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Polymer electrolytes

Polymer electrolytes are ionically conductive materials composed of electron-donor polymers complexed with inorganic or organic salts or acids, facilitating ion transport within a viscoelastic solid or gel-like matrix, often serving as alternatives to traditional liquid electrolytes in electrochemical devices.^[1] These materials, first systematically studied in 1973 by Peter V. Wright and colleagues using polyethylene oxide (PEO) doped with alkali metal salts, exhibit key properties such as chemical and mechanical stability across wide temperature ranges, electrochemical windows typically exceeding 4 V versus lithium, and room-temperature ionic conductivities typically on the order of 10^{-7} to 10^{-5} S cm^{-1} for standard formulations, reaching up to 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} or higher in advanced composites and gel systems, depending on composition and structure.^[1] Common polymer hosts include poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), which coordinate cations like Li⁺ or Na⁺ through heteroatoms such as oxygen or nitrogen, enabling segmental motion that supports ion hopping as the primary conduction mechanism.^[2] Polymer electrolytes are broadly classified into solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs), which are dry and flexible with low flammability and excellent electrode interface compatibility; gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), incorporating liquid solvents for higher conductivity but retaining some solid-like safety; and composite variants blending polymers with ceramic fillers (e.g., LLZO or SiO₂) to enhance mechanical strength and ionic pathways.^[3] Their advantages over liquid electrolytes include reduced leakage risks, improved thermal stability, and tunable flexibility, making them ideal for compact, safe energy storage systems, though challenges persist such as temperature-dependent conductivity (often requiring elevated temperatures above 60°C for optimal performance in SPEs) and limited low-temperature operation.^[3] Primary applications encompass lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries, where they enable higher energy densities and dendrite suppression; proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) for efficient ion conduction; and emerging uses in supercapacitors, electrochromic devices, and water desalination systems.^[2] Ongoing research focuses on nanostructuring, single-ion conduction designs, and hybrid composites to achieve conductivities exceeding 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ at ambient conditions, paving the way for commercialization in next-generation electrochemical technologies.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Composition

Polymer electrolytes are ion-conducting materials composed of a polymer host matrix incorporating ionic salts, forming complexes that facilitate the transport of charged species such as ions or protons in electrochemical devices like batteries and supercapacitors. These systems are typically solvent-free or quasi-solid, distinguishing them as solid or gel-like alternatives to traditional electrolytes, and they enable ionic conduction through the coordination of ions with the polymer chains.^[4] The primary components include the polymer host, which imparts mechanical integrity and flexibility to the material, and dopant salts that serve as the source of mobile ions, such as lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄) or sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF₆). Optional additives like plasticizers can enhance ion mobility by increasing the amorphous content of the polymer, while fillers such as inorganic nanoparticles may improve overall stability and conductivity. Key properties encompass ionic conductivity ranging from 10^{-8} to 10^{-3} S/cm at room temperature, depending on the formulation and temperature, along with inherent flexibility for conformable device integration and an electrochemical stability window typically spanning 0-5 V versus Li/Li⁺, which supports operation with common electrode materials.^[4]^[5]^[6] In contrast to ceramic electrolytes, which are rigid and offer high conductivity but limited processability due to their inorganic nature, polymer electrolytes leverage their organic, macromolecular structure for easier fabrication into thin films or flexible forms, albeit with generally lower ambient-temperature conductivity. Similarly, they differ from liquid electrolytes by eliminating risks of leakage and flammability, though this comes at the cost of reduced ion mobility at room temperature. The ionic conductivity (σ) is fundamentally described by the equation

\sigma = n q \mu

where n represents the concentration of charge carriers, q is the ion charge, and \mu is the ionic mobility; this relation underscores how optimizing ion density and mobility enhances performance.^[4]^[7]^[8]

Historical Development

The field of polymer electrolytes originated in the early 1970s with the discovery of ionically conductive complexes formed between alkali metal salts and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO). In 1973, Fenton, Parker, and Wright reported that these PEO-alkali metal ion complexes exhibited solid-state ionic conductivity, marking the initial recognition of polymers as viable hosts for ion transport without liquid solvents. This breakthrough laid the foundation for solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs), shifting focus from traditional liquid electrolytes to safer, more flexible solid alternatives. Building on this work, Michel Armand advanced the practical application of polymer electrolytes in the late 1970s, proposing their use in all-solid-state lithium batteries. In 1978, Armand and colleagues presented the concept of polymeric solid electrolytes at the Second International Meeting on Solid Electrolytes and filed the first related patent (French Patent No. 78 18194), emphasizing PEO-based systems with lithium salts for rechargeable batteries.^[9] During the 1980s and 1990s, commercial interest surged, particularly for lithium-ion batteries, with Armand's contributions—including detailed studies on ion transport mechanisms—driving the development of SPEs toward practical viability. However, early commercialization efforts, such as Bellcore's (now Telcordia) plasticized PEO-based gel systems in the mid-1990s, encountered significant hurdles, including lithium dendrite growth that compromised safety and cycle life.^[10] The 2000s saw a pivot toward enhanced conductivity through hybrid designs, including gel and composite polymer electrolytes that incorporated fillers or plasticizers to overcome the low room-temperature performance of pure SPEs. A key innovation was the integration of ionic liquids into polymer matrices, first demonstrated in 2005 by Susan et al., who created novel gel electrolytes by blending room-temperature ionic liquids with PEO, achieving conductivities up to 10^{-3} S cm^{-1} at ambient temperatures.^[9] This approach improved flexibility and ionic mobility while maintaining solid-like properties. In the 2010s and early 2020s, research emphasized safety-driven advancements for solid-state batteries, motivated by the limitations of flammable liquid electrolytes highlighted in the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for lithium-ion battery development. Efforts focused on dendrite suppression and higher conductivities in SPEs, with composite systems incorporating ceramics or block copolymers enabling stable lithium metal anodes and paving the way for next-generation energy storage.^[11]

Molecular Design

Host Polymers and Structures

Polymer electrolytes rely on host polymers that provide a matrix for ion solvation and transport, with poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) serving as the archetypal example due to its repeating -CH₂-CH₂-O- units, where ether oxygen atoms act as Lewis base sites to coordinate lithium cations (Li⁺) through electrostatic interactions.^[12] Introduced in seminal work by Wright et al. in 1973, PEO-based systems demonstrated ionic conductivity when complexed with alkali metal salts, highlighting the role of polar groups in salt dissociation.^[13] Other common hosts include poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), which features -CF₂-CH₂- repeating units and exhibits a high dielectric constant (ε ≈ 8–12) that facilitates ion pair dissociation without direct coordination; polyacrylonitrile (PAN) with its nitrile (-C≡N) groups for cation solvation; and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), incorporating ester (-COOCH₃) functionalities as coordination sites.^[14] These polymers are selected for their ability to form stable complexes with salts like LiTFSI, enabling applications in lithium-ion batteries.^[12] Structural features critical to performance include the balance between amorphous and crystalline regions, as ion transport predominantly occurs in flexible, amorphous domains where segmental motion is unimpeded. In PEO, the crystalline phase, characterized by a helical conformation, has a melting point (Tₘ) of approximately 65°C, above which conductivity increases sharply due to enhanced chain mobility in the melt state; below Tₘ, crystallinity impedes conduction by restricting ether oxygen access to ions.^[12] To mitigate this, copolymer designs such as PEO-poly(propylene oxide) (PEO-PO) block copolymers introduce irregular -CH₂-CH(CH₃)-O- segments, reducing overall crystallinity and promoting amorphous content for room-temperature operation.^[8] Similarly, side-chain polymers like PMMA position solvating groups pendant to the backbone, allowing greater flexibility compared to main-chain designs like PEO, where coordination sites are integral to the polymer chain.^[14] Design principles for host polymers emphasize high segmental mobility to couple with ion hopping, achieved through low glass transition temperatures (Tₓ) and incorporation of Lewis base sites for effective ion dissociation and solvation. Polymers with Tₓ well below room temperature, such as PEO (Tₓ ≈ -67°C), enable dynamic chain rearrangements that create transient pathways for ions.^[14] Recent advancements up to 2025 include PVDF-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP) copolymers, which blend the high dielectric properties of PVDF with the amorphous, processable nature of HFP comonomers (-CF₂-CF(CF₃)-), improving film formation and ionic dissociation in gel and solid formulations.^[15] The impact of Tₓ on conductivity is explained by free volume theory, where increased thermal energy above Tₓ expands intermolecular voids, facilitating segmental motion and ion diffusion; lower Tₓ thus broadens the operable temperature range for high conductivity. This relationship is quantitatively captured by the Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher (VTF) equation for ionic conductivity (σ):

\sigma = A \, T^{-1/2} \exp\left( -\frac{B}{T - T_g} \right)

Here, A is a pre-exponential factor, B relates to free volume activation, T is temperature, and Tₓ is the glass transition temperature, illustrating how a reduced Tₓ exponentially boosts σ by minimizing the energy barrier for ion transport.^[12]^[14]

Mechanical and Thermal Properties

The mechanical properties of polymer electrolytes, particularly their elasticity and stiffness, play a critical role in ensuring structural integrity and suppressing lithium dendrite formation during electrochemical cycling. Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) typically exhibit Young's moduli in the range of 10^6 to 10^9 Pa, which provides sufficient mechanical robustness for thin-film applications while allowing flexibility in device assembly. This modulus range enables partial inhibition of dendrite penetration, as higher stiffness resists the stress induced by uneven lithium deposition; according to the seminal Monroe-Newman model, a shear modulus exceeding twice that of lithium metal (approximately 3.4 GPa) is theoretically required for complete suppression, though practical polymer systems often achieve effective mitigation through moduli above 10^6 Pa. However, increasing stiffness comes at a trade-off with ionic conductivity, as rigid matrices constrain segmental motion of polymer chains, reducing the free volume available for ion transport. Common methods to evaluate these mechanical attributes include tensile testing, which measures stress-strain behavior to determine Young's modulus and ultimate strength, and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), which assesses viscoelastic properties such as storage and loss moduli across temperature and frequency ranges. Molecular design strategies, such as cross-linking, can enhance the modulus—for instance, incorporating dynamic hydrogen-bonding motifs like 2-ureido-4-pyrimidone (UPy) units decouples mechanical toughness from conductivity, yielding electrolytes with extensibility up to 2700% and moduli around 1 MPa without significantly impairing ion mobility. Recent studies from 2023–2025 on cross-linked polyether networks demonstrate that optimized cross-linking densities maintain conductivities above 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} at room temperature while boosting shear moduli to dendrite-suppressing levels. Thermal properties govern the operational temperature window and long-term stability of polymer electrolytes, influencing phase transitions and degradation pathways. A key parameter is the glass transition temperature (T_g), which marks the onset of segmental mobility; for poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based systems, a common host polymer, T_g is approximately -60°C, enabling flexible chain dynamics above this threshold, while the melting temperature (T_m) around 60–65°C affects crystallinity and conductivity in semi-crystalline variants. Thermal stability is generally robust up to 200°C for many SPEs, with PEO-salt complexes showing no significant decomposition below 220°C under inert conditions, though exposure to air or electrodes can lower this threshold. Degradation mechanisms primarily involve chain scission, where thermal stress breaks polymer backbones, leading to reduced molecular weight and loss of mechanical integrity; this process is exacerbated above 200°C and can be catalyzed by impurities or oxidative environments. To mitigate these issues, design approaches like incorporating fluorinated polymers such as poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) enhance thermal endurance, with recent 2023–2025 investigations reporting PVDF-based SPEs stable beyond 300°C due to strong C-F bonds and compatible thermal expansion with electrodes, enabling safer operation in high-temperature batteries. The temperature dependence of these properties, particularly viscosity and relaxation times linked to ion conduction, is often described by the Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation, an empirical model for viscoelastic behavior in the rubbery state above T_g. The equation expresses the logarithmic shift factor a_T (relating relaxation times or viscosities at temperature T to a reference T_s, typically T_g) as:

\log a_T = -\frac{C_1 (T - T_s)}{C_2 + (T - T_s)}

Here, C_1 and C_2 are material-specific constants (often 17.44 and 51.6 K for T_s = T_g), capturing how free volume increases with temperature to facilitate segmental motion. In polymer electrolytes, this framework explains accelerated ion transport with rising temperature, as reduced viscosity enhances chain dynamics and ion hopping, though excessive heat risks crossing into degradative regimes.

Types

Solid Polymer Electrolytes

Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) are solvent-free systems composed of polymer hosts complexed with lithium salts, such as poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) combined with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), forming ion-conducting matrices where lithium ions are solvated by polymer chain segments without the presence of liquid solvents.^[16] These complexes rely on the amorphous regions of the polymer for ion mobility, with typical salt concentrations optimized at around 10-20 wt% to balance conductivity and mechanical integrity.^[17] SPEs offer significant advantages in safety and electrochemical performance, including non-flammability and elimination of leakage risks associated with liquid electrolytes, enabling their use in flexible, robust battery designs.^[16] They also provide wide electrochemical stability windows, often exceeding 4 V versus Li/Li⁺, suitable for high-voltage cathodes. Ionic conductivities in these systems typically reach approximately 10⁻⁵ S cm⁻¹ above the glass transition temperature (T_g), where segmental motion facilitates ion transport, though values can approach 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ near or above the polymer's melting point.^[16] Despite these benefits, SPEs face limitations such as low room-temperature conductivity, often below 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ at 25 °C, primarily due to polymer crystallinity that restricts ion pathways in ordered regions.^[16] Additionally, poor interfacial contact with rigid electrodes can lead to high impedance and uneven current distribution, complicating their integration in practical devices.^[17] Preparation of SPEs commonly involves solution casting, where polymer and salt are dissolved in a volatile solvent, cast into films, and evaporated to form thin membranes, or hot-pressing, which applies heat and pressure to melt-blend components into uniform films without solvents, ideal for scalable thin-film processing in batteries.^[16] A prominent example is PEO-based SPEs in all-solid-state lithium batteries (ASLBs), such as those employing PEO-LiTFSI configurations that have powered commercial applications like electric buses, with 2025 reviews highlighting conductivity enhancements through copolymerization strategies that reduce crystallinity and improve mechanical properties.^[16]^[18]

Gel Polymer Electrolytes

Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) are hybrid materials consisting of a polymer network swollen with liquid electrolytes, combining the mechanical integrity of solids with the high ionic conductivity of liquids. Typical compositions include semi-crystalline polymers such as poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) as the host matrix, which is impregnated with aprotic solvents like ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC), along with lithium salts such as LiPF₆ or LiTFSI. The liquid content in GPEs typically ranges from 50 to 200 wt%, enabling the polymer matrix to absorb and retain the electrolyte while maintaining structural cohesion. This swelling is quantified by the swelling ratio, calculated as:

\text{Swelling ratio} = \frac{\text{wet weight} - \text{dry weight}}{\text{dry weight}}

where the wet weight is measured after immersion in the liquid electrolyte until equilibrium uptake, and the dry weight is the mass of the unfilled polymer membrane; this ratio provides a direct measure of liquid incorporation, often expressed as a decimal or percentage for comparative analysis. Preparation methods for GPEs commonly involve phase inversion, where a polymer solution is cast and precipitated in a non-solvent bath to form a porous membrane that subsequently absorbs the liquid electrolyte, or in-situ polymerization, in which monomers and initiators are mixed with the liquid electrolyte and cured directly within the battery assembly to ensure intimate contact with electrodes. These techniques allow for tailored porosity and solvent compatibility, with phase inversion particularly suited for PVDF-HFP-based systems due to its solubility in solvents like N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone. GPEs offer significant advantages over pure solid or liquid electrolytes, including ionic conductivities reaching up to 10^{-3} S/cm at room temperature, which arises from the enhanced ion mobility in the liquid phase while the polymer provides dimensional stability. Additionally, the liquid component facilitates superior electrode wetting and interfacial contact, reducing impedance and improving rate performance in devices like lithium-ion batteries. However, GPEs face limitations such as potential solvent evaporation over time, which can degrade conductivity and lead to dry-out failures, alongside reduced mechanical strength compared to dry solids due to the plasticizing effect of the solvents. Flammability risks persist from the organic solvents, although mitigated in some formulations, posing safety concerns in high-energy applications. Recent advances as of 2025 have focused on ionic liquid-based GPEs for lithium metal batteries, incorporating non-volatile, non-flammable ionic liquids like 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (EMIM-TFSI) into PVDF-HFP matrices to enhance thermal stability and dendrite suppression, achieving conductivities above 1 mS/cm while enabling stable cycling over 1000 hours.^[19]^[20]

Plasticized Polymer Electrolytes

Plasticized polymer electrolytes consist of a base polymer matrix, typically poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), combined with low-molecular-weight additives known as plasticizers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) or succinonitrile (SN), in concentrations ranging from 5 to 50 wt%. These additives are incorporated alongside lithium salts like LiTFSI or LiClO4 to facilitate ion dissociation and transport while maintaining a predominantly solid character. The plasticizer molecules interact with the polymer chains, reducing interchain interactions and promoting an amorphous structure, which lowers the glass transition temperature (Tg) by 20–40°C depending on the additive type and loading.^[21]^[22] Preparation of these electrolytes commonly involves solution blending and casting techniques, where the polymer, salt, and plasticizer are dissolved in a common solvent like acetonitrile or tetrahydrofuran, followed by casting onto a substrate and evaporation to form thin films. This method ensures uniform dispersion of the plasticizer within the polymer matrix. Early applications in the 1990s included prototypes using PEO-based plasticized systems for flexible lithium-ion batteries.^[23] The primary advantages of plasticization include a significant increase in ionic conductivity, often by 1–2 orders of magnitude compared to unplasticized counterparts, reaching values around 10^{-4} S/cm at room temperature due to enhanced amorphous content and ion mobility. For instance, adding PEG or SN to PEO-based systems boosts the free volume and salt dissociation, improving overall performance in energy storage devices without transitioning to a fully liquid state.^[23]^[22]^[21] In terms of ion transport, plasticizers decouple the motion of ions from the segmental dynamics of the polymer chains, allowing for more efficient lithium-ion hopping through the increased local free volume and reduced crystallinity, though this effect is most pronounced above the plasticizer's phase transition temperature.^[8]^[22] Despite these benefits, plasticized electrolytes face limitations such as potential phase separation between the polymer and additive, leading to heterogeneous regions that impair long-term uniformity. Additionally, the incorporation of plasticizers can compromise mechanical integrity over time by softening the matrix and promoting plasticizer migration, which reduces dimensional stability and increases the risk of short-circuiting in devices.^[24]^[25] Emerging research as of 2025 explores plasticized systems for sodium-ion batteries to broaden applications beyond lithium.^[26]

Composite Polymer Electrolytes

Composite polymer electrolytes (CPEs) are advanced solid-state materials formed by dispersing inorganic nanofillers into a polymer host matrix, typically poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) or alternatives like polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), to enhance ionic conductivity and mechanical properties for applications in energy storage devices.^[27] The fillers, often at loadings of 1-20 wt%, include passive inert particles such as alumina (Al₂O₃) and silica (SiO₂), which primarily improve structural integrity without contributing to ion transport, and active ion-conducting fillers like lithium lanthanum zirconate (LLZO) or NASICON-type ceramics that actively participate in lithium-ion conduction.^[28] Seminal work by Weston and Steele in 1982 demonstrated that incorporating 10 wt% α-Al₂O₃ into PEO-lithium salt systems significantly boosted mechanical modulus while maintaining electrochemical stability.^[29] Preparation of CPEs commonly involves solution mixing, where the polymer, salt, and fillers are dissolved or dispersed in a solvent like acetonitrile followed by casting and evaporation to form thin films, or melt extrusion for solvent-free processing at elevated temperatures to ensure uniform filler distribution.^[27] Recent filler engineering strategies, reviewed between 2023 and 2025 for solid-state batteries, emphasize surface-modified nanoparticles to prevent agglomeration and achieve optimal percolation thresholds, with active fillers requiring higher loadings (>35 vol% in some cases) for continuous ion pathways.^[30] At the polymer-filler interfaces, Lewis acid-base interactions play a crucial role: basic oxygen sites on filler surfaces (e.g., Al₂O₃) act as Lewis bases, coordinating with acidic lithium cations to promote salt dissociation and create space-charge layers a few nanometers thick that enhance local ion mobility.^[28] This mechanism, first elucidated by Croce et al. in 1998 using 10 wt% nano-Al₂O₃ in PEO-LiClO₄, can increase room-temperature conductivity by orders of magnitude to ~10⁻⁵ S cm⁻¹ compared to pristine polymers. The primary advantages of CPEs stem from these interfacial effects and filler reinforcement, yielding higher ionic conductivities (up to 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ at ambient temperature with active fillers) through reduced crystallinity and improved segmental motion, alongside superior mechanical strength—such as a 50% modulus increase with 10 wt% SiO₂—and enhanced resistance to lithium dendrite penetration due to the rigid composite network.^[27] However, challenges include filler agglomeration at loadings above 15 wt%, which disrupts uniformity and lowers conductivity, increased processing complexity from viscosity rises during melt methods, and the need for precise optimization to balance percolation for active fillers without compromising flexibility.^[28] These limitations highlight the importance of nanoscale filler design in achieving scalable, high-performance CPEs for solid-state lithium batteries, with 2025 reviews noting extensions to sodium-ion systems.^[31]^[26]

Ion Transport Mechanisms

Segmental Motion and Ion Conduction

In polymer electrolytes, ion transport primarily occurs through coupling with the segmental motion of polymer chains in amorphous regions, where local chain relaxations create transient free volume that enables ions to hop between coordination sites. This mechanism is most effective above the glass transition temperature (Tg), as the dynamic rearrangements of the polymer backbone facilitate ion dissociation and migration without requiring long-range diffusion. Seminal studies established that this coupling leads to a non-Arrhenius temperature dependence of conductivity, reflecting the cooperative nature of segmental dynamics and ion motion. The temperature dependence of ionic conductivity (\sigma) in such systems is described by the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) equation:

\sigma = \sigma_0 \exp\left( -\frac{B}{T - T_0} \right)

Here, \sigma_0 is a pre-exponential factor related to the number of charge carriers and their mobility, B is a pseudo-activation energy parameter (often B \approx 0.5 R T_g, where R is the gas constant), T is the absolute temperature, and T_0 is the Vogel temperature, typically 30–50 K below T_g, representing the ideal glass transition where free volume approaches zero. This empirical form originates from free volume theory, originally proposed for viscosity in supercooled liquids, where segmental relaxation time \tau diverges as \tau = \tau_0 \exp\left( B / (T - T_0) \right); since conductivity is inversely related to \tau via \sigma \propto 1/\tau, the VFT equation follows directly. Fitting experimental conductivity data to this model involves plotting \ln(\sigma T^{1/2}) versus $1/(T - T_0) (with T_0 iteratively adjusted) to extract parameters, confirming the strength of coupling—strong coupling yields T_0 close to T_g - 50 K, while decoupling (e.g., in some composite systems) deviates toward Arrhenius behavior.^[32]^[33] In dry solid polymer electrolytes, ions rely on local coordination to polymer donor groups for transport, with cations like Li^+ undergoing hopping between adjacent sites driven by segmental fluctuations. For instance, in poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based systems, Li^+ coordinates to four or five ether oxygen atoms, forming transient complexes that enable intra-chain hops along the backbone or inter-chain transfers when segments relax. This process requires the polymer to be predominantly amorphous, as crystalline regions impede motion by fixing chain conformations.^[34] In wet systems, such as gel polymer electrolytes containing liquid solvents, the vehicle mechanism predominates, wherein ions are solvated by solvent molecules and transported as neutral or charged complexes that diffuse through the swollen polymer network, largely decoupled from segmental motion. This contrasts with dry systems by leveraging solvent viscosity and solvation shells for higher mobility at ambient temperatures.^[8] Transference numbers, which quantify the fraction of total current carried by cations, are typically below 0.5 in PEO-based electrolytes due to significant anion mobility from weak or absent polymer-anion interactions, leading to balanced cation-anion contributions. Single-ion conductors address this by covalently tethering anions to the polymer backbone (e.g., via sulfonate or carboxylate groups), immobilizing them and yielding transference numbers approaching 1, though at the cost of reduced overall conductivity from increased ion pairing.^[35]

Factors Influencing Conductivity

The ionic conductivity of polymer electrolytes is highly sensitive to temperature, which governs the segmental dynamics and ion mobility within the polymer matrix. In solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs), the temperature dependence in the amorphous regions above Tg is captured by the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) equation, \sigma = A T^{-1/2} \exp[-B/(T - T_0)], reflecting the coupling between ion hopping and polymer chain relaxation near the glass transition temperature (Tg).^[36] Below the melting temperature (Tm), crystallinity reduces the amorphous fraction and thus overall conductivity, while the conducting amorphous phase still follows VFT behavior. This shift arises because higher temperatures enhance free volume and chain flexibility, facilitating ion dissociation and diffusion, while low temperatures promote ion aggregation and reduced mobility.^[37] Salt concentration profoundly impacts conductivity by altering the number of charge carriers and their interactions. In poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based electrolytes, an optimal lithium salt concentration, such as an ethylene oxide to lithium (EO:Li) ratio of 16:1, maximizes conductivity by balancing dissociated ions and viscosity effects, often yielding values around 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} at elevated temperatures.^[38] Beyond this optimum, higher concentrations lead to ion pairing and clustering, forming neutral species like contact ion pairs or aggregates that reduce the fraction of free ions available for conduction, thereby decreasing overall conductivity.^[38] Detailed speciation studies reveal that these associations increase with salt loading, with ion pairing becoming dominant above EO:Li ratios of 10:1, limiting practical applications in high-energy devices.^[37] Polymer chain mobility, influenced by additives and matrix composition, further modulates conductivity through changes in segmental relaxation. Salt incorporation raises Tg due to ion-polymer coordination and cross-linking, which stiffens the matrix and slows dynamics, as evidenced by a linear Tg increase with salt content in doped systems.^[38] Plasticizers, such as succinonitrile, or nanofillers like silica, can counteract this by lowering Tg and enhancing free volume, thereby boosting ion diffusivity without excessive crystallinity.^[36] These modifications decouple mechanical rigidity from transport properties, enabling higher conductivities at ambient conditions.^[37] Under applied potential gradients, ion transport in polymer electrolytes involves both drift due to electric fields and diffusion driven by concentration gradients, as outlined in the Nernst-Planck framework, which describes flux as J_i = -D_i ∇c_i - (z_i F / RT) D_i c_i ∇φ + c_i v, where drift and diffusion compete to determine net conductivity.^[36] At low fields, diffusion dominates in equilibrated systems, while higher potentials enhance drift, potentially leading to space-charge effects that amplify effective conductivity in thin films.^[37] Recent advancements as of 2025 have focused on engineering polymer electrolytes for wide-temperature operation, spanning -60°C to 100°C, to address limitations in extreme environments. Bioinspired gel polymer electrolytes, incorporating dynamic cross-links, achieve stable conductivities above 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} from -30°C to 80°C by maintaining solvation sheaths and suppressing dendrite growth.^[39] Similarly, PEO-based composites enable operation at low temperatures (≤25°C) to high temperatures (≥80°C), with activation energies reduced to ~0.3 eV through optimized ion channels.^[40] These functional SPEs leverage hybrid designs to sustain performance in automotive and aerospace applications.

Characterization Techniques

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a non-destructive electrochemical technique that applies a small alternating current (AC) perturbation to a system and measures the resulting impedance response over a range of frequencies. The impedance Z is a complex quantity expressed as Z = Z' - jZ'', where Z' is the real part representing resistance and Z'' is the imaginary part related to reactance, with j as the imaginary unit. This method allows for the separation of resistive and capacitive contributions in polymer electrolytes, enabling detailed analysis of ion transport and interfacial processes.^[41] In practice, EIS data for polymer electrolytes are typically presented in Nyquist plots, which graph -Z'' versus Z', revealing semicircular arcs and linear tails that correspond to different electrochemical elements. The high-frequency intercept on the real axis provides the bulk resistance (R_b) of the electrolyte, while subsequent arcs represent contributions from grain boundaries, electrode-electrolyte interfaces, and diffusion processes (Warburg impedance). For polymer systems, these plots help distinguish bulk ionic conduction from interfacial phenomena, such as charge transfer resistance at blocking electrodes.^[42]^[43] The experimental setup for EIS on polymer electrolytes usually involves a symmetric or blocking electrode configuration, such as stainless steel or ion-blocking electrodes sandwiching the electrolyte film, with measurements conducted over a frequency range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz using a potentiostat or impedance analyzer. Equivalent circuit models, like the Randles circuit comprising solution resistance, charge transfer resistance, double-layer capacitance, and Warburg element, are fitted to the data to quantify individual components. This frequency sweep ensures capture of both low-frequency interfacial effects and high-frequency bulk properties without significantly perturbing the system.^[41]^[44] Key outputs from EIS include ionic conductivity (\sigma), calculated from the bulk resistance as \sigma = L / (A \cdot R_b), where L is the electrolyte thickness and A is the electrode area, derived from the high-frequency Nyquist intercept. Capacitance values from the semicircle fitting yield the dielectric constant via C = \epsilon_0 \epsilon_r A / L, providing insights into polymer chain relaxation and ion solvation. These metrics are essential for evaluating electrolyte performance, as conductivities in polymer systems often range from $10^{-5} to $10^{-3} S/cm at ambient temperatures.^[45]^[43] In polymer electrolytes, EIS facilitates the separation of ionic and electronic conductivity contributions by comparing responses under blocking versus non-blocking conditions; purely ionic conductors exhibit no low-frequency tail in Nyquist plots with blocking electrodes, while electronic leakage appears as a finite Warburg impedance. The technique also detects dendrite formation through increases in interfacial resistance or the emergence of inductive loops in plots during lithium plating, indicating unstable growth at the electrode-polymer interface. For instance, in polyethylene oxide-based electrolytes, EIS monitors dendrite-induced short circuits by tracking rising charge transfer resistance over cycling.^[43] Recent studies from 2024-2025 have applied EIS to investigate interface impedance in all-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) using polymer electrolytes, revealing that optimized polymer-ceramic composites reduce interfacial resistance through improved wetting and reduced void formation. In these works, Nyquist analysis highlighted the dominance of polymer-electrode contact impedance, guiding strategies like surface modification to enhance cycling stability. Such applications underscore EIS's role in advancing polymer electrolytes for high-energy-density devices.^[46]^[47]

Spectroscopic and Structural Methods

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a key technique for investigating ion dynamics and local environments in polymer electrolytes. Specifically, 7Li and 19F NMR provide insights into lithium cation mobility and anion coordination, revealing variations in relaxation times that correlate with ionic hopping mechanisms in systems like poly(ethylene oxide)-based electrolytes.^[48]^[49] Pulsed gradient spin-echo (PGSE) NMR extends this by measuring self-diffusion coefficients of ions, enabling quantification of transport decoupled from segmental motion, as demonstrated in lithium salt-doped polymer matrices where diffusion values range from 10^{-12} to 10^{-10} m²/s depending on salt concentration.^[50]^[51] These measurements help correlate microscopic ion behavior with macroscopic conductivity, though detailed transport models are addressed elsewhere. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy probe vibrational modes to assess ion-polymer interactions, particularly coordination effects. In polymer electrolytes, shifts in C-O stretching bands around 1000-1100 cm⁻¹ indicate lithium ion binding to ether oxygen atoms, while anion modes (e.g., SO₃ stretching in TFSI salts at ~1200 cm⁻¹) reveal dissociation states.^[52]^[53] For instance, in poly(vinyl acetate)-LiClO₄ systems, Raman spectra show splitting of perchlorate modes upon complexation, quantifying free versus coordinated ions.^[54] These techniques are sensitive to local coordination geometry, offering complementary evidence of salt dissociation without requiring electrical measurements. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) evaluate thermal transitions and stability, crucial for understanding crystallinity's impact on ion transport. DSC identifies glass transition temperature (T_g) and melting point (T_m), with reduced T_g (e.g., from -60°C in pure PEO to lower values with fillers) signaling enhanced segmental mobility; crystallinity fraction, often below 20% in optimized electrolytes, is assessed via melting enthalpy.^[55]^[56] TGA determines decomposition onset, typically above 200°C for PEO-based systems, ensuring operational stability.^[57] Together, these reveal how additives suppress crystallization, promoting amorphous phases for better conductivity. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) characterize phase structure and morphology, particularly filler dispersion in composites. XRD patterns show broadened polymer peaks and filler signatures (e.g., cubic γ-Li₃PO₄ at 2θ ~20°), confirming reduced crystallinity upon nanofiller incorporation like Al₂O₃.^[58] SEM images visualize uniform dispersion, with aggregates minimized at 5-10 wt% loadings to avoid percolation thresholds that hinder ion pathways.^[59]^[60] These methods quantify microstructural homogeneity, linking it to enhanced mechanical integrity. Recent advances from 2023-2025 emphasize in-situ spectroscopic techniques for real-time interface studies in composite polymer electrolytes. Infrared nanospectroscopy has been used to study Li/polymer interphase components. In-situ spectroscopic and electrochemical methods have revealed dynamic ion-water-polymer interactions at functionalized polymer interfaces, aiding interface stabilization. These operando methods address previously inaccessible transient phenomena in working devices.^[61]^[62]

Applications

Energy Storage Devices

Polymer electrolytes, particularly solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) and gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), have been integrated into various battery systems to enhance safety and enable flexible designs, primarily in lithium-based and sodium-based technologies. In lithium-ion batteries, SPEs based on polyethylene oxide (PEO) doped with lithium salts provide mechanical stability and dendrite suppression, achieving ionic conductivities up to 10^{-4} S/cm at ambient temperatures when combined with plasticizers or fillers. GPEs, formed by immobilizing liquid electrolytes within polymer matrices like poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP), offer a compromise between ionic conductivity (around 10^{-3} S/cm) and safety, facilitating their use in commercial Li-ion pouch cells with capacities exceeding 200 mAh/g. For lithium-metal batteries, GPEs mitigate anode dendrite growth through uniform ion flux, as demonstrated in cells with lithium metal anodes and high-voltage cathodes like LiCoO_2, delivering stable cycling over 500 cycles at 0.5C rates. In sodium-ion batteries, SPEs such as PEO-NaClO_4 composites enable room-temperature operation with conductivities of 10^{-5} S/cm, supporting hard carbon anodes and layered oxide cathodes for grid-scale storage applications. A notable advancement includes 2025 targets for solid-state Li-S batteries using ultrathin polymer electrolytes (<20 μm thick), aiming for energy densities of 500 Wh/kg through improved sulfur utilization and reduced electrolyte weight. Interface engineering is crucial for polymer electrolyte integration, addressing compatibility issues between the soft polymer matrix and rigid electrodes to minimize impedance and prevent delamination. Strategies such as in-situ polymerization of additives like catechol-acrylic compounds form a multifunctional solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on lithium-metal anodes, rich in LiF and organic carbonates, which enhances uniformity and suppresses dendrite penetration. For cathode interfaces, incorporating nanofillers like halloysite nanotubes into PEO-based electrolytes creates a dynamic Li-ion pathway, reducing interfacial resistance from 200 Ω cm² to below 50 Ω cm² and stabilizing cycling in high-voltage LiNi_{0.8}Co_{0.1}Mn_{0.1}O_2 cells. These approaches promote homogeneous SEI formation by controlling solvation structures, thereby extending battery lifespan in polymer-based systems. In supercapacitors, polymer electrolytes enable flexible, all-solid-state devices suitable for wearable electronics, leveraging their quasi-liquid ion transport for high-rate performance. GPEs based on PVA/H_3PO_4 or PVDF-HFP with ionic liquids provide bending stability and volumetric energy densities up to 20 Wh/L, outperforming rigid ceramics in curved configurations. Their high ionic conductivity (>10^{-2} S/cm) supports rapid charge-discharge rates exceeding 1000 C, as seen in graphene-based symmetric supercapacitors retaining 90% capacitance after 10,000 cycles under mechanical stress. Polymer electrolyte batteries exhibit distinct performance metrics compared to liquid counterparts, prioritizing safety over raw power. Cycle lives often surpass 1000 cycles with >95% capacity retention in GPE-based Li-metal cells, attributed to suppressed dendrite formation and thermal runaway prevention. Energy densities reach 300-400 Wh/kg at the cell level, lower than liquid electrolytes (up to 500 Wh/kg) due to higher polymer resistance, but with superior safety profiles including non-flammability and leak-proof operation. The operating voltage in such batteries is governed by

E = E_{\text{cathode}} - E_{\text{anode}} - I R

where E is the cell voltage, E_{\text{cathode}} and E_{\text{anode}} are the electrode potentials, I is the current, and R represents the polymer electrolyte's internal resistance, typically 10-100 Ω cm², contributing to an IR drop that limits high-rate discharge to <5C.

Fuel Cells and Membranes

Polymer electrolytes play a critical role in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), where they serve as solid electrolytes facilitating proton (H⁺) transport from the anode to the cathode. Sulfonated polymers, such as sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK), are widely investigated as cost-effective alternatives to perfluorosulfonic acid membranes like Nafion due to their ability to enable efficient H⁺ conduction through sulfonic acid groups.^[63] These materials typically exhibit ion exchange capacities (IEC) in the range of 1-2 meq/g, which correlates with their proton conductivity and water uptake properties essential for ion transport.^[64] In PEMFCs, the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) separates the reactive gases while conducting protons, contributing to high efficiency and compact design. Anion exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) utilize polymer electrolytes with quaternary ammonium-functionalized polymers to enable hydroxide (OH⁻) ion transport from the cathode to the anode, offering potential advantages in non-precious metal catalysis. These membranes incorporate positively charged quaternary ammonium groups tethered to polymer backbones, such as polystyrene or poly(arylene ether), to selectively conduct OH⁻ ions under alkaline conditions.^[65] Recent advancements have focused on enhancing the stability and conductivity of these materials to mitigate degradation from hydroxide attack.^[66] Compared to liquid electrolytes, solid polymer electrolytes in fuel cells provide significant benefits, including reduced fuel and oxidant crossover that minimizes efficiency losses and safety risks from gas mixing, as well as improved mechanical durability for long-term operation under varying loads.^[67] Performance metrics for PEMFCs and AEMFCs employing these electrolytes have reached power densities up to 1 W/cm², with composite SPEEK-based membranes demonstrating values exceeding this threshold under dry conditions.^[68] In 2024, hydrocarbon-based polymers, such as poly(p-phenylene) derivatives, have emerged as promising options for cost reduction by replacing expensive fluorinated materials while maintaining comparable durability and performance.^[69] Effective water management remains a key challenge in polymer electrolyte fuel cells, as PEMs require humidification to sustain proton conductivity through hydrated sulfonic acid channels, yet excessive water uptake can lead to membrane swelling and mechanical degradation. Strategies such as controlled gas humidification and incorporation of hydrophilic fillers help balance water retention and transport, preventing flooding in the cathode while avoiding dehydration that reduces IEC and overall cell efficiency.^[70] In AEMFCs, similar principles apply, though OH⁻ transport often demands less stringent hydration due to the alkaline environment.^[71]

Other Electrochemical Systems

Polymer electrolytes find application in various electrochemical systems beyond primary energy storage and conversion devices, offering advantages such as flexibility, safety, and stability in niche technologies. These systems leverage the ionic conductivity and mechanical properties of polymers to enable reversible electrochemical processes in devices like supercapacitors, electrochromic windows, sensors, actuators, and emerging flexible electronics.^[72] In supercapacitors, polymer electrolytes serve as solid or gel separators that facilitate ion transport while preventing short circuits, enhancing device flexibility and leak-proof operation compared to liquid electrolytes. Pseudocapacitive polymers, such as polyaniline (PANI) composites, integrate with these electrolytes to boost energy storage through faradaic redox reactions, achieving specific capacitances exceeding 300 F g⁻¹ and energy densities over 50 Wh kg⁻¹ in hybrid configurations. For instance, cross-linked sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) electrolytes paired with PANI electrodes in redox supercapacitors demonstrate 90% capacitance retention after 1000 cycles, attributed to the polymer's high ionic conductivity around 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ when plasticized with salts like LiClO₄. Similarly, chitosan-based gel electrolytes with PANI/multi-walled carbon nanotube composites yield stable performance with 88% retention over 10,000 cycles, highlighting the role of polymer matrices in improving mechanical stability and pseudocapacitive contributions.^[72]^[73]^[74] Electrochromic devices, particularly smart windows, utilize polymer electrolytes to enable reversible ion insertion and extraction in active layers, modulating light transmission for energy-efficient building applications. Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) based on poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) or poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) with plasticizers provide ionic conductivities up to 6.4 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹, supporting fast switching times of 1-2 seconds for coloration and bleaching. These electrolytes enhance device transparency (>90% in the visible range) and cycling stability, with PMMA-LiClO₄ systems enduring 50,000 cycles without degradation. Composite variants incorporating fillers like TiO₂ further improve ion mobility and coloration efficiency, reaching 205.7 cm² C⁻¹, making them ideal for large-area, flexible electrochromic prototypes.^[75]^[75]^[75] For sensors, polymer electrolytes function as ion-selective membranes in potentiometric devices, enabling selective detection of analytes like potassium, calcium, or chloride ions in chemical and biological environments. These membranes, often based on poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) or semifluorinated copolymers like PFMA-LMA, incorporate ionophores to achieve high selectivity and low detection limits, with reduced biofouling for in vivo applications such as continuous Ca²⁺ monitoring in blood for over three days. In dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), polymer electrolytes replace volatile liquids to improve long-term stability, using hosts like poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) or PEO doped with iodide salts to facilitate charge transport and achieve power conversion efficiencies up to 8-10%. Gel variants with nanoparticles enhance ionic conductivity and dye regeneration kinetics, mitigating leakage issues while maintaining flexibility.^[76]^[76]^[77] Actuators based on ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) employ polymer electrolytes as the core ionic exchange membrane, typically Nafion or ionogels, coated with metal electrodes to generate bending motion under low voltages (1-3 V) for soft robotics. Upon hydration and electric field application, cations migrate toward the cathode, causing water redistribution and actuator deflection up to 30 Hz for bionic applications like flying robots or multi-degree-of-freedom medical catheters. Ionogel electrolytes with ionic liquids prevent dehydration, enabling over 1 million cycles in air and addressing electrode cracking through additives like black phosphorus.^[78]^[78]^[78] As of 2025, polymer electrolytes are increasingly integrated into flexible electronics, driven by advancements in solvent-free and composite formulations for wearable devices and solid-state energy storage. Fluoropolymer-based electrolytes, such as those derived from PVDF, offer enhanced mechanical flexibility and ionic conductivity for bendable lithium batteries, supporting applications in health monitoring and portable tech with improved safety over rigid counterparts. These trends emphasize nanoscale strategies like nanofiller incorporation to boost performance, aligning with the demand for lightweight, stretchable systems in consumer electronics.^[79]^[80]^[81]

Challenges and Future Directions

Limitations and Safety Concerns

One major limitation of solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) is their relatively low ionic conductivity at ambient temperatures, typically below $10^{-4} S/cm, which stems from high crystallinity that impedes segmental motion essential for ion transport.^[82] This conductivity threshold is insufficient for high-rate applications in batteries, often necessitating elevated operating temperatures of 60–80°C to achieve values around $10^{-3} S/cm as crystallinity decreases and amorphous phases dominate.^[12] Such temperature sensitivity not only complicates device design but also limits practicality in consumer electronics requiring room-temperature performance.^[37] Safety concerns persist despite SPEs' advantages over flammable liquid electrolytes; gel and plasticized polymer electrolytes, which incorporate liquid solvents for enhanced conductivity, remain susceptible to flammability and leakage under thermal abuse.^[83] In purely solid systems, lithium dendrite penetration poses a risk of short-circuiting, particularly when the electrolyte's Young's modulus is below 1 GPa, as it fails to mechanically suppress whisker growth during plating; moduli exceeding 1 GPa, as in certain phase-transformed PEO-rich layers, are required for effective mitigation.^[84] Recent studies (2023–2024) on incombustible SPEs demonstrate superior fire safety under abuse conditions such as heating and mechanical penetration, with no flame propagation observed, unlike liquid electrolytes that propagate fire rapidly due to vaporization.^[85]^[86] Electrochemical stability is another drawback, with SPEs often confined to narrow oxidative and reductive windows—typically up to ~4 V vs. Li/Li^+ for PEO-based systems—limiting compatibility with high-voltage cathodes and risking decomposition.^[87] Common lithium salts like LiPF_6 further exacerbate issues through thermal decomposition above 60°C, releasing PF_5 gas that reacts with trace moisture to form corrosive HF and POF_3, accelerating electrolyte breakdown and capacity fade.^[88] Interfacial challenges compound these limitations, as poor wetting between rigid SPEs and porous electrodes results in incomplete contact and elevated impedance, hindering ion transfer.^[47] Additionally, electrode volume expansion and contraction during cycling disrupt this interface, leading to delamination, increased polarization, and premature cell failure without adaptive strategies to maintain adhesion.^[47]

Emerging Advances and Prospects

Recent innovations in topological polymer electrolytes have focused on hyperbranched and star-shaped structures to achieve dendrite-free lithium-ion conduction in solid-state batteries. These nonlinear architectures reduce crystallinity and chain entanglement, enhancing segmental motion and ionic conductivity while providing mechanical robustness to suppress dendrite growth. For instance, hyperbranched poly(allyl glycidyl ether)-based electrolytes with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) exhibit ionic conductivities up to 1.2 × 10^{-3} S cm^{-1} at 20 °C and tensile strengths around 1.6 MPa, enabling stable cycling without dendrite penetration. Similarly, star polymers incorporating poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate arms achieve conductivities of 3.8 × 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} at 30 °C, with compression moduli of 0.35 MPa that maintain interface integrity during lithium plating/stripping. A 2023 review highlights these designs as pivotal for next-generation lithium batteries, emphasizing their role in balancing conductivity and mechanical properties.^[89] Multilayer polymer electrolyte designs with gradient interfaces have emerged as a strategy to enhance interfacial stability and compatibility in high-energy lithium metal batteries. These architectures feature layered compositions, such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN) atop poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) infused with metal-organic frameworks like HKUST-1, forming self-adjustable solid electrolyte interphases (SEIs) rich in LiF and Li₃N. This gradient structure supports high-voltage operation up to 4.5 V, with ionic conductivities enabling critical current densities of 2.2 mA cm^{-2} and 85% capacity retention over 300 cycles in Li||NCM811 cells at 0.5 C. In 2024, such asymmetric composites demonstrated 41 mAh cm^{-2} lithium utilization in symmetrical cells, mitigating side reactions and dendrite formation through tailored mechanical and electrochemical gradients. Progress in these designs underscores their potential to address interface degradation in solid-state systems.^[90] PVDF-based polymer electrolytes have gained traction for sustainable, high-voltage applications due to their chemical stability and compatibility with composite fillers. Modifications like incorporating dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) render these gels nonflammable, supporting wide-temperature operation from -20 °C to 80 °C with conductivities around 10^{-3} S cm^{-1} at room temperature and electrochemical windows exceeding 4.5 V.^[91] These advancements promote sustainability by reducing reliance on flammable solvents while enabling long-term cycling in lithium metal batteries. Complementing this, bio-derived polymers from natural sources, such as cellulose or polyester esters, offer eco-friendly alternatives with high decomposition voltages above 4.5 V and room-temperature conductivities up to 10^{-4} S cm^{-1}.^[92] For example, biodegradable poly(2,3-butanediol/succinic acid) electrolytes exhibit environmental degradability and stable performance in lithium-ion cells, aligning with sustainability goals in energy storage.^[93] Recent assessments confirm their lower carbon footprint compared to petroleum-based counterparts.^[92] Wide-temperature solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) incorporating functional additives have advanced lithium battery performance across extreme conditions, targeting ranges from -50 °C to 120 °C. Bioinspired gel formulations with fluorinated coupling agents like ethyl 3,3,3-trifluoropropanoate and cross-linkers such as poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate maintain conductivities of 1.03 × 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} at -40 °C and 4.40 × 10^{-4} S cm^{-1} at 25 °C, alongside Li⁺ transference numbers of 0.83. These additives enhance low-temperature desolvation and high-temperature thermal stability, enabling pouch cells with 490.8 Wh kg^{-1} energy density and fire resistance. In 2025 research, such SSEs support stable operation in lithium metal batteries, addressing crystallization issues at low temperatures and decomposition at elevated ones through nano-functional components like flame-retardant fillers.^[18] Looking ahead, AI-optimized designs are accelerating the discovery of high-performance polymer electrolytes by predicting structures with targeted properties like ionic conductivity and mechanical strength. Generative models, including GPT-based approaches, have enabled de novo synthesis of candidates achieving conductivities comparable to commercial benchmarks, reducing experimental iterations.^[94] Commercialization prospects aim for room-temperature conductivities of 10^{-3} S cm^{-1} by 2030 to enable widespread adoption in electric vehicles and grid storage, with emphasis on scalable, sustainable manufacturing. These targets, supported by ongoing composite and single-ion conductor developments, position polymer electrolytes as a cornerstone for safe, high-energy batteries.^[18]

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[52]
Thermal Properties of Composite Polymer Electrolytes Poly ...
TGA analysis showed thermal stability up to 430 K showing small changes with the addition of alumina particles. The decrease in crystalline fraction for ...Missing: glass degradation
[53]
Unlocking Solid Polymer Electrolytes: Advancing Materials through ...
Jul 7, 2025 · Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) hold great promise for next-generation battery technologies due to their inherent safety and mechanical ...
[54]
Reducing crystallinity in solid polymer electrolytes for lithium-metal ...
Aug 3, 2021 · The discovery that polyethylene oxide promotes ionic conductivity led to the development of solid polymer electrolytes.
[55]
Ionic Conductivity Enhancement of Polymer Electrolytes with ...
The max. cond. of polymer electrolyte is up to 4.16 mS cm-1 at 90 °C by optimizing the compn. of the polymers, salts, and plasticizer, and the temp. dependence ...
[56]
The Critical Role of Fillers in Composite Polymer Electrolytes for ...
Mar 28, 2023 · Croce et al. [104] investigated the mechanism of ionic conductivity enhancement for Al2O3 with different surface treatments in PEO. As shown ...
[57]
The Critical Role of Functionalised Filler in Li‐Polymer Composite ...
Jul 2, 2025 · The morphology and structural properties of the resulting PCEs containing different LATP-PVP loadings were characterized by x-ray diffraction ( ...
[58]
An infrared, Raman, and X-ray database of battery interphase ...
Jan 8, 2025 · In situ infrared nanospectroscopy of the local processes at the Li/polymer electrolyte interface. Nature Communications 13, 1398, https ...
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Real-Time In Situ Spectroscopic and Electrochemical Analysis of Ion ...
May 25, 2025 · This work highlights the synergy between electrochemical and spectroscopic methods for real-time analysis of ion–water–polymer interactions.
[60]
efficient ion-exchange polymer electrolytes for fuel cell applications ...
Jun 29, 2022 · This review focuses on the role of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) based proton conducting electrolyte membranes for fuel cell applications.
[61]
SPEEK and SPPO Blended Membranes for Proton Exchange ... - NIH
The fabricated blended membranes SPEEK/SPPO showed ion exchange capacity (IEC) of 1.23 to 2.0 mmol/g, water uptake (WR) of 22.92 to 64.57% and membrane swelling ...2. Experimental · 2.4. 2. Ion Exchange... · 3.3. Ion Exchange Capacity...<|separator|>
[62]
Effect of Different Quaternary Ammonium Groups on the Hydroxide ...
Mar 15, 2021 · Anion exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) are encouraging electrochemical structures for the competent and complaisant conversion of ...
[63]
Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cell Application: A Review
AEMFCs are a promising technology that can solve the high-cost problem of PEMFCs that have reached technological saturation and overcome technical limitations.
[64]
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The use of a solid polymer electrolyte eliminates the corrosion and safety concerns associated with liquid electrolyte fuel cells. Its low operating temperature ...
[65]
Degradation-Mitigating Composite Membrane That Exceeds a 1 W ...
Degradation-Mitigating Composite Membrane That Exceeds a 1 W cm−2 Power Density of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Operating Under Dry Conditions.
[66]
Poly(p-phenylene)-based membranes with cerium for chemically ...
Feb 19, 2024 · Fuel cells that utilize polymer electrolyte membranes (PEMFC) are a promising alternative for converting energy. This technology can convert ...
[67]
Water Management Strategies for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel ...
In PEMFCs, water accumulation promotes deterioration and reduces performance, lowering the fuel cell's lifespan.
[68]
Effects of an easy-to-implement water management strategy on ...
Aug 15, 2023 · Intermittent switching between wet and dry reactant gases during operation in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) can improve performance stability.
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Polymer Electrolytes for Supercapacitors - MDPI
The low ionic conductivity of most hard and soft solid materials was initially too low for practical applications in supercapacitors, which require low internal ...
[70]
A critical examination of polyaniline and its composite materials
Sep 1, 2024 · The presented article comprehensively explores the remarkable potential of polyaniline (PANI) and its composites in supercapacitor ...
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Fabrication of PANI/MWCNT supercapacitors based on a chitosan ...
Aug 29, 2023 · In this study, the development of hybrid composite electrode materials containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and conductive polyaniline (PANI)
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[PDF] Research progress in polymer electrolytes for electrochromic devices
Oct 21, 2024 · Polymer electrolytes are composites consisting of polymeric matrices, solvents, conductive salts and firming agents, including solid polymer ...
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Polymeric Membrane Potentiometric Ion Sensors with Dual Biocompatible Functionality
### Summary of Polymeric Membrane Ion-Selective Electrodes in Sensors
[74]
Review on the Revolution of Polymer Electrolytes for Dye-Sensitized ...
Commonly, polysaccharides such as cellulose, carrageenan, starch, and chitosan have been well-studied and employed as polymer electrolytes in DSSC. A synthetic ...Introduction · Available Alternatives... · Long-Term Stability Using the... · Conclusion
[75]
Ionic Polymer–Metal Composites: From Material Engineering to ...
Dec 14, 2023 · Ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMCs) are one kind of artificial muscles that can realize energy conversions in response to external stimulus.
[76]
Fluoropolymer Electrolytes for Flexible Lithium Batteries
Sep 5, 2025 · This review summarizes recent advances in the design of fluoropolymer-based electrolytes for flexible lithium batteries, including solid ...
[77]
Development and Applications of Polymer Electrolytes in Flexible ...
This review systematically summarizes the recent progress in solvent-free polymer electrolytes, gel polymer electrolytes, and composite polymer electrolytes, ...
[78]
advances, challenges, and sustainability of polymer electrolytes in ...
Oct 6, 2025 · This review critically examines recent advancements in polymer electrolytes for Li–S batteries, with a particular focus on nanoscale strategies ...
[79]
Solid Polymer Electrolytes with High Conductivity and Transference ...
Feb 8, 2021 · Since Wright and coworkers reported the ionic-conductive poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) complexes with alkali metal salts in 1973 and Armand ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[80]
Solid Polymer Electrolytes with High Conductivity and Transference ...
This paper reviews the principles of Li + conduction inside SPEs and the corresponding strategies to improve the Li + conductivity and LITN of SPEs.Missing: Bellcore | Show results with:Bellcore
[81]
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2025/nh/d5nh00390c?page=search
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https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/advs.202003675
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[PDF] Counteracting thermal degradation of LiPF6-based electrolyte with ...
Jul 8, 2024 · One of the weaknesses of the LiPF6-based electrolyte is its poor thermal stability. It can result in an accelerated.
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https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(22)00383-X
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095495624000494