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Pneumonectomy

A pneumonectomy is a major thoracic surgical procedure that involves the complete removal of one lung, with types including standard, completion, intrapericardial, and extrapleural variants, typically performed to treat advanced lung malignancies or other severe pulmonary conditions. Pneumonectomy accounts for approximately 5-9% of all lung cancer resections, with its incidence declining due to advances in staging and less invasive surgical options.^[1] It is most commonly indicated for central or locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), where the tumor's location or extent necessitates en bloc resection to achieve curative intent, as well as for aggressive mesotheliomas, severe inflammatory diseases like bronchiectasis, or traumatic injuries such as tracheobronchial disruptions.^[2] First successfully performed in 1933 by American surgeon Evarts A. Graham on a patient with lung carcinoma, the procedure marked a milestone in thoracic surgery and has since evolved with improvements in anesthesia, imaging, and minimally invasive techniques.^[2] The surgery is generally conducted via a posterolateral thoracotomy incision in the fourth or fifth intercostal space, allowing access to mobilize the lung, ligate and divide the pulmonary artery, vein, and mainstem bronchus, and remove the lung while ensuring hemostasis and air-tight closure of the bronchial stump to prevent complications like bronchopleural fistula.^[2] Less invasive options, such as video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) or robotic-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (RATS), are emerging for highly select, non-complex cases to reduce recovery time and postoperative pain, though open thoracotomy remains the standard approach for most pneumonectomies.^[2]^[3] Preoperative evaluation is critical, assessing pulmonary function (e.g., FEV1 and DLCO >40% predicted), cardiac status, and exercise capacity (VO2 max >10-15 mL/kg/min) to minimize risks, with contraindications including advanced age, severe comorbidities like pulmonary hypertension, or inadequate respiratory reserve.^[2] Postoperatively, patients require intensive care unit monitoring for cardiac arrhythmias (e.g., atrial fibrillation in the first three days), post-pneumonectomy pulmonary edema (occurring in 2-5% on days 2-3), and other complications, with conservative fluid management and multimodal analgesia aiding recovery; hospital stays typically last 5-7 days for open procedures.^[2]^[3] Overall 90-day mortality rates vary from 5-10%, influenced by factors like right-sided surgery and patient comorbidities, underscoring the procedure's high-risk profile despite its potential for long-term survival in eligible candidates.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Types

A pneumonectomy is a major thoracic surgical procedure involving the complete removal of one entire lung, either the right or left, typically performed under general anesthesia through a thoracic incision such as a posterolateral thoracotomy.^[2] This operation is the most extensive form of lung resection and requires meticulous management of the hilar structures, including the ligation and division of the pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, and mainstem bronchus to isolate and excise the lung from the mediastinum.^[2] The procedure fundamentally alters pulmonary function by eliminating the affected lung's contribution to ventilation and gas exchange.^[4] Several variations of pneumonectomy exist, each tailored to specific anatomical or pathological requirements while preserving as much function as possible where feasible. Standard pneumonectomy entails the straightforward en bloc removal of the entire lung without additional structures, focusing on ligation of the hilar vessels and bronchial stump closure.^[2] Extrapleural pneumonectomy extends this by resecting the lung along with the ipsilateral parietal and visceral pleura, portions of the pericardium, and the hemidiaphragm, often necessitating reconstruction of the diaphragm and pericardium.^[5] Completion pneumonectomy involves the removal of the remaining lung parenchyma following a prior ipsilateral partial resection, such as a lobectomy, to address recurrent or new pathology in the residual tissue.^[6] Sleeve pneumonectomy combines lung removal with a circumferential resection of a segment of the main bronchus (bronchial sleeve) and subsequent end-to-end anastomosis to reconstruct the airway, particularly applicable to lesions involving the proximal bronchus.^[2] Anatomically, pneumonectomy differs between the right and left sides due to inherent asymmetries in lung size and vascular anatomy. The right lung accounts for approximately 55% of total lung volume, compared to 45% for the left, owing to the right lung's three lobes versus the left's two, resulting in a greater functional impact from right-sided procedures.^[7] Hilar vessel ligation in both cases targets the pulmonary artery and veins at their origins, often performed intrapericardially for left pneumonectomy to access the more posterior left main pulmonary artery, while right-sided ligation may involve more anterior branches; this step is critical to prevent hemorrhage and ensure complete vascular isolation prior to bronchial division.^[2]

Epidemiology

Pneumonectomy procedures are estimated at approximately 1,500-2,000 annually in the United States, based on mid-2010s analyses of national cancer databases.^[8] Globally, incidence is higher in regions with elevated smoking rates, such as Europe and North America, where lung cancer burdens drive surgical volumes, though exact worldwide figures remain limited due to varying reporting standards.^[9] Demographically, pneumonectomy predominantly involves adults over 60 years old, with mean patient ages reported around 60-65 years across large cohorts.^[10] Approximately 57-84% of patients are male, a disparity largely linked to historical gender differences in smoking prevalence as a key risk factor for underlying lung pathology.^[11] Incidence among women has risen in recent decades, mirroring shifts in tobacco use patterns and increasing female lung cancer rates in high-income countries.^[9] Over time, the frequency of pneumonectomy has declined since the 1990s, dropping from roughly 20% of all lung cancer resections to 5-10% in contemporary practice as of the 2010s, driven by advancements favoring lung-sparing alternatives like lobectomy and sublobar resections.^[12] SEER database trends reflect this shift alongside improved 5-year survival outcomes for surgically treated lung cancer patients, rising from historical rates below 30% to around 40% in select early-stage pneumonectomy cohorts.^[13]^[9] Epidemiologically, pneumonectomy is most strongly associated with lung cancer, accounting for over 80% of cases in major series, particularly non-small cell lung cancer requiring extensive resection.^[2] Additional contributing factors include chronic infections (e.g., bronchiectasis or tuberculosis sequelae) and, less commonly, trauma, which together influence regional variations in procedure rates.^[14]

Indications and Patient Selection

Primary Indications

Pneumonectomy is most commonly indicated for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), particularly in stages I through IIIB where tumors are central or locally advanced, involving the main bronchus or the entire lobe, and lesser resections such as lobectomy are not feasible due to the extent of disease.^[2]^[12] In these cases, the procedure aims to achieve complete tumor removal when the malignancy precludes lung-sparing options, often in tumors with hilar or vascular invasion that limit alternative surgical approaches.^[15] Other malignancies may also necessitate pneumonectomy, including malignant pleural mesothelioma, where an extrapleural variant is employed to resect the entire lung along with the pleura, diaphragm, and pericardium for comprehensive tumor clearance in selected patients with localized disease.^[16] Additionally, it can be considered for metastatic disease confined to one lung, such as oligometastatic lesions from sarcomas or other primaries, when resection offers potential long-term survival benefits despite the procedure's risks.^[17] In non-malignant conditions, pneumonectomy is reserved for severe, localized lung destruction that impairs function or poses life-threatening risks, including advanced bronchiectasis with recurrent infections, fungal diseases like aspergillosis or aspergilloma causing massive hemoptysis, post-tuberculosis destroyed lung with fibrosis and cavitation, or irreparable damage from trauma such as massive pulmonary vascular injury.^[18]^[19]^[20] Patient selection emphasizes curative intent for resectable tumors, guided by criteria such as primary tumor size exceeding 5 cm, significant hilar lymph node involvement, or inadequate response to neoadjuvant therapy, ensuring the benefits outweigh the substantial postoperative morbidity.^[12]^[2] While overlapping with contraindications like severe cardiopulmonary comorbidity, these indications prioritize scenarios where pneumonectomy provides the best chance for disease control.

Contraindications

Pneumonectomy, while indicated for certain central lung tumors or extensive disease, is absolutely contraindicated in patients with poor predicted postoperative pulmonary reserve, such as a forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) less than 30% of predicted after surgery, as this significantly increases the risk of respiratory failure and mortality.^[21] Similarly, significant contralateral lung disease, including involvement of the opposite hemithorax, precludes the procedure due to insufficient remaining lung function to sustain life post-resection.^[16] Active untreated infections, such as uncontrolled bacterial or fungal processes in the lung, represent another absolute barrier, as they heighten the risk of perioperative sepsis and postoperative complications like empyema.^[22] Relative contraindications include advanced age greater than 80 years, particularly when coupled with frailty, though age alone does not preclude surgery if cardiopulmonary fitness is adequate.^[21] Comorbidities such as severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with FEV1 below 50% predicted or decompensated heart failure also render the procedure relatively inadvisable, as they amplify operative risks including cardiac strain and prolonged ventilation needs.^[21] Tumor invasion into critical structures like the aorta or esophagus further qualifies as a relative contraindication in select cases, depending on resectability and the balance of risks, often shifting toward nonsurgical management.^[16] Patient performance status plays a key role in eligibility; an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) score greater than 2 indicates limited functional capacity and is generally considered a relative contraindication for pneumonectomy due to poor tolerance of major thoracic surgery. Additionally, inability to tolerate single-lung ventilation during the procedure, often assessed preoperatively, may preclude safe execution, as it is essential for intraoperative lung isolation.^[2] When pneumonectomy is contraindicated, alternatives such as lobectomy or segmentectomy preserve more lung tissue and reduce physiological burden, while radiation therapy or palliative care may be pursued for symptom control and disease management in unfit patients.^[21]

Preoperative Assessment

Diagnostic Tests

Diagnostic tests play a crucial role in the preoperative evaluation for pneumonectomy, enabling confirmation of surgical indications such as lung cancer staging and assessment of patient suitability by evaluating tumor extent, lung function, cardiac status, and mediastinal involvement.^[23] Imaging modalities are essential for initial staging and anatomical assessment. Computed tomography (CT) of the chest and abdomen provides detailed visualization of tumor size, location, and nodal involvement, while integrated positron emission tomography-CT (PET-CT) enhances accuracy in detecting metastases, mediastinal lymph node involvement, and distant spread, guiding resectability decisions.^[24] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is particularly useful for evaluating potential vascular invasion, such as involvement of the aorta, pulmonary artery, or superior vena cava in central or superior sulcus tumors.^[25] Bronchoscopy allows direct visualization and biopsy of the airway to assess endobronchial extent, patency, and proximal margins, which is vital for planning resection in central lesions.^[26] Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) quantify baseline respiratory capacity and predict postoperative performance. Spirometry measures forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC), with post-bronchodilator values preferred to assess airflow obstruction; diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) evaluates gas exchange efficiency, serving as a stronger predictor of postoperative complications than FEV1 alone.^[27] Quantitative ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) scintigraphy further refines predictions by quantifying regional lung perfusion; the predicted postoperative FEV1 (ppoFEV1) is calculated as preoperative FEV1 multiplied by the percentage of perfusion to the remaining lung from the scan, helping identify patients at risk for respiratory insufficiency after pneumonectomy.^[27] Cardiac evaluation addresses the heightened risk of perioperative events, particularly in patients with chronic lung disease. Transthoracic echocardiography assesses left ventricular function, pulmonary artery pressures, and right ventricular strain to screen for cor pulmonale or pulmonary hypertension, which can be exacerbated by lung resection.^[28] Stress testing, such as dobutamine stress echocardiography or exercise treadmill testing, evaluates myocardial ischemia and functional capacity in intermediate- to high-risk patients per revised cardiac risk indices.^[29] Invasive procedures confirm mediastinal staging when imaging suggests nodal involvement. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) samples mediastinal and hilar nodes with high sensitivity for N2/N3 disease, often preferred as the initial invasive method due to its minimally invasive nature.^[30] Mediastinoscopy provides surgical access for biopsy of paratracheal and subcarinal nodes, recommended when EBUS is negative but suspicion remains high based on CT or PET findings.^[31]

Risk Evaluation

Risk evaluation for pneumonectomy involves integrating preoperative data from various assessments to quantify perioperative mortality and morbidity risks, enabling informed decision-making and patient counseling. Specialized risk models, such as the Thoracoscore and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) risk calculator for pulmonary resection, are employed to stratify patients based on factors including age, comorbidities (e.g., coronary artery disease), and pulmonary function metrics like forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1).^[32]^[33] The Thoracoscore, validated in large cohorts undergoing thoracic procedures, predicts in-hospital mortality by incorporating procedure complexity and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score, with higher scores indicating elevated risk.^[34] Similarly, the STS model uses contemporary data from over 140,000 patients to estimate operative mortality and complications, adjusting for cancer stage and body surface area.^[33] A key component of risk stratification is estimating predicted postoperative (ppo) lung function, particularly ppoFEV1, which is calculated using preoperative spirometry and quantitative perfusion data from ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) scans to account for the resected lung's contribution.^[35] A ppoFEV1 greater than 40% of predicted is generally associated with low surgical risk for pneumonectomy, while values below 30% signal high risk of respiratory failure and are used to guide candidacy.^[35] These thresholds, derived from guidelines like those from the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP), help clinicians balance oncologic benefits against postoperative disability.^[35] Multidisciplinary evaluation synthesizes these models with clinical input from pulmonologists, oncologists, and anesthesiologists to assess overall suitability. Pulmonologists evaluate respiratory reserve, oncologists weigh tumor characteristics against surgical feasibility, and anesthesiologists address anesthesia-related risks, ensuring a holistic risk profile.^[36] Exercise testing further gauges functional capacity; the 6-minute walk test (6MWT) provides a simple measure, with distances below 300 meters preoperatively correlating with increased postoperative pneumonia risk. For more precise assessment, especially in borderline cases, cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) measures peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak); values greater than 20 mL/kg/min indicate low risk, 10-20 mL/kg/min moderate risk, and below 10 mL/kg/min high risk of complications.^[36]^[37] Patient-specific modifiable factors are optimized during this evaluation to mitigate risks. Smoking cessation at least 4 weeks prior to surgery reduces pulmonary complications by improving airway function and reducing infection rates, with longer abstinence periods yielding greater benefits.^[38] Nutritional status, assessed via tools like the Controlling Nutritional Status (CONUT) score, is critical; malnutrition independently predicts infectious complications and mortality post-pneumonectomy, prompting preoperative supplementation if indicated.^[39] Psychological readiness is also addressed, as preoperative distress exacerbates symptom burden and recovery challenges, with interventions like counseling enhancing patient engagement and outcomes.^[40] The culmination of risk evaluation determines management pathways: low-risk patients proceed to surgery, while high-risk individuals may be referred for lung transplantation if eligible for end-stage disease or directed toward nonsurgical alternatives such as stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) or systemic therapy to avoid prohibitive operative hazards.^[41]^[42] This approach ensures tailored counseling on expected survival benefits and quality-of-life impacts.

Surgical Techniques

Open Thoracotomy Approach

The open thoracotomy approach remains the traditional and most widely used method for performing pneumonectomy, offering optimal exposure for complex hilar dissections and en bloc resections in cases of locally advanced lung cancer.^[2] This technique involves a larger incision compared to minimally invasive alternatives, but it is preferred when tumor invasion requires extensive manipulation or when video-assisted approaches are contraindicated.^[43] Preoperative setup emphasizes airway management and pain control to facilitate single-lung ventilation and postoperative recovery. A double-lumen endotracheal tube is inserted to isolate the operative lung, typically a left-sided tube unless the left mainstem bronchus is involved, with positioning confirmed via flexible bronchoscopy.^[2] Thoracic epidural analgesia is routinely placed preoperatively to provide effective postoperative pain relief, reducing the need for systemic opioids and aiding respiratory function; alternatives such as paravertebral blocks may be used if epidural placement is not feasible.^[2] The patient is positioned in the lateral decubitus with the operative side up, the table flexed to widen the intercostal spaces, and the ipsilateral arm elevated to avoid brachial plexus injury.^[44] A posterolateral thoracotomy incision is made along the fourth or fifth intercostal space, depending on the patient's anatomy and the need for superior or inferior extension, curving posteriorly along the latissimus dorsi and anteriorly toward the nipple line.^[2] The chest wall is entered by dividing the intercostal muscles, preserving the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi where possible to minimize postoperative pain and preserve muscle function for potential flap reconstruction.^[43] A Finochietto rib retractor is applied without excessive spreading to avoid rib fractures, providing access to the pleural cavity while mobilizing any adhesions along the lung's visceral pleura.^[2] Hilar dissection proceeds systematically to ensure vascular control and oncologic clearance. The inferior pulmonary ligament is divided first to mobilize the lung inferiorly, followed by individual ligation and division of the pulmonary veins—starting with the inferior vein—using vascular staplers or silk ties with transfixion sutures to prevent bleeding.^[43] The pulmonary artery is then isolated and ligated proximally, often requiring an intrapericardial approach for apical or adherent vessels: the pericardium is incised longitudinally posterior to the phrenic nerve, allowing dissection of the artery under the aortic arch on the left or medial to the superior vena cava on the right, with encircling using vascular loops for traction.^[45] Finally, the mainstem bronchus is dissected to within 0.5–1 cm of the carina, clamped to confirm the absence of contralateral spill, and divided using a linear stapler or interrupted non-absorbable sutures, ensuring a short stump to reduce tension and infection risk.^[44] Closure focuses on securing the bronchial stump and achieving hemostasis. The stump is reinforced with absorbable sutures, a pedicled intercostal muscle flap, or pericardial fat if there is concern for dehiscence, particularly in cases of neoadjuvant therapy or infection.^[43] The specimen is removed en bloc, the pleural space is irrigated to clear debris, and air leaks are tested by reinflating the remaining lung under water seal. A single large-bore chest tube is placed through a separate stab incision in the eighth intercostal space, connected to low suction or gravity drainage to monitor for air leaks or bleeding.^[2] The incision is closed in layers, with pericostal sutures to approximate the ribs and minimize chronic pain.^[44]

Minimally Invasive Approaches

Minimally invasive approaches to pneumonectomy, including video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) and robotic-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (RATS), represent advancements over traditional open thoracotomy by utilizing smaller incisions and endoscopic visualization to reduce surgical trauma.^[46] These techniques are particularly suited for selected cases of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) requiring complete lung removal, offering enhanced recovery while maintaining oncologic efficacy.^[47] Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) for pneumonectomy typically involves 3 to 4 small ports, including a 4- to 5-cm utility incision in the fourth or fifth intercostal space for instrument access and specimen extraction, with the thoracoscope providing visualization through one of the ports.^[48] This approach facilitates hilar dissection and vascular control using endoscopic staplers and instruments, making it suitable for peripheral tumors in early-stage disease where extensive mediastinal involvement is absent.^[49] The procedure emphasizes careful patient positioning in lateral decubitus to optimize port placement and lung deflation via double-lumen endotracheal intubation. Robotic-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (RATS) employs systems like the da Vinci platform, utilizing 3 to 4 ports for robotic arms that provide three-dimensional visualization and articulated instruments for precise hilar and mediastinal dissection.^[50] This enhances ergonomics and tremor filtration compared to conventional VATS, particularly in complex vascular maneuvers, though it often results in longer operative times due to setup and docking requirements.^[51] A utility incision similar to VATS is used for lung extraction post-resection.^[52] Patient selection for these minimally invasive techniques prioritizes individuals with early-stage NSCLC, good performance status (e.g., Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group score 0-1), adequate pulmonary reserve, and absence of dense adhesions or central tumors that could complicate endoscopic access.^[52] Conversion to open thoracotomy occurs in approximately 20% to 30% of cases, often due to bleeding, anatomical challenges, or incomplete visualization, with robotic approaches potentially lowering this risk through superior dexterity.^[53] Outcomes of minimally invasive pneumonectomy demonstrate reduced postoperative pain and shorter hospital stays (typically 5-7 days for minimally invasive versus 6-10 days for open approaches), alongside lower morbidity rates such as decreased blood loss and fewer pulmonary complications.^[54] Oncologic results, including overall survival, are equivalent to open surgery, with no compromise in lymph node retrieval or margin negativity in appropriately selected patients.^[47] However, these methods may incur higher upfront costs from specialized equipment.^[46]

Intraoperative and Immediate Postoperative Care

Procedure Steps

The pneumonectomy procedure begins with the induction of general anesthesia in the supine position, followed by repositioning to lateral decubitus for the targeted side. Single-lung ventilation is established using a double-lumen endobronchial tube, bronchial blocker, or single-lumen tube placed into the mainstem bronchus of the contralateral lung, with placement verified by flexible bronchoscopy to enable collapse of the operative lung and maintain adequate oxygenation. Continuous hemodynamic monitoring, including arterial and central venous pressures, is essential throughout to manage potential cardiovascular instability from lung manipulation and blood loss.^[2] Intraoperative exploration involves initial inspection of the thoracic cavity, either via thoracoscopy or direct open visualization, to assess for unexpected metastases, adhesions, or pleural involvement. Pleural lavage cytology is performed by instilling sterile saline into the pleural space and aspirating for cytologic examination, providing prognostic information on occult malignant cells. The lung is then mobilized by incising the pulmonary ligament and dissecting along pleural reflections, ensuring complete exposure of hilar structures while preserving adjacent tissues.^[2]^[55]^[56] Vascular control proceeds sequentially to minimize risks such as air embolism or bleeding: the inferior pulmonary ligament is divided to access the inferior pulmonary vein, which is isolated, ligated, or stapled first, followed by the superior pulmonary vein. The pulmonary artery branches are then carefully dissected and divided using vascular staplers or ties, starting with peripheral branches and progressing centrally, with the main pulmonary artery addressed last after venous control to prevent backflow. This order prioritizes hemodynamic stability and reduces operative complications.^[2]^[56]^[43] Bronchial transection follows vascular isolation, with the mainstem bronchus dissected circumferentially near the carina to achieve clear margins. The bronchus is divided using endoscopic staplers or hand-sewn sutures, and the stump is tested for air leaks via underwater seal or positive pressure ventilation to confirm airtight closure, often buttressed with pericardial fat or muscle flap if needed.^[2]^[56] The specimen is removed en bloc after complete hilar division, typically placed in a retrieval bag for extraction through the incision or port sites in minimally invasive cases. Hemostasis is meticulously ensured across the operative field, addressing any bleeding from raw surfaces or lymphatics. Mediastinal lymph node dissection is then performed, targeting stations 5 through 9 for left-sided procedures or equivalent ipsilateral levels, to facilitate staging and potential therapeutic benefit in malignancy cases.^[2]^[56]^[57]

Initial Recovery Protocols

Following pneumonectomy, patients are typically transferred to the intensive care unit (ICU) for close monitoring during the initial 24 to 48 hours to facilitate weaning from mechanical ventilation, maintain fluid balance, and manage pain through patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) or epidural infusions. This phase emphasizes hemodynamic stability, with continuous assessment of vital signs, cardiac rhythm, and oxygen saturation to address potential instability from the loss of lung tissue. Respiratory support begins immediately postoperatively, incorporating incentive spirometry to encourage deep breathing and early mobilization—often within 24 hours—to minimize the risk of atelectasis and promote lung expansion in the remaining lung. Chest tubes may be placed during surgery at the surgeon's discretion and, if placed, managed to drain air and fluid, with removal criteria generally including output less than 200 mL per day and no air leaks.^[2] Prophylactic measures are standard to prevent common early complications, including deep vein thrombosis (DVT) prevention with subcutaneous heparin or low-molecular-weight heparin starting within 24 hours, and perioperative antibiotics administered for 24 to 48 hours to reduce infection risk. Vigilance for arrhythmias is maintained through continuous ECG monitoring, given the stress on the cardiovascular system. Discharge from the hospital typically occurs after 7 to 10 days, once vital signs are stable, pain is adequately controlled with oral medications, and the patient demonstrates independent mobility.

Physiological and Anatomical Changes

Respiratory Adaptations

Following pneumonectomy, the remaining lung undergoes significant compensatory hyperinflation, shifting into the empty hemithorax through a progressive mediastinal shift that allows it to occupy more thoracic space and increase its volume by approximately 20-30% over time. This adaptation helps mitigate the loss of pulmonary capacity by expanding the functional lung tissue available for ventilation. Hyperinflation is more pronounced after left pneumonectomy (up to 59%) compared to right (47%).^[58]^[59] Alveolar recruitment in the contralateral lung enhances ventilation-perfusion matching, primarily through mechanisms like shear stress-induced growth and neoalveolarization, which improve gas diffusion efficiency. Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) typically decreases by about 30-31% immediately postoperatively but rises relative to predictions over 6-12 months as these compensatory processes mature, often stabilizing above the expected value for a single lung (around 58% of predicted for two lungs).^[58]^[59] Diaphragmatic and chest wall adaptations include elevation of the ipsilateral hemidiaphragm within 24 hours, which contributes to thoracic remodeling, while potential scoliosis may develop due to asymmetric mechanical forces from the mediastinal shift. These changes, combined with alveolar expansion, lead to exercise capacity stabilizing at 70-80% of preoperative levels in long-term survivors, with 6-minute walk distances averaging 400 meters (83% of predicted).^[60]^[59]^[58] Gas exchange parameters adapt effectively in most cases, with partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO2) potentially dropping initially in up to 17% of patients due to transient ventilation-perfusion mismatches but normalizing to around 88 mm Hg at rest within months; hypercapnia remains rare absent pre-existing lung disease.^[61]^[58]^[59]

Cardiovascular Adjustments

Following pneumonectomy, the cardiovascular system undergoes significant adaptations to accommodate the abrupt reduction in pulmonary vascular bed, leading to altered hemodynamics and potential strain on the right ventricle. The removal of one lung redirects the entire cardiac output to the remaining lung, increasing pulmonary blood flow and pressure in its vasculature, which can precipitate pulmonary hypertension in susceptible patients. This condition is characterized by elevated pulmonary artery systolic pressure, often exceeding 35 mmHg in late postoperative phases, and is associated with adverse outcomes such as right ventricular dysfunction.^[62]^[63] The risk of pulmonary hypertension arises primarily from the hyperperfusion of the contralateral lung's vessels, causing endothelial shear stress and potential vasoconstriction, which may progress to right ventricular strain and hypertrophy. Studies indicate that pulmonary artery systolic pressure can rise to approximately 48 mmHg in the late postoperative phase (e.g., at 6 months), particularly after right pneumonectomy, meeting diagnostic criteria for hypertension in a notable subset of cases, though it remains mild to moderate in most patients without preexisting cardiopulmonary disease. This increased afterload on the right ventricle contributes to morbidity, as evidenced by higher rates of heart disease following the procedure. Right pneumonectomy is associated with greater elevations in pressure and right ventricular dilation compared to left.^[64]^[63]^[65]^[66] Mediastinal shift, a common anatomical consequence of lung removal, further impacts cardiac function by displacing the heart and great vessels toward the operated side, often accompanied by tracheal deviation. This repositioning alters the cardiac axis, manifesting on electrocardiography as changes in precordial R/S wave transition, which can mimic anteroseptal myocardial infarction patterns. Initially, these shifts are linked to a reduction in cardiac output and stroke volume, with hemodynamic studies reporting decreases in cardiac index during the early postoperative period due to increased right ventricular afterload and geometric distortions.^[67]^[68]^[69] Over the long term, the cardiovascular system compensates through pulmonary vascular remodeling, where the remaining lung's arteries undergo structural adaptations to redistribute flow and mitigate hypertension. This includes endothelial proliferation and vessel wall thickening in response to chronic shear stress, helping to normalize pressures in many survivors. Ejection fraction, particularly of the right ventricle, often recovers within months, supported by compensatory mechanisms such as natriuretic peptide elevation and, if necessary, beta-agonist therapy like aerosolized salbutamol to enhance cardiac output and resolve associated edema.^[70]^[71]^[72] Monitoring these adjustments relies heavily on echocardiography, which reveals right ventricular dilation in up to 60% of long-term survivors, correlated with elevated pulmonary artery systolic pressures. Such findings guide management, including diuretics to alleviate right ventricular strain and prevent progression to overt heart failure. Routine echocardiographic assessment is recommended to detect early dilation and ensure timely intervention.^[64]^[73]

Complications

Short-Term Complications

Short-term complications following pneumonectomy occur within the first 30 days postoperatively and encompass acute surgical risks that can significantly impact recovery. These include airway disruptions, bleeding, infectious processes, and cardiac rhythm disturbances, with overall morbidity rates ranging from 20% to 60% depending on patient factors such as age and comorbidities.^[2] Prompt recognition and intervention are essential to mitigate mortality, which can reach 5-10% in affected cases.^[74] Airway issues, particularly bronchopleural fistula (BPF), represent a critical short-term complication with an incidence of 1.5% to 4.5%. BPF involves an abnormal communication between the bronchial stump and the postpneumonectomy space, often presenting with sudden expectoration of serosanguinous fluid or subcutaneous emphysema within the first week. Risk factors include right-sided procedures, prolonged mechanical ventilation, and incomplete bronchial stump coverage. Management typically involves immediate chest tube drainage to evacuate air and fluid, administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics to prevent secondary infection, and nutritional support; severe cases may necessitate reoperation for stump reinforcement using vascularized flaps.^[2]^[75] Postoperative hemorrhage occurs in approximately 1-3% of patients and arises from vascular injury, coagulopathy, or inadequate intraoperative hemostasis. It manifests as hemodynamic instability, dropping hematocrit, or excessive chest tube output exceeding 200 mL/hour, typically within the first 24-48 hours. This complication requires urgent evaluation with imaging such as CT angiography and may demand blood transfusion to stabilize the patient or surgical re-exploration for evacuation and ligation of bleeding sources.^[76] Infections, including empyema and pneumonia, affect about 10% of patients and are exacerbated by impaired clearance mechanisms in the remaining lung. Empyema involves purulent collection in the postpneumonectomy space with an incidence of 2-16%, while pneumonia often stems from aspiration or ventilator-associated pathogens. Both present with fever, leukocytosis, and radiographic changes, necessitating prompt treatment with targeted antibiotics guided by culture results and percutaneous or open drainage to clear the infected space.^[77]^[78] Arrhythmias, predominantly atrial fibrillation (AF), are among the most frequent short-term issues, occurring in 20-30% of pneumonectomy patients, usually within the first 72 hours due to inflammatory mediators and mediastinal shifts. AF leads to hemodynamic compromise through rapid ventricular rates and requires prophylaxis with beta-blockers such as metoprolol in high-risk individuals to reduce incidence by up to 50%. Acute management includes rate control with intravenous beta-blockers or calcium channel blockers, anticoagulation if duration exceeds 48 hours, and electrical cardioversion for refractory cases.^[79]^[80]

Long-Term Complications

Postpneumonectomy syndrome is a rare complication characterized by dynamic airway obstruction resulting from excessive mediastinal rotation and shift into the empty thoracic space following pneumonectomy, most commonly after right-sided procedures.^[81] It typically manifests months to years postoperatively with symptoms such as progressive dyspnea, stridor, recurrent respiratory infections, and occasionally dysphagia or hemoptysis due to compression of the remaining bronchus, pulmonary vessels, or esophagus.^[81] The condition is infrequent, with an overall incidence below 1%, though mediastinal shifts occur more commonly after right pneumonectomy.^[81] Diagnosis relies on clinical presentation and imaging, particularly computed tomography demonstrating mediastinal deviation and airway narrowing.^[81] Surgical intervention, such as mediastinal repositioning with prosthetic implants like saline-filled expanders or silicone prostheses, is the primary treatment and yields favorable long-term symptom relief in most cases, though revisions may be needed in approximately 16% of patients.^[81] Chronic pain, often termed post-thoracotomy pain syndrome, persists in a substantial proportion of patients after pneumonectomy, arising from intercostal nerve injury, rib damage, or scar tissue formation during the thoracotomy approach.^[82] Prevalence ranges from 30% to 68% at three to six months postoperatively, with symptoms including neuropathic burning, shooting pains, or hypersensitivity that can endure for years and impair daily function.^[82]^[83] Pain intensity is typically mild to moderate, affecting over half of cases, but up to 10-16% report severe symptoms requiring ongoing analgesics.^[82] Management involves multidisciplinary approaches, including pharmacological agents like gabapentinoids or opioids, and interventional techniques such as intercostal nerve blocks or thoracic paravertebral injections to alleviate neuropathic components.^[84] Patients undergoing pneumonectomy for lung cancer face an elevated risk of secondary malignancies in the contralateral lung, particularly metachronous second primary non-small cell lung cancers, due to shared risk factors like smoking history and field cancerization.^[85] The incidence of such metachronous tumors is approximately 3% following pneumonectomy, with an annual risk of 1-2% that accumulates to 5-10% within five years in high-risk cohorts.^[85]^[86] These tumors often present as solitary nodules amenable to surgical resection, such as wedge excision or lobectomy, which can achieve median survivals exceeding 40 months in selected cases.^[85]

Long-Term Outcomes

Quality of Life

Following pneumonectomy, patients frequently encounter physical limitations that impact daily functioning, primarily manifesting as dyspnea on exertion and reduced exercise tolerance. Approximately 60% of long-term survivors of early-stage non-small cell lung cancer report current dyspnea on exertion after surgical resection, representing a nearly threefold increase from preoperative levels.^[87] Exercise capacity is notably diminished, with maximum workload often falling to around 58% of predicted values due to ventilatory limitations in the remaining lung.^[88] These symptoms arise partly from physiological changes such as reduced lung volume and compensatory hyperinflation of the contralateral lung. Pulmonary rehabilitation programs play a key role in mitigating these effects, significantly enhancing peak VO2 and maximal work rate by approximately 15% compared to non-rehabilitated patients after lung surgery.^[89] Psychological aspects of quality of life are also affected, with postoperative depression occurring in about 19% of patients undergoing lung cancer resection, a significant increase from 12% preoperatively, while anxiety rates remain relatively stable at around 9%.^[90] Counseling and psychological support are essential interventions to address these issues, helping patients manage emotional distress related to altered body image and functional changes. Return to work is achievable for many, with probabilities around 28-44% at four years post-diagnosis depending on surgical extent and preoperative employment status, though physically demanding roles may require extended adaptation or modification.^[91] Daily adaptations are crucial for maintaining well-being, including smoking cessation, which supports better postoperative recovery and reduces complication risks; up to 60% of ever-smokers remain abstinent one month after lung cancer surgery.^[92] Participation in pulmonary rehabilitation further aids in restoring endurance and reducing symptom burden. Supplemental oxygen therapy is required in a subset of patients long-term, particularly those with persistent hypoxemia, though exact prevalence varies; in one cohort, about 43% needed home oxygen beyond six months post-resection, often resolving thereafter.^[93] Patient-reported outcomes highlight a moderate decline in physical domains of quality of life but relative preservation of social functioning. Using the SF-36 questionnaire, pneumonectomy patients exhibit significantly lower physical composite scores (e.g., 46.8 at three months) compared to those undergoing lesser resections, reflecting ongoing limitations in physical role and vitality, while mental composite scores remain stable around 50, indicating sustained emotional and social well-being.^[94] These patterns underscore the importance of holistic support to optimize functional recovery and psychosocial adjustment.

Survival and Prognosis

Survival rates following pneumonectomy for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) vary significantly by disease stage, with 5-year overall survival ranging from 40% to 50% for stages I and II, and approximately 20% to 30% for stage III; recent data as of 2025 indicate an overall 5-year survival of about 48%.^[13]^[95]^[96] In contrast, pneumonectomy performed for benign, non-cancerous conditions yields markedly better outcomes, with 5-year survival rates of 60% to 90%.^[97]^[98] These differences highlight the influence of underlying pathology on long-term prognosis, where oncologic cases face higher risks from disease progression despite complete resection.^[99] Key prognostic factors include nodal status, tumor histology, and the use of adjuvant therapies. Patients with no nodal involvement (N0) exhibit the best outcomes, with higher N stages correlating to poorer survival due to increased metastatic potential.^[100] Squamous cell histology is associated with superior prognosis compared to adenocarcinoma in post-pneumonectomy NSCLC cohorts.^[101] Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy further enhances survival by targeting micrometastatic disease, particularly in node-positive cases.^[102] Recurrence after pneumonectomy occurs in 30% to 55% of NSCLC patients following curative resection, with patterns favoring distant metastasis over local recurrence.^[103] Distant sites, such as the brain, bones, and contralateral lung, predominate, necessitating vigilant monitoring via serial computed tomography (CT) scans every 6 to 12 months post-surgery.^[104] Recent advancements, including neoadjuvant immunotherapy combined with chemotherapy, have improved survival in resectable NSCLC, as demonstrated in the CheckMate 816 trial, where this regimen boosted event-free survival and overall survival by 10% to 15% compared to chemotherapy alone, with benefits persisting through 2023 updates.^[105]^[106] Such multimodal approaches, particularly for stage II-III disease, represent a high-impact evolution in enhancing post-pneumonectomy prognosis.^[107]

History and Evolution

Early Developments

The development of pneumonectomy began with experimental animal models in the late 19th century, where early pulmonary resections demonstrated the potential for compensatory lung growth in surviving subjects. As early as 1881, surgeons documented successful pneumonectomies in dogs, showing that the remaining lung could expand to restore near-normal capacity over time, laying the groundwork for human applications.^[108] These experiments, involving over 30 animals in some series, highlighted the feasibility of lung removal but underscored challenges like infection and hemorrhage that would plague early human trials.^[109] Human attempts at pneumonectomy emerged in the 1890s, primarily driven by the need to treat severe tuberculosis. In 1895, Scottish surgeon William Macewen performed the first recorded complete pneumonectomy on a patient with advanced pulmonary tuberculosis, approaching the procedure in multiple stages to minimize shock and bleeding; remarkably, the patient survived the operation and lived for several years afterward.^[110] This breakthrough contrasted with prior exploratory efforts, such as partial resections for cavitary tuberculosis in 1891 by Theodore Tuffier, which often failed due to postoperative infections and inadequate airway management.^[111] Early indications for the procedure were almost exclusively non-malignant, focusing on destructive lung diseases like tuberculosis and bronchiectasis, where localized collapse or chronic suppuration rendered the lung non-functional.^[112] Prior to the 1930s, pneumonectomy faced formidable obstacles, including operative mortality rates approaching 90% in one-stage procedures, largely attributable to uncontrolled hemorrhage, sepsis, and bronchial stump dehiscence. Surgeons relied on rudimentary techniques like mass ligation of hilar vessels and basic wound closure, which frequently led to fatal complications in the absence of antibiotics or advanced anesthesia.^[113] Despite isolated successes in staged resections for benign conditions, attempts at total pneumonectomy for malignancy uniformly failed until the pioneering work of Evarts A. Graham. In 1933, Graham executed the first successful one-stage total pneumonectomy for lung cancer on a 48-year-old patient, employing meticulous individual ligation of pulmonary vessels, non-crush clamps for the bronchial stump, and secure closure to prevent air leaks, enabling the patient to survive over 20 years postoperatively.^[114] This achievement shifted focus toward oncologic applications while building on prior experience with infectious diseases.^[113]

Modern Advancements

In recent years, advancements in pneumonectomy have focused on minimizing invasiveness, enhancing preoperative planning, and integrating precision medicine to improve patient outcomes while reducing the need for full lung removal in select cases. These developments, driven by technological innovations and multidisciplinary approaches, have led to comparable survival rates between minimally invasive and traditional open procedures, with benefits including shorter hospital stays and fewer complications.^[53] Minimally invasive pneumonectomy, primarily through video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) and robotic-assisted thoracic surgery (RATS), has gained traction for suitable patients, offering enhanced precision and reduced postoperative pain compared to open thoracotomy. A 2025 analysis of over 5,700 cases from the National Cancer Database (2010–2020) found that minimally invasive pneumonectomy achieved a 5-year survival rate of 48.3%, similar to 45.2% for open approaches, though conversion to open surgery occurred in 31.6% of minimally invasive cases, particularly at lower-volume centers.^[53] Robotic techniques further refine hilar dissection and vascular control, with studies from 2021–2025 reporting decreased intraoperative risks and improved lymph node yields in complex resections, such as post-induction therapy pneumonectomies.^[51] These methods are most applicable to early-stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) without extensive mediastinal involvement, preserving postoperative function.^[115] Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols have transformed perioperative care for pneumonectomy patients, emphasizing multimodal optimization to accelerate recovery and mitigate complications. Implemented widely since 2020, ERAS pathways incorporate preoperative counseling, minimally invasive anesthesia, early mobilization, and standardized pain management, resulting in reduced length of hospital stay (e.g., from 5–7 days to as low as 3–4 days in lung resection cohorts) and lower rates of pulmonary and cardiac events.^[116] A 2025 review highlighted economic benefits, including decreased hospital costs by up to 20–30% through fewer readmissions, with applicability to pneumonectomy via tailored fluid management and chest tube protocols.^[116] Precision medicine advancements, including neoadjuvant therapies, have reduced the frequency of pneumonectomy by enabling tumor downstaging and parenchyma-sparing alternatives. The CheckMate 816 trial (2022) demonstrated that neoadjuvant nivolumab plus chemotherapy yielded a pathological complete response rate of 24% in resectable NSCLC, compared to 2.2% with chemotherapy alone, often allowing lobectomy instead of pneumonectomy.^[117] Similarly, the NADIM II trial (2023) reported 37% complete response and 85% 24-month survival with this regimen, supporting downstaging to less extensive resections.^[118] Next-generation sequencing guides these targeted approaches, identifying mutations like EGFR to personalize treatment and avoid unnecessary extensive resections.^[119] Technological tools such as AI-driven 3D reconstruction and printing have revolutionized surgical planning for pneumonectomy, improving anatomical visualization and operability assessment. A 2025 study on AI-enhanced 3D models from chest CT scans showed superior identification of pulmonary vessel variants, reducing intraoperative adjustments by 15–20% and shortening procedure times in complex central tumors.^[120] 3D-printed patient-specific models further aid in simulating hilar resections, with a 2025 pilot demonstrating enhanced precision for central lung cancers, potentially decreasing conversion rates and complications like bronchial stump issues.^[121] These innovations, integrated with molecular imaging, support safer execution of pneumonectomy in high-risk anatomies.^[122]

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Apr 30, 2020 · Carlo Forlanini (1847–1918), a medical doctor professor at the universities of Turin and Pavia, was the inventor of artificial pneumothorax.<|separator|>
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Pneumonectomy is the removal of the entire lung. It is performed when disease clearance is not possible with lesser resections.
[109]
Historical notes on lung cancer before and after Graham's ...
Attempts at the excision of lung cancer were not successful until 1933 when Evarts A. Graham performed the first successful one-stage pneumonectomy.
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May 10, 2017 · Evarts Ambrose Graham, of the eponymous “Graham Cole test” fame, had a more significant but less known contribution to surgery.
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Aug 4, 2025 · Many reports on thoracic robotic approach described the technique, the advantages, and reported mainly data and solid experience in performing ...
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Feb 28, 2025 · ERAS pathways in lung surgery demonstrated benefits such as shorter length of stay (LOS), lower hospital costs, and fewer pulmonary and cardiac complications.Missing: modern pneumonectomy
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Jan 2, 2025 · This paper highlights how advancements in precision medicine are transforming thoracic surgical oncology.
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May 1, 2025 · In conclusion, the AI-3D system enhances the accuracy of anatomical variant identification during preoperative planning for lung surgery. This ...Result · Anatomical Variant... · Methods
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Jun 9, 2025 · The novel method, which employs 3D printing technology, has enhanced the assessment of operability for central lung tumours, thereby facilitating more precise ...
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Aug 29, 2025 · 3D reconstruction technology significantly improves tumor localization, as well as vascular and bronchial visualization, thereby enhancing ...