastic card is a thin, durable rectangular form factor typically constructed from plastic materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), serving purposes like authentication, identification, and facilitating transactions.^[2]^[6] The predominant physical dimensions adhere to the ID-1 format outlined in ISO/IEC 7810, with a size of 85.6 mm in length by 53.98 mm in width and a thickness of 0.76 mm, featuring rounded corners with a radius of 2.88–3.48 mm to enable smooth handling and compatibility with card readers.^[7]^[6] These specifications provide the necessary flexibility for repeated insertion and removal without compromising structural integrity.^[7] Key characteristics include lightweight construction for portability, a smooth printable surface that supports high-resolution imaging and text, and inherent resistance to wear, bending, chemicals, temperature extremes, and humidity.^[7]^[2] Additionally, plastic cards can incorporate embedded components like magnetic stripes or microchips for data storage and secure data exchange.^[6] Everyday examples encompass credit and debit cards for payments, loyalty cards for reward accumulation, and keycards for access control in facilities.^[8]^[3] This format evolved from prior paper and cardboard precursors to enhance durability against daily wear.^[9]

Historical Development

The origins of plastic cards trace back to early 20th-century precursors, including metal charge plates and tokens used by department stores for customer accounts, as well as paper-based charge cards introduced in the 1920s.^[10] These early devices, such as the Charga-Plate developed in 1928 and employed from the 1930s to the late 1950s, facilitated deferred payments at specific merchants but lacked portability and universality.^[10] A pivotal milestone occurred in 1950 with the launch of the Diners Club card, the first general-purpose charge card accepted at multiple establishments, initially produced from paper or celluloid rather than plastic.^[11] The transition to plastic materials accelerated in the late 1950s, with American Express introducing the first plastic cards made of celluloid in 1959, offering greater durability and flexibility for widespread banking adoption.^[12] Banks followed suit in the early 1960s, issuing PVC cards that standardized the form factor for credit and identification purposes.^[5] Concurrently, technological innovation emerged with the invention of the magnetic stripe by IBM engineer Forrest Parry in 1960, initially developed to embed secure data on plastic cards for government identification.^[13] This culminated in the first commercial magnetic stripe card in 1969, which encoded account information for automated reading and became a U.S. standard that year, enabling faster transaction processing.^[13] By the 1970s, credit cards achieved widespread use, with over 100 million in circulation as banks expanded networks like BankAmericard (later Visa) and Master Charge (later Mastercard).^[14] Usage surged further in the 1980s, doubling the number of cards and increasing spending fivefold between 1980 and 1990, driven by deregulation and merchant acceptance.^[15] Global standardization advanced during this decade through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), with ISO 2894:1980 specifying embossed credit card formats and ISO 7810:1985 defining physical characteristics like the ID-1 size (85.6 mm × 53.98 mm).^[16]^[17] The 1990s marked a shift toward integrated technologies, with Europay, Mastercard, and Visa collaborating to develop the EMV chip standard in the early part of the decade, introducing microprocessor-based security to combat fraud beyond magnetic stripes.^[18] This evolved into smart cards, which embed chips for data storage and processing, gaining traction for applications like banking and transit.^[19] By the 2000s, contactless technology integrated radio-frequency identification (RFID) into plastic cards, allowing proximity-based transactions without physical swiping, as seen in early pilots in Asia and Europe during the late 1990s.^[20]

Materials and Standards

Common Materials

The primary material used in the core layer of plastic cards, such as credit and ID cards, is polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a versatile thermoplastic polymer valued for its stiffness, cost-effectiveness, and ability to support high-quality printing. Rigid PVC, with a density of 1.3-1.45 g/cm³, forms the bulk of the card structure, often comprising the majority of the composition to ensure dimensional stability and durability during everyday handling.^[21]^[22] To enhance flexibility and processability without compromising rigidity, PVC is typically blended with additives, including plasticizers such as phthalates or adipates, which can constitute a significant portion of the formulation—often resulting in semi-rigid compounds suitable for cards. Common additives also include UV stabilizers to protect against degradation from sunlight exposure, dyes for coloration, and fillers like calcium carbonate to reduce costs, improve stiffness, and enhance overall mechanical strength. These modifications allow PVC to meet the demands of repeated bending and swiping while maintaining a smooth surface for personalization.^[21]^[23]^[24] For added protection and printability, plastic cards often incorporate overlays and laminates made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polycarbonate (PC). PET, a biaxially oriented polyester film, provides excellent flex and impact strength, making it ideal for composite structures like PVC-PET blends (typically 60% PVC and 40% PET), which offer superior resistance to cracking and environmental stress compared to pure PVC. Polycarbonate overlays, known for their exceptional toughness and abrasion resistance, are used in high-security applications, supporting features like laser etching while ensuring long-term durability of up to 5-10 years. Both materials enhance the card's surface for ink adhesion and lamination, contributing to vibrant, fade-resistant designs.^[25]^[22]^[26] Key physical properties of PVC-based plastic cards include a tensile strength of 40-60 MPa, which supports resistance to tearing and deformation under normal use. Thermal stability allows continuous operation up to approximately 60°C, with higher short-term tolerance in formulated compounds to prevent warping during printing or exposure to heat sources. PVC also exhibits strong fire resistance, characterized by a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 47, enabling self-extinguishing behavior and low flame spread (flame spread index of 5-25), which is critical for safety in applications like identification badges.^[27]^[21]^[28] As environmental concerns grow, alternatives like polylactic acid (PLA), a bio-based polymer derived from renewable sources such as corn starch, are emerging for eco-friendly plastic cards. PLA offers compostability under industrial conditions, releasing only CO₂ upon incineration, but its adoption remains limited due to lower durability, including fragility, reduced heat resistance (glass transition around 60°C), and challenges in achieving sufficient impact strength for high-use scenarios. These issues often necessitate hybrid designs, though pure PLA variants are gaining traction in sustainable payment card programs.^[29]^[30]^[31]

International Standards

International standards for plastic cards establish uniform specifications for physical dimensions, recording techniques, and security features to ensure global interoperability, durability, and safety in applications such as payment and identification. The ISO/IEC 7810 standard defines the physical characteristics of identification cards, specifying four primary formats: ID-1 (nominal dimensions 85.60 mm × 53.98 mm, with tolerances for unused cards of 85.47–85.72 mm width and 53.92–54.03 mm height), ID-2 (105 mm × 74 mm), ID-3 (125 mm × 88 mm), and ID-000 (a smaller variant related to ID-1).^[32] The ID-1 format serves as the de facto standard for most payment and identification cards due to its compact size and compatibility with card readers.^[32] These standards also outline construction requirements, including thickness (nominal 0.76 mm, tolerances 0.68–0.84 mm) and rounded corner radii (2.88–3.48 mm), to promote consistent handling and resistance to environmental factors.^[32] For cards incorporating magnetic stripes, ISO/IEC 7811 provides detailed recording technique specifications across multiple parts, focusing on low- and high-coercivity stripes. It defines three tracks with specific densities and encoding schemes: Track 1 at 210 bits per inch (bpi) for alphanumeric data (up to 79 characters), Track 2 at 75 bpi for numeric data (up to 40 characters), and Track 3 at 210 bpi for numeric data (up to 107 characters).^[33] These parameters ensure reliable data readability and error detection through formats like start/stop sentinels and longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).^[33] High-coercivity variants (ISO/IEC 7811-6 and -7) enhance resistance to demagnetization, supporting secure data storage in modern environments.^[33] Smart plastic cards, which integrate microchips, adhere to ISO/IEC 7816 for electrical interfaces and communication protocols. This multipart standard covers physical contacts (e.g., eight gold-plated pads for power, ground, clock, and data lines) and the half-duplex transmission protocol using Application Protocol Data Units (APDUs). APDUs facilitate command-response exchanges between the card and reader, enabling operations like file selection and data authentication through standardized T=0 (byte-oriented) or T=1 (block-oriented) protocols. Compliance ensures seamless integration in contact-based systems, with voltage tolerances (typically 5V ±5%) and current limits to prevent damage. Regional and industry-specific standards build on these foundations to address security and compliance. EMVCo specifications, managed collaboratively by major payment schemes, define protocols for chip-enabled cards, including dynamic data authentication and cryptograms to verify card genuineness and prevent counterfeiting during transactions.^[34] Similarly, the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), version 4.0, mandates requirements for entities handling cardholder data, such as network segmentation, access controls, and regular vulnerability assessments to mitigate breach risks.^[35] These standards require certification through accredited labs, ensuring plastic cards meet cryptographic and procedural safeguards.^[35] Compliance with these standards is verified through rigorous testing outlined in ISO/IEC 10373, which includes mechanical durability assessments. Bend tests evaluate flexural endurance by subjecting cards to repeated cyclic loading (e.g., dynamic bending in multiple directions) without delamination or functional failure, simulating everyday wallet use.^[36] Abrasion resistance tests measure surface durability against frictional wear, ensuring printed or magnetic elements remain intact after exposure to simulated handling conditions.^[36] These evaluations confirm that compliant cards maintain integrity over their lifecycle, with no visible defects post-testing.^[36]

Manufacturing

Production Processes

The production of plastic cards begins with the preparation of raw PVC sheets through extrusion and calendaring processes. In extrusion, PVC resin is melted at temperatures ranging from 180°C to 200°C and forced through a die to form a continuous sheet, which is then cooled and passed through calendering rolls to achieve the precise thickness of 0.76 mm required for standard cards. Similar processes are used for other materials like polycarbonate or PET, with adjustments to temperatures and pressures as needed.^[37]^[38] This method ensures uniformity and flexibility in the base material, adhering to ID-1 size specifications. Following sheet formation, printing applies graphics, text, and security elements using techniques such as offset lithography for high-volume runs, thermal transfer for variable data, or inkjet for on-demand production. Inks are often cured with ultraviolet (UV) light to enhance adhesion and durability on the PVC surface, preventing fading or scratching during use.^[39]^[40] Lamination then bonds multiple layers—typically a printed core sheet between protective overlays—under controlled heat and pressure, around 120°C and 5-10 MPa, to create a durable, multi-layered structure. This step embeds components like magnetic stripes or contact chips into the card body, ensuring secure integration without compromising surface integrity.^[41]^[42] After lamination, encoding personalizes the cards by programming magnetic stripes or initializing embedded chips with user data, performed via automated readers/writers to comply with standards like ISO 7811 for stripes.^[40]^[43] High-volume production utilizes automated assembly lines, capable of yielding up to 1,000 cards per hour, enabling efficient scaling for applications like payment and identification cards.^[44]

Quality Control and Testing

Quality control and testing in plastic card manufacturing involve rigorous procedures to verify that cards meet standards for durability, functionality, and security, ensuring reliability in applications like payment and identification. These processes occur both inline during production and post-manufacturing, using a combination of automated systems and standardized test methods to minimize defects and non-compliance. Visual inspection is a primary step, focusing on print alignment, color accuracy, and surface defects such as bubbles, scratches, or misprints. Automated optical systems, capable of processing over 60,000 cards per hour, employ high-resolution cameras and image processing software to detect these issues in real time, verifying elements like magnetic stripe placement and variable data integrity.^[45] Such systems integrate with production lines to flag and reject faulty cards, maintaining high throughput while reducing human error.^[46] Durability tests assess the card's ability to withstand physical stress, as outlined in ISO/IEC 7810 for physical characteristics and ISO/IEC 10373-1 for test methods. Bend tests involve subjecting cards to repeated deflections along specified axes, simulating everyday handling, with equipment supporting up to 999,999 cycles at 30-60 cycles per minute to evaluate resistance to deformation or delamination.^[47] Abrasion resistance is evaluated through rub tests using soft erasers or sandpaper to mimic wear from wallets or pockets, ensuring printed surfaces and magnetic stripes remain intact after exposure.^[48] These tests confirm the card's structural integrity under mechanical stress, with failure criteria including visible damage or loss of functionality. Functional checks verify operational performance of embedded features. For cards with magnetic stripes, readability is tested by measuring the signal amplitude during data retrieval, requiring a minimum of approximately 52% of the upper range for reliable decoding to prevent read errors in terminals.^[49] Smart card chips undergo contact resistance measurements, ensuring values below 0.1 ohms (typically under 1 ohm) to guarantee efficient electrical connectivity without signal loss.^[50] Batch sampling employs statistical process control (SPC) techniques to monitor production variability, using control charts to track metrics like thickness and print quality. Non-compliant batches are rejected based on predefined criteria, such as exceeding allowable defect thresholds, to uphold overall quality. Certification processes include third-party audits for standards like EMV Level 1 compliance, conducted by accredited laboratories to validate mechanical, electrical, and protocol interfaces on chip cards.^[51] These audits use standardized tools to simulate terminal interactions, ensuring cards perform securely in global payment ecosystems without direct involvement from certifying bodies like EMVCo.

Classification

By Physical Design

Plastic cards are primarily classified by their physical dimensions and structural features as outlined in the international standard ISO/IEC 7810, which defines form factors to ensure compatibility and usability across various contexts.^[32] The ID-1 format, measuring 85.60 mm by 53.98 mm with a nominal thickness of 0.76 mm, represents the most prevalent size, akin to standard credit cards and widely adopted for its portability and uniformity.^[6] Larger variants include the ID-2 format at 105 mm by 74 mm, commonly employed for badges requiring more space for information, and the ID-3 format at 125 mm by 88 mm, which approximates passport booklet dimensions for official documents.^[6] A smaller option, the ID-000 format at 25 mm by 15 mm with a beveled corner, serves niche purposes where compactness is essential, such as integrated mini-components.^[6] Structural variations enhance functionality without altering core dimensions. Embossing raises characters or numbers on the surface, enabling tactile identification for users with visual impairments, a feature rooted in early card designs for accessibility. Slots or punched holes, typically along an edge, allow attachment to keychains, lanyards, or clips, facilitating secure carrying and quick access. Layered construction distinguishes basic single-layer cards, made from uniform polyvinyl chloride (PVC), from multi-layer composites that incorporate a core sheet sandwiched between protective overlays; the latter bolsters security by resisting delamination and tampering, to accommodate printing and durability needs.^[52] Custom physical designs, while uncommon due to the need for compliance with ISO standards, include foldable cards that bend along a central crease to fit wallets or pockets compactly, often used for temporary memberships. Biodegradable variants, formulated from modified PVC or plant-based polymers, offer environmental benefits but remain rare in high-security applications owing to potential deviations from rigidity requirements. For instance, standard debit cards adhere strictly to the ID-1 format for seamless integration with readers, whereas employee badges frequently utilize the ID-2 size with integrated clips or slots for attachment to clothing or accessories. The ID-1 format's widespread adoption traces back to the 1980s standardization for financial transactions. Multi-layer constructions, as explored in materials science, enhance tamper-evident properties essential for secure designs.^[53]

By Embedded Technology

Plastic cards are classified by the type of embedded technology used for data storage, processing, and interaction with readers, which determines their functionality, security, and application suitability. Non-electronic cards rely on visible printed or embossed information, while electronic variants incorporate magnetic, chip, or radio-frequency elements to enable automated data handling. This classification highlights trade-offs in cost, durability, and protection against unauthorized access, with advancements driven by standards from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).^[54] Non-electronic plastic cards contain no integrated circuits or magnetic elements, depending entirely on surface-printed text, barcodes, or embossing for data representation. These cards adhere to ISO/IEC 7810 standards for physical characteristics, including the common ID-1 format measuring 85.60 mm by 53.98 mm with a nominal thickness of 0.76 mm, ensuring compatibility with standard holders and readers. Basic membership or loyalty cards exemplify this type, where information like member IDs or expiration dates is visually encoded without electronic processing capabilities.^[32] Their simplicity makes them inexpensive to produce but limits them to low-security uses, as data cannot be dynamically verified or updated.^[7] Magnetic stripe cards embed a thin strip of magnetizable material on the reverse side, divided into up to three parallel tracks for storing encoded data. Governed by the ISO/IEC 7811 series, track 1 uses 210 bits per inch (bpi) encoding with 7-bit alphanumeric characters (up to 79 characters including start/stop sentinels and parity), track 2 employs 75 bpi with 5-bit numeric characters (up to 40 characters), and track 3 applies 210 bpi with 5-bit numeric characters (up to 107 characters). This allows storage of details like account numbers and expiration dates for swipe-based reading. However, the static nature of the data renders these cards susceptible to skimming, where portable devices capture information during legitimate swipes, enabling fraudulent cloning.^[55]^[56]^[57] Chip-based contact smart cards integrate a microcontroller or memory chip connected through eight gold-plated contacts on the card's surface, facilitating secure electrical interaction with readers. These conform to ISO/IEC 7816, which defines the contact interface, electrical characteristics, and transmission protocols for half-duplex communication at up to 9600 baud initially, scalable higher. The embedded chip typically provides 1-64 KB of EEPROM storage for user data, applications, and cryptographic keys, enabling dynamic authentication and transaction processing far beyond static storage. Widely adopted in EMV-compliant payment systems, they generate unique codes per transaction to mitigate replay attacks.^[58]^[54]^[59] Contactless cards, often RFID or NFC-enabled, embed an antenna and chip that communicate wirelessly via electromagnetic fields without physical contact. Operating at 13.56 MHz under ISO/IEC 14443 for proximity cards (Type A or B), they support data rates from 106 kbit/s to 848 kbit/s and achieve read ranges up to 10 cm, powered inductively by the reader's field. This enables rapid, touch-free operations, as seen in transit cards like those for fare collection, where stored value or tickets are updated in milliseconds. The standard ensures interoperability while incorporating basic anti-collision protocols for multiple cards in proximity.^[60]^[54] Hybrid dual-interface cards combine contact and contactless technologies within one module, allowing the same chip to interface via ISO/IEC 7816 contacts or ISO/IEC 14443 radio frequencies. The dual setup uses a shared processor and memory, with an antenna embedded alongside the contacts, supporting seamless switching based on the reader type. This versatility suits multifaceted applications, such as e-passports or multi-use payment cards that require both high-security contact verification and convenient contactless tapping. Production involves precise lamination to align the antenna without compromising contact durability.^[61]^[62]

Applications

Financial and Payment

Plastic cards play a central role in financial transactions, primarily through credit, debit, prepaid, and gift variants that facilitate electronic payments without the need for physical currency. These cards enable secure, convenient monetary exchanges at point-of-sale terminals, online platforms, and automated teller machines, supporting global commerce by linking to bank accounts or pre-funded balances. Issued by financial institutions, they adhere to standardized protocols for authorization and settlement, processing trillions in value annually. Credit and debit cards, issued by banks and financial entities, allow users to access credit lines or linked deposit accounts for purchases and withdrawals. These cards incorporate a magnetic stripe for swiping or an EMV chip for dipping, which generates dynamic data for authorization via networks like Visa and Mastercard.^[63] The EMV chip enhances security by creating unique transaction codes, reducing fraud compared to static magnetic stripe data. Prepaid and gift cards are preloaded with a fixed amount of funds, bypassing credit checks and often designed as non-reloadable for one-time use. They operate like debit cards but without tying to a traditional bank account, making them accessible for unbanked individuals or as gifting options.^[64] No credit history is required for issuance, and funds are deducted directly from the card's balance during transactions.^[65] A typical transaction flow involves swiping the magnetic stripe, dipping the EMV chip, or tapping for contactless payment at a terminal, which triggers an ISO 8583 message containing card details, amount, and merchant information. This message routes from the merchant's acquirer to the card network (e.g., Visa or Mastercard) and then to the issuing bank for real-time approval or decline, with responses often under one second.^[66]^[67] Globally, plastic cards drive billions of transactions each year, with Visa processing 233.8 billion in fiscal 2024 alone, contributing to a total payments volume of $13.2 trillion. Contactless adoption has surged, reaching approximately 60% of in-store transactions in the United States and over 85% of retail transactions in Europe as of 2025, reflecting a shift toward faster, chip-enabled interactions.^[68]^[69]^[70] Integration with digital wallets exemplifies evolving usage, as users provision physical plastic credit or debit cards to services like Apple Pay via the Wallet app, entering card details for secure tokenization and mobile tap payments.^[71]

Identification and Access Control

Plastic cards serve as essential tools for identity verification and controlling physical or digital access to secure environments, offering durability, portability, and integration with various technologies to authenticate users without financial transactions. Government-issued identification cards, such as national driver's licenses, are constructed from robust plastic materials and typically include a photograph, personal details like name and date of birth, and a barcode or PDF417 two-dimensional barcode for automated scanning. These features enable quick verification for legal purposes, including age confirmation at restricted venues and proof of identity for official services. In the United States, for instance, Florida's driver's licenses incorporate machine-readable barcodes alongside security elements to facilitate identity checks while deterring counterfeiting.^[72]^[73] Access control cards, frequently in the form of proximity cards utilizing 125 kHz low-frequency RFID technology, allow users to gain entry to buildings or facilities by waving the card near a reader, eliminating the need for physical contact. These plastic cards transmit unique identifiers to electronic locks, ensuring only authorized personnel can pass. They are commonly deployed in corporate offices for door access and in hospitality settings as key fobs for hotel rooms, where RFID enables efficient, keyless entry management. HID's 125 kHz proximity cards exemplify this application, providing reliable short-range detection for secure environments.^[74]^[75] Advancements in biometric integration have elevated plastic cards' security by embedding fingerprint sensors directly into the card or linking them to smartphone apps for hybrid verification. Such cards perform on-board matching of biometric data, reducing reliance on external databases and enhancing privacy during authentication for physical access. The SentryCard, a fingerprint-enabled smart card, exemplifies this by storing encrypted biometric templates within its chip for use in identification and entry systems.^[76] Similarly, match-on-card systems verify fingerprints against stored data on the plastic medium itself, supporting applications like secure facility entry.^[77] Widespread adoption underscores the role of plastic cards in organizational security; a 2023 ASIS International survey revealed that 68% of organizations require ID cards to be visibly displayed at all times, highlighting their integral use in access management. Employee badges, featuring photo ID and barcodes, are standard for verifying staff identity and granting internal access to workspaces. Student cards, similarly constructed from plastic with embedded photos, enable campus entry to libraries, dormitories, and events, promoting controlled movement in educational institutions.^[78]^[79]^[80]

Security Features

Non-Electronic Features

Non-electronic security features on plastic cards encompass passive visual, tactile, and optical elements that enhance authenticity verification without electronic components. These features, often integrated during lamination processes, provide overt and covert protections against counterfeiting by exploiting printing complexities and material properties that are difficult to replicate using standard duplication methods.^[81] They are commonly employed in financial, identification, and access control applications to allow manual or simple tool-based inspection. Holograms serve as optically variable devices (OVDs) that display three-dimensional images or patterns visible under normal light, with additional elements revealed upon tilting or viewing from different angles. These laminated features, such as kinegrams or phase gratings, create complex optical effects that complicate replication due to their intricate interference patterns and integration into the card's plastic layers. For instance, a clear holographic image bonded to the card's surface can include personalized designs, making tampering evident through misalignment or distortion.^[81]^[82] Guilloché patterns consist of fine, interwoven geometric lines forming intricate, often asymmetrical designs printed using intaglio techniques, which produce a raised or engraved effect. Generated by mathematical formulas, these multi-color patterns appear as animated waves or cords that blur or distort when photocopied or scanned, rendering high-fidelity reproduction nearly impossible without specialized equipment. This overt visual element deters casual counterfeiting by providing a verifiable complexity visible to the naked eye.^[83] Microprinting involves extremely small text, typically less than 0.3 mm in height, printed along card edges, borders, or within lines such as the signature area. To the unaided eye, it appears as a solid line or pattern, but under magnification, it resolves into legible words like account numbers or security phrases, which scanners or copiers reproduce as illegible smudges. This feature verifies authenticity in payment and ID cards, catching a significant portion of fakes during routine checks.^[84]^[85] UV inks and watermarks offer covert security through materials invisible under normal lighting but detectable with ultraviolet light or specific viewing conditions. UV inks fluoresce to reveal hidden images, text, or patterns, often applied via specialized printer ribbons during production, while watermarks create translucent overlays or embedded designs like frost-like patterns across the card surface. These elements, used in government and financial cards, confirm genuineness without altering the card's everyday appearance.^[86]^[87] Embossing raises characters, such as account numbers, through mechanical pressure on the plastic surface, providing a tactile texture for manual verification and ensuring data durability against wear or erasure. This irreversible process creates positive or negative relief patterns that resist alteration without visible damage, enhancing reliability in scenarios requiring physical handling, like point-of-sale transactions.^[88]^[89]

Electronic and Digital Features

Electronic and digital features in plastic cards primarily revolve around integrated microchips and wireless interfaces that enable secure data processing, authentication, and transaction validation, distinguishing them from passive magnetic stripe technologies. These features leverage cryptographic protocols to protect against fraud, such as skimming and counterfeiting, by generating dynamic data elements during interactions rather than static information. EMV chips, embedded in payment cards, exemplify this by employing symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms to facilitate secure communications between the card, terminal, and issuer systems.^[90] EMV chips utilize Triple Data Encryption Standard (Triple DES) with effective key lengths of 112 bits for symmetric encryption or Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) algorithms with key lengths ranging from 1024 to 2048 bits for asymmetric operations, enabling dynamic authentication through challenge-response mechanisms that produce unique cryptograms for each transaction. This approach significantly reduces skimming risks, as cloned cards cannot replicate the one-time dynamic data required for validation, unlike static magnetic stripe data. The cryptograms, such as the Authorization Request Cryptogram (ARQC), are generated using session keys derived from the card's master keys, ensuring that even if physical data is intercepted, it remains unusable without the cryptographic context.^[91]^[92]^[93] Personal Identification Number (PIN) integration enhances cardholder verification within the EMV framework through offline and online methods, governed by Cardholder Verification Methods (CVM) lists stored on the chip. Offline PIN verification allows the card to cryptographically compare the entered PIN against a stored value without network connectivity, using enciphered or plaintext formats depending on the card's configuration, while online PIN routes the verification to the issuer for real-time authentication via encrypted channels. The CVM list prioritizes methods—such as offline PIN, online PIN, signature, or no CVM—based on transaction risk and terminal capabilities, with fallback to higher-assurance options if lower ones fail, thereby balancing security and usability.^[94]^[95]^[96] Contactless capabilities in plastic cards rely on Near Field Communication (NFC) for proximity-based interactions, incorporating mutual authentication protocols where the card and reader exchange cryptographic challenges to verify each other's legitimacy before data transfer. This process uses EMV-compliant cryptograms over NFC to prevent relay attacks and eavesdropping, with transaction limits typically up to $100 or higher in the US as of 2025, varying by issuer and region, imposed to restrict no-PIN (or no-CVM) transactions, requiring additional verification like online PIN for higher amounts to mitigate fraud exposure.^[97]^[98]^[99] Digital signatures in smart card-based plastic cards are implemented via Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), where the card's private key signs data hashes to ensure non-repudiation and integrity during applications like identification or secure access. Typically, the Secure Hash Algorithm-256 (SHA-256) generates a fixed-length digest of the data, which is then encrypted with the private key to form the signature; recipients verify it using the corresponding public key from a trusted certificate authority, confirming that the data has not been altered in transit. This PKI framework is integral to smart cards for scenarios requiring verifiable electronic attestations, such as e-government IDs or corporate access tokens.^[100]^[101]^[102] Anti-tampering mechanisms in plastic card chips include self-destruct features that erase sensitive keys or data upon detecting physical or logical breaches, such as voltage glitches or probing attempts, to prevent key extraction by attackers. These chips often incorporate tamper-detection sensors and logic that trigger zeroization—overwriting memory with random data—while some advanced implementations log intrusion attempts in non-volatile memory for forensic analysis by issuers. Such protections, rooted in hardware security modules, ensure that compromised cards render useless for fraudulent use, enhancing overall system resilience.^[103]^[104]^[105]

Environmental and Future Considerations

Sustainability and Recycling

The production of plastic cards, primarily using polyvinyl chloride (PVC), contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. PVC manufacturing emits approximately 1.9 kg of CO₂ equivalent per kg of material, driven by energy-intensive processes such as chlorine production and polymerization.^[106] With global production reaching about 37 billion cards annually in 2019 (latest comprehensive estimate), this sector generates substantial carbon footprints, equivalent to approximately 0.3 million tons of CO₂ yearly based on that volume.^[107] Additionally, discarded plastic cards add to the broader issue of microplastic pollution, as they degrade into tiny fragments that enter soil, water, and food chains, exacerbating environmental contamination.^[108] Recycling plastic cards faces major barriers due to their composite construction, including embedded chips, metallic elements, and laminates that complicate material separation. Globally, only a small fraction—estimated at less than 10% for plastics overall, with even lower rates for multi-material items like cards—is effectively recycled, leading to most ending up in landfills or incinerators. These challenges result in persistent waste accumulation, with PVC's chlorine content posing risks of toxic releases during improper disposal.^[109]^[110] Current recycling methods for plastic cards include mechanical processes, where PVC is shredded and processed at temperatures around 200°C to produce recycled pellets for reuse in lower-grade products. Chemical depolymerization offers a more advanced approach, breaking down PVC into monomers like vinyl chloride for high-quality repolymerization, though it remains limited by cost and scalability. These techniques aim to recover value from post-consumer cards, but adoption is hindered by collection inefficiencies.^[111]^[112] Regulatory frameworks are evolving to address these issues, with national implementations of the European Union's Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive, such as Germany's ElektroG, applying to electronic components in chip cards and mandating producer responsibility for collection and recycling in those jurisdictions.^[113] At the EU level, smart cards are generally excluded from the WEEE Directive's scope.^[114] Calls for broader PVC phase-outs by 2030 in regions like the EU emphasize reducing hazardous additives and promoting circular alternatives, though full bans remain under advocacy rather than enforcement as of 2025. In parallel, industry reports highlight progress, such as the International Card Manufacturers Association noting increased focus on sustainable practices since 2021, with projections for recycled plastic volumes in the sector growing by around 10% annually through 2025 (as of 2022 estimates) amid rising demand for eco-friendly materials.^[115]^[116]

Emerging Trends and Innovations

The global plastic cards market, encompassing payment, identification, and loyalty cards, was valued at USD 20.86 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.20% through 2032, driven by post-COVID recovery in contactless payments and rising demand for secure digital integration.^[117] This acceleration reflects a rebound from pandemic disruptions, with key drivers including expanded e-commerce and mobile wallet adoption, positioning the sector for sustained expansion amid hybrid physical-digital ecosystems.^[117] Advancements in biometrics are enhancing plastic card functionality through embedded sensors, such as fingerprint scanners costing under USD 5 per unit, enabling secure authentication without external devices.^[118] The biometric card market is expected to reach USD 1.01 billion in 2025, surging at a 62.46% CAGR to USD 11.43 billion by 2030, as hybrid dual-interface cards combine contact and contactless modes for versatile applications in payments and access control.^[118] Concurrently, the sector is shifting toward phone-based digital wallets, with global users projected to increase from 4.5 billion in 2025 to over 6 billion by 2030, representing more than 70% adoption among the world's population and diminishing reliance on physical cards for everyday transactions.^[119]^[120] Sustainable innovations are addressing environmental concerns by introducing compostable alternatives to traditional PVC-based cards, such as the Convego Natural Card made from renewable plant fibers like polylactic acid (PLA) or cellulose, which fully decomposes under industrial composting conditions and reduces energy use by 65% and greenhouse gas emissions by 68% compared to conventional options.^[121] Pilots like the Half SIM card demonstrate feasibility by using 50% less plastic, making it 40% lighter and lowering transport-related CO2 emissions, while fully recycled PVC variants, such as the Convego Recycled Card, eliminate virgin plastic entirely in card bodies.^[121] These developments, including ocean-recovered plastic in the Convego Parley Ocean Card launched in 2021, signal a broader industry pivot toward circular materials without compromising ISO compliance or durability. As of 2023, smart payment card shipments totaled 3.2 billion units.^[121]^[122] Blockchain integration is emerging as a key enabler for secure, decentralized verification in smart plastic cards, combining tamper-proof distributed ledgers with embedded chips to authenticate identities and transactions in real-time.^[123] This hybrid approach, as outlined in industry analyses, enhances supply chain applications by enabling cryptographic recording of card-based data flows, reducing fraud in areas like logistics and credentialing without centralized intermediaries.^[124] For instance, blockchain-smart card systems facilitate secure storage of digital assets on physical cards, supporting applications from national ID management to contactless payments with immutable audit trails.^[123] Despite these innovations, the plastic card sector faces challenges from the rapid decline in physical card usage due to digital alternatives, as evidenced by the measured pace of disruption where traditional cards persist but lose ground to seamless mobile ecosystems.^[125] However, growth persists in secure ID sectors, with the global personal ID market reaching approximately USD 10.6 billion in 2025 at a 2.4% CAGR, fueled by demand for biometric-enhanced electronic passports and multifunction IDs that integrate with digital wallets.^[126] This resilience underscores a future where plastic cards evolve into niche, high-security tools amid broader digitization.^[126]

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Mar 31, 2021 · G+D uses recycled PVC, plant fibers, and ocean plastic for payment cards. Some cards are compostable, and the Convego Parley Ocean card uses ...Missing: cellulose | Show results with:cellulose<|separator|>
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[PDF] Integrating Blockchain and Smart Card Technologies for Secure ...
Jun 30, 2025 · Smart cards bring in a physical barrier that helps limit access to only those who are authorized, while blockchain makes it much harder to ...Missing: plastic | Show results with:plastic
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[PDF] Blockchain and Smart Card Technology
2 Blockchains can be used as distributed ledgers that allow financial (and other) transactions to be recorded and verified cryptographically without the ...
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Physical Cards Endure as Digital Payments Progress Slows, Banks ...
Oct 12, 2025 · The broader wallet ecosystem continues to grow incrementally, but the pace of disruption remains measured, and traditional banks are positioned ...
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The Future of Personal ID to 2025 | Market Reports and Trends
Security printing of personal IDs will reach $9.63 billion in 2020, and grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2.5% to reach $10.90 billion in 2025.