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Soft robotics

Soft robotics is a subfield of robotics that designs, fabricates, and controls machines primarily composed of compliant, deformable materials such as elastomers, hydrogels, and polymers, enabling them to mimic biological systems, adapt to unstructured environments, and interact safely with humans and fragile objects. These robots exhibit moduli ranging from 10⁴ to 10⁹ Pa, providing multiple degrees of freedom and compliance that surpass the limitations of rigid-bodied counterparts in tasks requiring dexterity and gentleness. The field draws inspiration from soft-bodied organisms like octopuses and jellyfish, emphasizing bioinspired designs that prioritize adaptability over precision in controlled settings.^[1] Key technological components include diverse actuation methods—such as pneumatic, hydraulic, dielectric elastomer, shape-memory alloys, and magnetic systems—that enable movements like crawling, grasping, and swimming without rigid joints. Materials science plays a central role, with advancements in 3D-printable elastomers, biodegradable hydrogels, and stimuli-responsive polymers allowing for programmable shapes and self-healing properties. Applications of soft robotics span biomedical engineering, where soft grippers and endoscopic devices facilitate minimally invasive surgeries and drug delivery; industrial automation, for handling delicate items like fruits or electronics; and exploration in hazardous areas, such as deep-sea or disaster zones, due to their resilience and low-maintenance design.^[2] Despite these strengths, challenges persist in modeling their infinite-dimensional dynamics, achieving precise control, and scaling up energy-efficient, untethered systems for real-world deployment. Ongoing research focuses on integrating sensors for proprioception and environmental feedback, as well as hybrid designs combining soft and rigid elements to broaden functionality.

Overview

Definition and Principles

Soft robotics is a subfield of robotics that focuses on the design, control, and fabrication of robots primarily composed of compliant, deformable materials, such as elastomers, rather than traditional rigid links and joints. These materials enable soft robots to exhibit continuous body deformations, mimicking the flexibility and adaptability of biological systems like octopuses or worms, which facilitates safe interactions with humans and environments.^[3] By leveraging moduli in the range of soft biological tissues (typically 10^4 to 10^7 Pa), soft robots achieve enhanced resilience and versatility compared to rigid counterparts with moduli of 10^9 Pa or higher. The core principles of soft robotics emphasize compliance for inherent safety during physical interactions, as the deformable structures absorb impacts and conform to irregular surfaces without causing harm. Unlike discrete kinematics in rigid robotics, soft robots operate under continuum mechanics, treating the body as a continuous medium that can undergo large deformations modeled through hyperelastic constitutive relations.^[3] This leads to hyper-redundancy, providing effectively infinite degrees of freedom that allow for complex, bio-inspired movements and adaptability in dynamic settings.^[3] Additionally, soft designs promote energy efficiency in unstructured environments by enabling lightweight actuation mechanisms, such as pneumatic or dielectric systems, that match biological energy densities and reduce the need for precise rigid control. In comparison to rigid robotics, soft robots excel at grasping irregular or delicate objects through passive conformation and distributed forces, avoiding the need for complex end-effector mechanisms.^[3] Their flexibility also allows navigation through confined or cluttered spaces, where rigid structures would fail due to limited maneuverability.^[3] A foundational metric for understanding deformation in these elastomeric materials is the strain energy density, which quantifies stored elastic energy during stretching:

U = \frac{1}{2} \sigma \varepsilon

where U is the strain energy density, \sigma is the stress, and \varepsilon is the strain; this linear relation applies to small deformations in nearly incompressible elastomers common in soft robotics.^[4]

Historical Development

The origins of soft robotics can be traced to the mid-20th century, with the development of pneumatic artificial muscles by Joseph L. McKibben in the 1950s. These actuators, consisting of a rubber tube encased in a braided sleeve, were initially designed to power orthotic devices for polio patients, mimicking the contraction of human skeletal muscles through inflation with compressed air.^[5] This innovation laid foundational principles for compliant actuation in robotics, emphasizing lightweight, flexible mechanisms over rigid structures.^[6] From the 1960s through the 1990s, research on artificial muscles advanced significantly, focusing on materials that could replicate biological compliance and adaptability. Shape memory alloys (SMAs), such as Nitinol, emerged as key actuators in the 1980s, enabling shape recovery through thermal stimulation and finding early applications in biomedical devices and actuators.^[7] Concurrently, foundational work on electroactive polymers (EAPs) began to gain traction, with ionic EAPs explored for their low-voltage actuation resembling muscle contraction, though widespread adoption accelerated in the following decade.^[8] These developments, driven by advances in materials science, shifted robotics toward softer, more bio-inspired designs, though integration into full robotic systems remained limited.^[9] The 2000s marked a resurgence in soft robotics, propelled by interdisciplinary efforts at institutions like Harvard University. In 2016, George M. Whitesides' group introduced the octobot, the first fully untethered, autonomous soft robot, powered by a chemical reaction that generated gas for pneumatic actuation without rigid components or electronics.^[10] This milestone demonstrated the feasibility of entirely soft, self-contained locomotion, building on earlier soft lithography techniques pioneered by Whitesides for fabricating compliant structures.^[11] In 2012, Whitesides co-founded Soft Robotics Inc., commercializing soft grippers based on pneumatic actuation to handle delicate objects in industrial settings, bridging academic research with practical applications.^[12] The 2010s and 2020s witnessed a boom in soft robotics, fueled by rapid prototyping methods like 3D printing, which enabled the fabrication of complex, multi-material soft structures with integrated channels for actuation.^[13] This period saw exponential growth in publications and innovations, with advancements in materials science—such as tunable elastomers—facilitating scalable designs.^[14] Key milestones from 2023 to 2025 include the development of fully 3D-printed soft robots capable of self-walking immediately upon completion, using pneumatic systems to enable untethered mobility without post-processing assembly.^[15] In September 2025, researchers at Tufts University advanced crab-inspired soft multi-legged robots capable of learning tasks on land and underwater, such as landmine clearance.^[16] Additionally, in November 2025, a novel soft robotic intubation device was developed to improve airway management in medical procedures.^[17] Integration of soft robots into multi-robot systems also advanced, allowing collaborative tasks like swarm-based exploration through compliant, adaptive interactions.^[18] As of 2025, the field is approximately 60-70 years old, having experienced steady progress from its pneumatic roots but achieving rapid expansion post-2010 due to these materials and fabrication breakthroughs.^[13]

Design and Types

Classification of Soft Robots

Soft robots are classified primarily based on their structural composition and intended functionality, providing a framework to distinguish design variations and applications. Structural classifications emphasize the degree of compliance and integration of components, while functional categories highlight operational roles. This taxonomy aids in understanding how soft robotics diverges from traditional rigid systems, enabling adaptability in unstructured environments.^[19] By structure, soft robots are categorized into fully soft, hybrid, and modular types. Fully soft robots consist entirely of compliant materials without rigid elements, often featuring continuum designs like hydrostatic skeletons or muscular hydrostats that allow infinite degrees of freedom (DOF) through continuous deformation, contrasting with the discrete joints and finite DOF of rigid serial manipulators. Examples include elephant-trunk-inspired arms, which mimic biological trunks for versatile bending and grasping via pneumatic or cable actuation. Hybrid soft robots combine soft bodies with rigid components, such as embedded motors or endoskeletons, to balance flexibility with precision; for instance, quadruped robots with pneumatic soft limbs over rigid frames enhance locomotion stability. Modular soft robots employ interchangeable soft units, like voxel-based or tensegrity structures, enabling reconfigurability for tasks ranging from assembly to self-repair.^[19]^[20]^[21] Functionally, soft robots are grouped by primary tasks, including grippers and manipulators for object handling, crawlers and locomotors for terrestrial navigation, swimmers for aquatic propulsion, and wearables for human augmentation. Grippers, such as octopus-inspired designs with suction arrays, excel in delicate manipulation due to compliant contact. Crawlers, like inchworm or peristaltic robots, achieve ground traversal through sequential body undulations, offering high maneuverability in confined spaces. Swimmers emulate fish or jellyfish for fluid environments, utilizing undulatory motions for efficient propulsion. Wearables, including exosuits with soft actuators, provide assistive support for rehabilitation or enhanced mobility. These categories often overlap, with design considerations prioritizing compliance to achieve hyper-redundant motion patterns that enhance adaptability over rigid precision.^[19]^[20]^[21] In recent classifications as of 2025, the taxonomy has expanded to include biohybrid soft robots integrating living tissues, such as muscle cells with synthetic scaffolds for self-healing actuation, and multi-robot swarms incorporating soft elements for collective tasks like cooperative transport. Biohybrids, exemplified by cardiomyocyte-driven jellyfish mimics, leverage biological responsiveness for energy-efficient operation. Soft-enabled swarms, often heterogeneous and decentralized, facilitate emergent behaviors in dynamic settings, such as environmental monitoring or search-and-rescue. These advancements underscore evolving design paradigms toward biointegration and scalability.^[22]^[19]

Biomimetic Designs

Biomimetic designs in soft robotics emulate the morphology, compliance, and movement patterns of biological organisms to achieve versatile functionality. These designs leverage the inherent flexibility and adaptability of soft materials to replicate natural systems, such as the distributed actuation in animal appendages, enabling robots to navigate complex environments with minimal rigid components.^[1] Inspiration for grasping and manipulation often draws from octopus arms, which feature muscular hydrostats capable of precise, multi-directional movements without skeletal support. Seminal work by Laschi et al. developed a soft robotic arm using cable-driven actuation to mimic the octopus's longitudinal and transverse muscle fibers, allowing for curling, elongation, and bending in confined spaces.^[23] Jellyfish propulsion inspires bell-like structures for efficient underwater locomotion, where rhythmic contractions expel fluid for thrust; for instance, a 2023 jellyfish-like platform uses dielectric actuators to achieve untethered swimming speeds up to 0.38 body lengths per second while carrying payloads.^[24] Earthworms provide models for burrowing, with peristaltic motion enabled by segmental actuators; a 2023 earthworm-inspired robot employs pneumatic segments to achieve forward locomotion in granular media at speeds of approximately 0.002 body lengths per second.^[25] Elephant trunks inspire continuum manipulators for dexterous handling, as seen in Festo's Bionic Handling Assistant, which uses pneumatic bellows to replicate the trunk's numerous muscle fibers for omnidirectional gripping.^[26] Key designs include pneumatic networks (pneu-nets) that mimic bundled muscle fibers through embedded channels in elastomers, enabling rapid bending with actuation times under 0.5 seconds and strains up to 300%.^[27] Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) replicate skin-like contraction by compressing under electrostatic forces, achieving areal strains over 100% to simulate superficial muscle layers in soft grippers.^[28] These approaches enhance adaptability in dynamic environments by distributing forces like biological tissues, improving efficiency through lower energy consumption than rigid counterparts in variable terrains—and enabling safe interactions with fragile objects.^[29] Recent 2025 advances in biohybrid designs integrate living cells, such as skeletal muscle tissues, into soft scaffolds; for example, ETH Zurich's biohybrid system uses 3D-printed muscle cells with tendon-like anchors to mimic natural muscle-bone connections.^[30] Specific implementations include Harvard's soft exosuits, which employ textile anchors and actuators inspired by human muscle-tendon units to assist hip and ankle flexion, reducing metabolic cost by 14% during loaded walking.^[31] Snake-like soft robots for endoscopy, such as Harvard's 2017 pop-up fabricated arm, use fluidic actuators to navigate curved lumens with a diameter under 10 mm, mimicking serpentine undulation for minimally invasive procedures.^[32]

Materials

Elastomers and Polymers

Elastomers and polymers form the foundational passive materials in soft robotics, providing the necessary compliance, flexibility, and structural integrity for robot bodies and components. Silicone elastomers, such as Sylgard 184 and Smooth-Sil 950, are among the most commonly employed due to their high elasticity, ease of processing, and biocompatibility, making them suitable for applications requiring deformation without permanent damage. Sylgard 184, a polydimethylsiloxane-based material, offers optical transparency and low viscosity, enabling precise fabrication of intricate structures.^[33]^[34]^[35] In contrast, polyurethane elastomers are favored for their superior toughness and load-bearing capacity, providing enhanced durability in demanding mechanical environments.^[36]^[37] Key properties of these materials include a Young's modulus typically ranging from 0.1 to 10 MPa, which allows for large strains while maintaining structural recovery; for instance, Sylgard 184 exhibits a modulus of approximately 1.3 to 3.9 MPa depending on curing conditions.^[37]^[38] They also demonstrate strong tear resistance and biocompatibility, with silicones like Sylgard 184 meeting standards for biomedical contact due to their inert nature.^[39] Trade-offs exist, such as the low hysteresis in silicones—which minimizes energy loss during repeated deformation—but at the expense of higher material costs compared to polyurethanes, which offer better abrasion resistance but may exhibit greater viscoelastic damping.^[40]^[36] Selection of these elastomers in soft robotics hinges on factors like durability under cyclic loading, where silicones maintain performance over thousands of cycles with minimal fatigue, and environmental resistance, including operational temperatures from -55°C to 200°C for materials like Sylgard 184.^[41]^[42] Polyurethanes excel in impact-prone scenarios due to their high toughness, often exceeding 100 MJ/m³ in energy absorption.^[43] These properties ensure reliability in varied conditions, from underwater to terrestrial deployments. Recent advances as of 2025 emphasize recyclable elastomers to enhance sustainability, with developments in reprocessable silicone and polyurethane formulations that retain mechanical integrity after multiple recycling cycles, reducing waste in soft robot production.^[44]^[45] Such materials are often integrated via molding and casting techniques for complex geometries.^[33]

Smart and Active Materials

Smart and active materials in soft robotics are stimuli-responsive substances that undergo reversible deformations or property changes in response to external triggers such as temperature, electric fields, or chemical gradients, enabling integrated actuation and sensing without rigid components. These materials, often built upon elastomeric bases, facilitate biomimetic movements and adaptability in unstructured environments. Unlike passive polymers, they exhibit dynamic behaviors that mimic biological muscles or tissues, with key examples including shape memory polymers, dielectric elastomers, and hydrogels.^[46]^[47] Shape memory polymers (SMPs) are a prominent class that recover their permanent shape from a temporary deformed state upon thermal stimulation, typically above a transition temperature around 30–60°C. This thermal recovery arises from entropic elasticity in polymer networks with temporary crosslinks that fix the deformed shape, releasing upon heating to restore the original configuration. In soft robotics, SMPs enable programmable deformations for grippers and crawlers, with two-way SMP variants allowing reversible actuation without external programming.^[48]^[49] Dielectric elastomers (DEs) achieve electrostatic deformation when voltage is applied across compliant electrodes sandwiching the elastomer film, producing Maxwell stress that compresses the material in thickness and expands it laterally. The voltage-strain relation for small strains in a thin DE film is given by

\epsilon = \frac{\epsilon_0 \epsilon_r V^2}{2 Y d^2},

where \epsilon is the magnitude of the thickness strain, \epsilon_0 the vacuum permittivity, \epsilon_r the relative permittivity, V the applied voltage, Y the Young's modulus, and d the initial electrode separation. This relation derives from the electrostatic pressure \sigma = \frac{1}{2} \epsilon_0 \epsilon_r E^2 (with E = V/d) balanced against the elastic stress \sigma = Y \epsilon, assuming incompressibility and negligible gravity. DEs in soft robotics power fast actuators with strains up to 100%, as seen in inchworm-like crawlers and artificial muscles.^[28]^[50] Hydrogels respond to hydration changes, swelling or contracting based on water absorption driven by osmotic pressure or chemical crosslink alterations, often triggered by pH, temperature, or light. This volume phase transition enables slow but gentle actuation suitable for underwater or biomedical soft robots, such as swelling-based valves or walkers. In soft robotics, photoresponsive hydrogels accelerate response via embedded nanoparticles that convert light to heat, enhancing bending motions.^[47]^[51] Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) extend active material capabilities with light-actuated bending, where aligned mesogens align under illumination to induce order-disorder transitions and anisotropic contraction. These materials drive untethered soft robots, like crawling modules, by exploiting photothermal effects for reversible deformations up to 40%. Recent 2025 advancements in biohybrid materials integrate living muscle cells into hydrogel matrices, creating muscle-integrated gels that contract via bioelectric signals for enhanced force output in multijoint robots.^[52]^[53]^[54] Despite their promise, smart and active materials face challenges including fatigue from repeated cycles, where microstructural damage accumulates, reducing recovery efficiency by up to 50% after thousands of actuations in SMPs. Response times are often slow, on the order of seconds for thermal SMPs and hydrogels, limiting applications requiring rapid dynamics. Ongoing research addresses these through reinforced composites and hybrid designs to improve durability.^[55]^[48]

Fabrication Techniques

Molding and Casting

Molding and casting represent foundational fabrication techniques in soft robotics, enabling the creation of compliant structures from elastomeric materials through the use of reusable or sacrificial molds. These methods draw from traditional manufacturing but are adapted for the unique properties of soft materials, such as high stretchability and biocompatibility.^[56] The core process begins with soft lithography, a technique particularly suited for micro-scale features in soft robotic components. In this approach, molds—often fabricated from rigid materials like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or photoresists—are filled with a liquid precursor, typically a two-part silicone elastomer such as Sylgard 184. The components are mixed in a specified ratio (e.g., 10:1 base to curing agent), which introduces air bubbles that must be removed via degassing in a vacuum chamber to ensure structural integrity and prevent defects. The mixture is then poured into the mold and cured thermally at temperatures between 60°C and 80°C for several hours, allowing the elastomer to solidify while retaining flexibility. This method achieves high fidelity in replicating intricate geometries, making it ideal for pneumatic channels or sensory arrays.^[56] Advanced techniques extend these basics to handle complexity. Lost-wax casting, for instance, facilitates the production of internal voids or convoluted pathways by embedding a temporary wax core within the mold; after pouring and partial curing of the elastomer, the wax is melted or dissolved, leaving hollow structures suitable for fluidic actuation. This approach has been employed in soft grippers capable of autonomous object manipulation, where seamless, monolithic bodies enhance durability. Multilayer molding builds on this by sequentially casting and curing thin layers of elastomer, often aligned with adhesives or primers to integrate channels or reinforcements, as seen in pneumatic actuators with embedded fluid pathways.^[56] These methods offer distinct advantages, including low prototyping costs and precise control over elastomer properties like Young's modulus, which can be tuned via curing conditions. A notable example is the Harvard octobot, an entirely soft, autonomous robot fabricated through multilayer molding of silicones such as Sylgard 184 and SE 1700, where sequential casting created integrated reaction chambers and pneumatic arms without rigid components. However, limitations persist: iterative design changes require remaking molds, prolonging development cycles, and scaling to mass production is challenging due to manual handling and variability in curing uniformity.^[57]^[56]

Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the fabrication of soft robots by enabling the layer-by-layer construction of complex, customized structures from compliant materials such as elastomers and hydrogels, without the need for traditional molds. This tool-free approach excels in producing intricate geometries, such as embedded channels for actuation or heterogeneous material distributions, which are challenging with conventional methods. Key techniques include direct ink writing (DIW), multi-material 3D printing, and stereolithography (SLA), each tailored to specific material properties and resolution requirements. These methods facilitate rapid prototyping and iteration, allowing researchers to integrate functional elements like pneumatic pathways directly during fabrication.^[58]^[59] Direct ink writing (DIW) is particularly effective for printing hydrogels and other viscoelastic materials used in soft robotics, involving the extrusion of inks through a nozzle to deposit precise filaments that solidify post-deposition. Inks typically exhibit shear-thinning behavior with viscosities ranging from 10³ to 10⁶ Pa·s, ensuring flow under pressure while maintaining structural integrity after extrusion; this range accommodates pastes like silicone-based composites or hydrogel precursors. Curing occurs via ultraviolet (UV) light, thermal crosslinking, or chemical reactions such as thiol-ene polymerization, enabling the creation of biomimetic structures like soft grippers or crawling actuators. For instance, DIW has been used to fabricate hydrogel-based soft robots that mimic biological tissues, achieving resolutions down to 200 μm. Multi-material 3D printing extends DIW and other extrusion processes by employing multiple nozzles or sequential deposition to combine disparate materials, such as rigid supports with soft elastomers, for hybrid robots with gradient stiffness. This technique supports the integration of functional inks, including those derived from smart materials like conductive polymers, to embed sensing or actuation capabilities in a single print.^[58]^[60]^[61] Stereolithography (SLA), a vat photopolymerization method, provides high-resolution fabrication for elastomer-based soft robots by selectively curing liquid resins with UV light in a layer-by-layer manner, achieving feature sizes as fine as 50 μm. Resins, often photocurable polyurethanes or silicone analogs, flow freely in the vat (viscosities below 10 Pa·s) and solidify via radical polymerization upon light exposure, ideal for detailed pneumatic actuators or self-healing components. An example includes SLA-printed polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-like grippers that enable helical motion through embedded channels. By 2025, advances in these techniques have introduced 4D printing capabilities, where printed structures incorporate stimuli-responsive materials like liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) to enable post-printing self-assembly; for instance, DIW-printed LCE robots with embedded pneumatic channels can "walk" or roll upon thermal activation, mimicking autonomous reconfiguration without external assembly, while 4D-printed fiber-reinforced LCE composites enable self-heating actuation in multifunctional soft robots.^[58]^[62]^[59]^[63] Further innovations include the seamless integration of electronics during printing, using conductive composite inks in multi-material DIW or material jetting to embed sensors and circuits directly into soft bodies, enhancing autonomy in hybrid robots. These developments, such as sensor-integrated grippers for delicate manipulation, demonstrate AM's potential for multifunctional devices. Benefits of AM in soft robotics encompass rapid customization for patient-specific designs and reduced material waste compared to subtractive methods, with prototypes achievable in hours. However, challenges persist, including material anisotropy from layer alignment, which can lead to directional mechanical weaknesses, and the need for post-processing to mitigate interlayer bonding issues. Ongoing research addresses these through optimized ink formulations and printing parameters to improve isotropy and durability.^[64]^[61]^[58]

Actuation and Control

Actuation Mechanisms

Actuation mechanisms in soft robotics convert energy into motion through compliant structures, enabling adaptive and biomimetic behaviors distinct from rigid actuators. These mechanisms prioritize flexibility, large deformations, and safe interaction with environments, often drawing from biological muscles. Pneumatic, hydraulic, thermal, electric, and magnetic systems represent core approaches, each offering unique trade-offs in force, speed, and tethering requirements. Pneumatic actuation, one of the most widely adopted methods, utilizes pressurized gas to induce contraction or bending in elastomeric structures. McKibben muscles, originally developed in the 1950s for orthotic applications, consist of a braided sleeve surrounding an inflatable bladder; upon pressurization, the bladder expands radially, causing the braids to contract axially due to geometric constraints.^[65] These actuators achieve typical contraction ratios of 25-35%, generating forces proportional to pressure while remaining lightweight and self-limiting to prevent overextension.^[66] The force output of a McKibben muscle derives from the conservation of the braid thread length and the work done by pressure on volume changes. Consider a cylindrical model with constant thread length b per turn and n turns: the axial length L = (b/n) \cos \theta and radial radius r = (b \sin \theta)/(2 \pi n), where \theta is the braid angle. The internal volume is V = \pi r^2 L = [\pi b^3 \sin^2 \theta \cos \theta] / (4 \pi^2 n^2). The axial force F equals the negative rate of pressure work with respect to length, F = -P' (dV/dL), where P' = P - P_0 is gauge pressure (P_0 atmospheric). Substituting yields F = [\pi (b/(2 \pi n))^2 P'] (3 \cos^2 \theta - 1), or simplified with initial diameter D_0 = b/(\pi n), F = [\pi D_0^2 P'/4] (3 \cos^2 \theta - 1). Maximum contraction occurs at \theta \approx 54.7^\circ (zero force), limited in practice by friction and material stiffness.^[66] Fluidic elastomer actuators (FEAs), another pneumatic variant, embed inflatable channels within silicone matrices to produce bending motions. Inflation of asymmetric channels causes differential strain, with an inextensible constraining layer (e.g., fabric) directing curvature toward the fixed side; this enables large bending angles at low pressures of 3-8 psi.^[67] FEAs support diverse morphologies, such as ribbed designs for enhanced curvature or cylindrical ones for higher blocking forces, facilitating applications like gripping or locomotion.^[67] Hydraulic actuation employs incompressible fluids, such as water or oil, to transmit force through soft chambers, offering higher output than pneumatic systems due to fluid density. In cyclic designs, a miniature pump shuttles fluid between internal reservoirs, producing oscillatory bending with deflections up to 13° at 0.9 Hz and forces suitable for load-bearing tasks.^[68] These actuators excel in environments requiring precise, high-force deformations, such as underwater manipulation.^[69] Thermal actuation leverages shape memory polymers (SMPs), which recover programmed shapes upon heating. These materials, often polyester urethanes, exhibit two-way shape memory effects with reversible strains up to 16% when cycled between 15°C and 64°C, typically activating recovery around 60°C via polymer chain reconfiguration.^[70] SMPs enable compact, untethered motion in grippers or morphing structures, though response times are slower than fluidic methods. Electric actuation via dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) uses electrostatic forces on pre-stretched elastomers sandwiched between compliant electrodes. Applying kilovolt voltages (e.g., 46 MV/m) induces Maxwell stress, compressing thickness and expanding area by up to 100% linear strain, mimicking muscle contraction with high energy density.^[50] DEAs provide fast, silent operation for soft robots, though high voltages necessitate careful insulation.^[71] Magnetic actuation suits untethered soft robots by embedding ferromagnetic particles in elastomers, allowing remote deformation via external fields. These systems enable precise, wireless control with rapid responses and adaptability across media, supporting multimodal locomotion in confined spaces.^[72] Recent advances in untethered actuation include chemical combustion mechanisms, where controlled fuel-oxygen reactions generate rapid gas expansion for impulsive motions. In 2025 developments, combustion-driven actuators enable soft robots to jump distances up to six times their body length, even underwater, expanding capabilities for dynamic exploration.^[73] Such methods, powered by functional fluids, offer high power density without tethers, complementing smart materials like those in active polymer systems.

Control Strategies

Control strategies for soft robots must account for the inherent nonlinearity, compliance, and continuum nature of these systems, which differ markedly from rigid-body dynamics in traditional robotics. Unlike rigid robots with discrete joints and finite degrees of freedom (DOF), soft robots exhibit distributed deformation, requiring algorithms that handle hyper-elastic behaviors and environmental interactions for precise motion direction. These strategies often integrate predictive modeling, adaptive learning, and feedback mechanisms to achieve stable locomotion, manipulation, or reconfiguration.^[74]^[75] Model-based approaches rely on physics-driven simulations, such as finite element analysis (FEA), to predict deformations and enable forward and inverse kinematics. FEA discretizes the soft body into a mesh of elements, solving partial differential equations for stress-strain responses under actuation inputs, allowing real-time trajectory planning for tasks like grasping. For instance, in soft continuum manipulators, FEA-based models facilitate closed-loop control by approximating the system's Jacobian matrix, which maps joint configurations to end-effector positions. This method excels in environments with known dynamics but demands high computational resources for accuracy.^[76]^[77] Complementing model-based methods, model-free techniques like reinforcement learning (RL) adapt to uncertainties without explicit physical models, treating control as an optimization problem over reward functions for desired behaviors. In RL frameworks, policies are trained via trial-and-error interactions, often using algorithms such as proximal policy optimization to handle high-dimensional state spaces in soft grippers or crawlers, achieving robust performance in unstructured settings. These approaches are particularly effective for underactuated systems where precise modeling is infeasible.^[78]^[79] Hybrid strategies combine classical proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control with soft constraints to balance stability and adaptability, incorporating model predictions or learning elements to mitigate overshoot in compliant structures. For example, feedforward PID augmented with viscoelastic damping constraints stabilizes pneumatic actuators during rapid deformations, reducing error by up to 50% in position tracking compared to pure PID. This integration allows for tunable responsiveness in multi-segment arms.^[80]^[81] A primary challenge in soft robot control stems from their theoretically infinite DOF, leading to underactuation where fewer actuators control more modes than available inputs, complicating path planning and stability. This results in emergent behaviors like buckling or oscillation under external loads, necessitating dimensionality reduction techniques to approximate finite DOF subspaces. By 2025, AI integration, particularly deep neural networks for real-time morphing, has addressed these issues by enabling on-the-fly adaptation, such as generating control policies for shape-shifting in dynamic environments with sub-second latency. As of 2025, advancements in machine learning have enabled predictive control for untethered soft robots in real-world scenarios.^[37]^[82]^[74]^[83] Specific methods tailor controls to actuation types; for pneumatic systems, pressure feedback loops use proportional valves and sensors to maintain equilibrium, closing the gap between commanded and actual chamber pressures via nonlinear controllers like sliding mode, ensuring stability in bellows-style grippers. In dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs), voltage modulation applies pulsed or ramped electric fields to induce Maxwell stress, with feedback from strain gauges to prevent dielectric breakdown, achieving strains over 100% in stacked configurations.^[84]^[85]^[86] For hyper-redundant soft arms, inverse kinematics often employs the Jacobian matrix J = \frac{\partial \mathbf{x}}{\partial \mathbf{q}}, where \mathbf{x} is the end-effector pose and \mathbf{q} the configuration variables (e.g., curvatures). This pseudo-inverse formulation, \dot{\mathbf{q}} = J^\dagger \dot{\mathbf{x}} + (I - J^\dagger J) \mathbf{z}, resolves redundancy by null-space projection \mathbf{z} for obstacle avoidance, derived iteratively in real-time simulations.^[87]^[88]

Sensing Technologies

Soft Sensor Types

Soft sensors in soft robotics are designed from compliant, deformable materials to enable the detection of mechanical deformations, contact forces, and environmental cues while maintaining the inherent flexibility of robotic structures. These sensors are categorized primarily by their transduction mechanisms, including resistive, capacitive, and optical types, each offering unique advantages in sensitivity, range, and integration capabilities. Resistive strain gauges represent one of the most prevalent soft sensor types, employing conductive inks or composites—such as carbon nanotubes or graphene—embedded within elastomeric matrices to measure strain through variations in electrical resistance.^[89] These sensors typically exhibit resistance changes proportional to applied strain, with reported variations of 10-50% under moderate deformations, enabling precise tracking of elongation or compression in soft actuators.^[90] A key property is their high embeddability in elastomers like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), achieved via techniques such as direct ink writing or molding, which allows seamless incorporation without rigid components.^[91] Sensitivity is notably enhanced in carbon nanotube-based variants, achieving gauge factors exceeding 100, which quantifies the relative resistance change per unit strain and supports detection of subtle movements down to micrometer scales.^[92] Capacitive sensors operate by monitoring changes in capacitance arising from deformations that alter the geometry between conductive electrodes separated by a dielectric elastomer.^[89] The fundamental capacitance is given by

C = \epsilon_0 \epsilon_r \frac{A}{d},

where C is the capacitance, \epsilon_0 is the vacuum permittivity, \epsilon_r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric, A is the electrode overlap area, and d is the distance between electrodes.^[89] Deformation sensitivity derives from variations in these parameters: for instance, stretching increases d or reduces A, leading to a decrease in C; the relative change in capacitance, \Delta C / C, approximates -\Delta d / d for small separations where area effects are negligible, or incorporates both terms for larger strains as \Delta C / C \approx -(\Delta d / d + \Delta A / A). This enables proximity detection, with capabilities to sense objects at distances up to 20 mm, making them suitable for non-invasive environmental monitoring in soft grippers or manipulators.^[93] Like resistive types, capacitive sensors are highly embeddable in stretchable substrates, offering robustness to repeated cycles up to hundreds of percent strain.^[89] Optical fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) provide a robust alternative for shape sensing, utilizing optical fibers with periodic refractive index modulations embedded in compliant materials to detect curvature and torsion via wavelength shifts in reflected light.^[89] Strain induces a shift in the Bragg wavelength \lambda_B = 2 n \Lambda, where n is the effective refractive index and \Lambda is the grating period, allowing reconstruction of three-dimensional poses with errors below 2.5% for bending and resolutions of ±0.1 mm.^[94] These sensors excel in embeddability, often helically wound within elastomers to accommodate significant bending deformations (e.g., radii as low as 10 mm) without fracture, and offer immunity to electromagnetic interference, ideal for complex soft robot morphologies.^[89] Recent innovations as of 2025 have expanded soft sensor capabilities for specialized environments. Touchless capacitive sensors, leveraging advanced dielectric composites, enable non-contact detection over extended ranges while preserving stretchability, facilitating safer human-robot interactions in dynamic settings.^[95] Similarly, piezoresistive hydrogels incorporating conductive polymers have emerged for operation in wet or aqueous conditions, maintaining sensitivity to strain and pressure without degradation, thus broadening applications in biomedical soft robots.^[96]

Integration in Soft Robots

Integrating sensors into soft robotic structures enables closed-loop operation by providing real-time feedback on deformation and environmental interactions, essential for precise control and adaptability. Common methods include 3D printing co-fabrication, where sensors are printed simultaneously with the robot's body using multi-material techniques such as digital light processing, allowing seamless embedding of resistive or capacitive elements without post-assembly.^[58] Embedding during molding involves incorporating flexible sensor components, like strain-sensitive inks or optical fibers, directly into silicone or elastomer molds before curing, which preserves the soft continuum while minimizing wiring vulnerabilities.^[97] Stretchable electronics utilizing liquid metal traces, such as eutectic gallium-indium alloys, further facilitate integration by forming conductive pathways that maintain functionality under extreme deformation, often patterned via direct writing or injection into elastomeric substrates.^[98] These integration approaches support critical feedback loops in soft robots. Proprioception, enabling self-awareness of internal states, is achieved through embedded curvature sensors that detect bending angles and shape changes, as demonstrated in bidirectional pneumatic actuators where iontronic sensors provide monotonic strain feedback up to 180 degrees of curvature.^[99] Exteroception, for perceiving external environments, relies on tactile arrays integrated into grippers or surfaces, such as piezoresistive grids that map contact forces and slippage during manipulation tasks.^[89] Recent advances as of 2025 have enhanced multi-modal integration, combining strain and perception sensing in a single soft actuator to enable adaptive grasping; for instance, capacitive and triboelectric sensors enable precise positioning and grasp control on fragile objects by fusing sensory data for object recognition.^[100] Wireless communication via near-field communication (NFC) has also progressed, with battery-free modules embedded in soft robots that transmit sensor data without tethered connections, supporting untethered operation in confined spaces.^[101] Despite these developments, challenges persist in maintaining sensor reliability over time. Signal drift arises from material fatigue, where repeated cyclic loading in elastomers causes hysteresis and baseline shifts in output, degrading accuracy in long-term deployments.^[102] Calibration for nonlinear responses is equally demanding, as soft materials exhibit viscoelastic behaviors that produce non-linear sensor signals, requiring advanced models like deep learning-based compensation to map raw data to accurate deformation metrics.^[103]

Applications

Medical and Healthcare

Soft robotics has revolutionized medical and healthcare applications by enabling minimally invasive procedures that prioritize biocompatibility, precision, and reduced patient trauma. These robots, often designed with compliant materials like silicone elastomers and hydrogels, conform to delicate tissues, minimizing damage during diagnostics, surgery, and therapy. In diagnostics, soft robotic endoscopes navigate complex anatomies such as the gastrointestinal tract with greater safety than rigid counterparts, while in therapy, they facilitate targeted interventions like drug delivery.^[104] In surgical contexts, continuum robots—characterized by their infinite degrees of freedom and hyper-redundant structures—excel in minimally invasive procedures, allowing access to confined spaces like the gastrointestinal tract. For instance, untethered soft capsules propelled by magnetic fields or peristaltic mechanisms have advanced gastrointestinal endoscopy, enabling wireless navigation and biopsy without tethered constraints, as demonstrated in 2025 developments integrating tubular propulsion for enhanced mobility. These designs draw briefly from biomimetic principles, such as snake-like undulation for intuitive control in tortuous paths. Magnetic soft millirobots, resembling miniature helical swimmers, further enable vascular navigation by responding to external fields for precise targeting in blood vessels, reducing the need for invasive incisions.^[105]^[106]^[107] For rehabilitation and therapeutic applications, soft grippers provide gentle tissue handling during procedures like organ manipulation or wound care, leveraging pneumatic or dielectric actuation to adapt to irregular surfaces without causing bruising. Swelling hydrogels integrated into these grippers enable controlled drug delivery; upon stimuli like pH changes or temperature, they expand to release payloads directly at target sites, enhancing efficacy in localized treatments such as chemotherapy. In preclinical studies, soft endoscopes incorporating compliant growing mechanisms via eversion have demonstrated up to 80% reduction in mesentery extension compared to traditional scopes during colonoscopy simulations, by distributing pressure evenly across tissue walls.^[47]^[108] The inherent compliance of soft robots reduces surgical trauma, leading to benefits like shorter hospital stays and faster recovery times. These advancements underscore soft robotics' potential to improve patient outcomes in healthcare by combining adaptability with biocompatibility.^[109]

Industrial and Manipulation

Soft robotics has emerged as a transformative technology in industrial settings, particularly for manipulation tasks involving delicate, irregular, or fragile objects in manufacturing and logistics. Unlike traditional rigid robotic systems, soft robots utilize compliant materials and structures to conform to object shapes, enabling gentle handling without damage while maintaining precision in controlled environments. This adaptability is crucial for applications such as pick-and-place operations in assembly lines, where objects vary in size, texture, and orientation. Soft grippers, often employing pneumatic or vacuum mechanisms, are widely used for handling sensitive items like food products and electronics. Pneumatic soft grippers, which inflate to create conforming pads, excel at picking fragile produce such as fruits and vegetables, minimizing bruising through distributed pressure rather than point forces. For instance, vacuum-based soft pads adhere to smooth, non-porous surfaces like electronic components, allowing safe manipulation in high-throughput packaging lines. These designs draw on actuation principles like pneumatics for reliable gripping, as explored in broader actuation mechanisms. In collaborative robotics, soft components enhance cobots designed for safe operation alongside human workers in shared spaces, reducing injury risks through inherent compliance. The integration of soft grippers and limbs in cobots supports tasks like sorting and assembly in dynamic environments, where adaptability to human presence is essential. Market analyses project significant growth for collaborative robots incorporating soft technologies, with the global cobot market expected to reach USD 2.95 billion in 2025, driven by their flexibility in industrial automation. Notable examples include the mGrip system from Soft Robotics Inc., which uses modular pneumatic fingers for bin picking in e-commerce and food industries, enabling autonomous retrieval of randomly oriented items from bins with high reliability. Hybrid soft-rigid robotic arms, combining compliant joints with rigid links, facilitate precise assembly in manufacturing; for example, layered fabrication techniques produce arms capable of navigating cluttered spaces for tasks like component insertion, balancing dexterity and payload capacity. The primary benefits of soft robotics in these applications lie in superior performance for unstructured grasping scenarios. Soft grippers achieve success rates up to 96% for irregular and fragile objects, outperforming rigid counterparts in adaptability to varied geometries while preventing damage—rigid grippers often fail or cause deformation in similar conditions. This enhanced grasping efficacy, combined with lower operational forces, contributes to efficiency gains in industrial workflows.

Exploration and Rescue

Soft robotics has emerged as a vital technology for search and rescue (SAR) operations in disaster scenarios, where robots must navigate unstable rubble and confined spaces that pose risks to human responders. Snake-like soft crawlers, inspired by biological locomotion, enable effective traversal through debris piles by utilizing flexible, segmented bodies that conform to irregular surfaces and gaps as small as a few centimeters. For instance, eversion-based snake robots with hydraulic skeletons have been developed to penetrate disaster rubble, allowing for victim detection and supply delivery without structural collapse risks. In earthquake response, soft quadrupeds leverage pneumatic actuation for enhanced mobility over uneven, debris-laden landscapes. These designs incorporate soft sensors for navigation, briefly referencing proprioceptive feedback to maintain stability amid dynamic obstacles. In space exploration, soft robots offer resilience against extreme conditions, such as temperature fluctuations and rough extraterrestrial terrains, making them ideal for planetary surface missions. Inflatable soft explorers, constructed from lightweight, deployable materials, can expand from compact forms to traverse vast areas on bodies like Mars or the Moon, performing tasks like sample collection and mapping with minimal energy use. Bio-inspired burrowers, mimicking earthworms through peristaltic motion via soft actuators, facilitate subsurface sampling by penetrating regolith layers up to several meters deep, enabling analysis of geological or potential biosignatures without rigid drilling equipment that could fail in abrasive soils. These systems have been prototyped for NASA missions, highlighting their ability to operate autonomously in low-gravity, vacuum environments where traditional rovers struggle. Notable examples include initiatives for soft-enabled drone swarms in urban SAR, where flexible aerial and ground units collaborate to scout collapsed structures. Additionally, untethered magnetic soft swimmers, propelled by external fields, address environmental disasters by navigating water surfaces to deploy payloads, with prototypes achieving controlled locomotion over contaminated areas. The primary advantages of soft robots in these domains stem from their inherent resilience to high-impact collisions—absorbing shocks that would damage rigid systems—and their suitability for multi-robot swarms, which enhance coverage through decentralized coordination in expansive or hazardous zones. This compliance allows swarms to distribute tasks like area scanning or payload relay, improving overall mission efficiency by factors of 2-5 in cluttered settings, while minimizing single-point failures.

Wearable and Rehabilitation

Soft robotics has significantly advanced the field of wearable devices and rehabilitation tools, offering flexible, lightweight alternatives to traditional rigid exoskeletons that enhance user comfort and mobility. These devices leverage soft materials such as textiles and elastomers integrated with pneumatic or cable-driven actuators to provide assistive forces, enabling natural human-robot interaction during daily activities and therapeutic exercises. In rehabilitation contexts, soft wearables target conditions like stroke-induced hemiparesis, promoting motor recovery through repetitive, low-impedance assistance that minimizes joint restrictions and fatigue.^[110]^[111] Textile-integrated pneumatic exosuits represent a key innovation for gait assistance, particularly in supporting individuals with neurological impairments. Developed by researchers at Harvard's Biodesign Lab, these quasi-passive devices use anchored textiles and soft actuators to apply forces at the hip and ankle, reducing the metabolic cost of walking by 11-15% in healthy users and improving propulsion symmetry in chronic stroke patients by enhancing paretic ankle dorsiflexion and forward propulsion. In clinical trials, such exosuits have enabled stroke survivors to walk farther with less energy expenditure, achieving up to a 10% reduction in metabolic rate during overground locomotion when providing timed assistance synchronized to the gait cycle.^[110]^[111]^[112] For upper limb rehabilitation, soft robotic gloves facilitate hand therapy by assisting grasping and finger extension in patients with limited dexterity post-stroke. The soft robotic glove from the Wyss Institute at Harvard employs fiber-reinforced elastomeric actuators to deliver gentle, adjustable forces, enabling repetitive exercises that improve grip strength and range of motion without causing discomfort. A 2022 clinical study demonstrated that such gloves assist paretic hands in executing grasp, pinch, and release tasks with 84.7% accuracy in intent detection, leading to measurable gains in hand function after 12 weeks of use. More recent advancements include bidirectional fabric-based gloves that provide both flexion and extension support, enhancing performance on activities of daily living for chronic stroke patients.^[113]^[114]^[115]^[116] Emerging haptic feedback suits in soft robotics are being integrated into virtual reality (VR) training for rehabilitation, providing tactile cues to reinforce motor learning. As of 2025, reconfigurable soft robotic modules using pneumatic actuation deliver localized vibrations and shape changes for immersive feedback, supporting neurorehabilitation by simulating real-world textures and forces during VR-based therapy sessions. These suits, often weighing under 2 kg, allow for personalized resistance training, with early prototypes showing improved task adherence in upper extremity exercises for stroke recovery. Recent 2025 developments, such as EPFL's modular soft systems, enable customizable haptic interactions for enhanced VR rehabilitation.^[117]^[118]^[117] Myoelectric-controlled soft braces further exemplify user-intent-driven assistance, using surface electromyography (EMG) signals to modulate actuator responses in real-time. A 2025 review highlights their integration into soft exoskeletons for lower limb support, where EMG pattern recognition enables proportional control of assistive torques, reducing muscle effort by up to 20% during walking tasks in hemiplegic patients. These braces, often constructed from compliant fabrics, adapt to limb contours for seamless wear, outperforming rigid systems in long-term compliance.^[119]^[120] A primary benefit of soft robotic wearables lies in their lightweight design—typically under 1 kg—and conformal fit, which contrasts with rigid exoskeletons by allowing unrestricted natural kinematics and reducing skin shear forces. This portability facilitates home-based rehabilitation, with devices like the ReStore Exo-Suit enabling extended use without fatigue, thereby accelerating recovery timelines compared to bulkier alternatives. Overall, these attributes promote higher patient adherence and broader accessibility in therapeutic settings.^[121]^[110]^[122]

Challenges and Future Directions

Technical Challenges

One of the primary technical challenges in soft robotics lies in accurately modeling the nonlinear dynamics inherent to compliant materials, which often exhibit viscoelastic behavior that complicates simulation and prediction. These materials' distributed compliance and complex deformation patterns require advanced numerical methods, such as finite element analysis or reduced-order models, but such approaches frequently suffer from high computational demands and inaccuracies in capturing detailed mechanical responses.^[123] For instance, viscoelastic effects like creep and hysteresis can lead to significant prediction errors in trajectory or force estimation due to unmodeled nonlinearities. These modeling hurdles directly impact control strategies, where imprecise simulations exacerbate difficulties in achieving stable, real-time operation.^[123] Durability remains a critical barrier, as repeated flexing induces fatigue in elastomeric components, limiting operational lifespan. Common soft materials, such as silicone elastomers used in pneumatic actuators, typically endure a limited number of cycles, often on the order of tens of thousands, before failure from crack propagation or material degradation, far below the endurance of rigid counterparts. Additionally, temperature sensitivity poses risks of brittle failure; polymeric matrices in soft robots can transition to rigid, fracture-prone states below -20°C, reducing strain capacity and increasing vulnerability in variable environments.^[124] Power supply constraints further hinder untethered deployment, as many soft robots rely on tethered pneumatic or hydraulic lines to avoid mobility limitations from onboard sources. Even with advancements in battery integration as of 2025, such as flexible lithium-polymer units, runtime for untethered soft systems is typically limited to a few hours due to high energy demands of actuation and the low energy density of compliant power storage.^[125] This tethering dependency restricts applications requiring extended autonomy, amplifying challenges in scaling beyond laboratory prototypes.^[126] Scalability from micro- to macro-scale designs presents ongoing difficulties in maintaining uniform material properties across dimensions. Additive manufacturing techniques, like direct ink writing, enable multi-scale fabrication but struggle with consistent filler dispersion and mechanical heterogeneity, leading to variations in elasticity or conductivity that undermine performance uniformity.^[58] For example, micro-scale features demand sub-micron resolution for precise actuation, while macro-structures face issues with layer adhesion and support removal, often resulting in non-uniform deformation responses.^[58]

Emerging Trends

One prominent emerging trend in soft robotics is the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) to enable adaptive behaviors, such as self-morphing structures driven by machine learning algorithms. These systems allow soft robots to dynamically adjust their morphology in response to environmental changes, optimizing locomotion or manipulation tasks in real-time. For instance, researchers have developed AI-driven design tools that automatically generate robot configurations capable of morphing into specific shapes while maximizing speed or efficiency, leveraging reinforcement learning to train on simulation data before physical deployment.^[127] Similarly, machine learning models have been applied to control soft actuators, enabling robots to adapt force and flexibility on-the-fly for tasks like terrain navigation.^[128] This AI embodiment enhances multimodal sensing and decision-making, paving the way for more autonomous soft robotic systems.^[129] Biohybrid soft robots, which incorporate living tissues such as muscle cells, represent another key advancement, particularly for applications requiring self-healing and biocompatibility. These robots combine synthetic scaffolds with biological components to achieve compliant motion and regenerative capabilities, mimicking natural healing processes. A notable example involves actuators powered by engineered muscle tissues that contract in response to stimuli, allowing the robot to repair minor damage autonomously through cellular proliferation.^[53] Recent prototypes demonstrate biohybrid devices that grow and heal like human tissue, using living myocytes to drive movement while integrating self-assembling properties for durability in dynamic environments.^[130] Such innovations expand soft robotics into therapeutic domains, where the robots' ability to interface seamlessly with biological systems supports minimally invasive interventions.^[131] Sustainability efforts in soft robotics are gaining traction through the development of recyclable and biodegradable materials, alongside energy harvesting mechanisms to reduce reliance on external power sources. Researchers are focusing on eco-friendly polymers and hydrogels that maintain actuation performance while enabling end-of-life disintegration, addressing environmental concerns in robot deployment. For example, fully biodegradable electrohydraulic actuators have been created using compatible material systems that degrade harmlessly after use, suitable for temporary applications like environmental monitoring.^[132] Complementing this, piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators integrated into soft structures harvest energy from ambient motion or vibrations, powering sensors and actuators without batteries.^[133] These approaches align with broader goals of creating "green" soft robots that minimize ecological impact across their lifecycle.^[134] Advancements in multi-robot soft swarms facilitate coordinated operations for complex tasks, leveraging the inherent flexibility of soft materials for resilient collective behaviors. These swarms consist of numerous small, deformable units that communicate locally to navigate confined or unpredictable spaces, such as disaster zones, without centralized control. Prototypes have demonstrated soft robotic swarms capable of adaptive formation and task allocation, drawing on bio-inspired principles for enhanced robustness.^[135] Integration with multi-robot systems further enables scalable applications, where soft components improve compliance and safety in human-shared environments.^[22] Market projections indicate significant growth for soft robotics, with the global market expected to reach USD 8.80 billion by 2030, driven by expansions in healthcare and search-and-rescue (SAR) sectors. In healthcare, soft robots are projected to grow from USD 120.1 million in 2025 to USD 601.3 million by 2034, fueled by demand for adaptive devices in surgery and rehabilitation. SAR applications benefit from the technology's ability to operate in unstructured terrains, contributing to overall market momentum.^[136]^[137] As of 2025, touchless sensing technologies are enhancing soft robot efficiency by enabling non-contact perception of obstacles and environments, reducing wear and improving safety. These sensors, often based on capacitive or triboelectric principles, allow robots to detect proximity without physical interaction, as seen in prototypes for confined-space exploration.^[138] Concurrently, space applications are advancing through soft robotics, with presentations at the RoboSoft 2025 conference highlighting miniature, deformable robots for planetary exploration in narrow crevices.^[139]

Research Community

Key Journals

The field of soft robotics has seen significant growth in dedicated peer-reviewed publications, with several journals serving as primary outlets for research on design, actuation, sensing, materials, and applications of soft and deformable robotic systems.^[140] The flagship journal, Soft Robotics, published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., was established in 2014 and focuses on the full spectrum from fundamental principles to practical implementations, including bioinspired designs and hybrid systems.^[141] It features annual special issues on key topics such as soft actuation mechanisms and advanced sensing technologies, fostering in-depth exploration of compliant materials and control strategies. With a 2024 Journal Impact Factor of 6.1, it remains a high-impact venue for seminal contributions in the discipline.^[141] Other prominent journals include IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters (RA-L), which dedicates a specific category to soft robotics, covering modeling, control, learning, sensors, actuators, and applications within its broader scope of innovative robotics research.^[142] Published by the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society, RA-L emphasizes concise, timely reports on theoretical and applied advancements, including soft robot materials and designs.^[143] Similarly, Science Robotics, from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, regularly publishes select articles on soft robotics, highlighting breakthroughs in biohybrid systems, adaptive structures, and multifunctional soft devices that bridge biology and engineering.^[144] These publications have contributed to the field's expansion, with over 16,000 papers on soft robotics indexed since 2010, reflecting its interdisciplinary momentum.^[145] In 2025, journals like Soft Robotics have shown an increased emphasis on biohybrid approaches, integrating living tissues with synthetic soft materials for enhanced actuation and responsiveness, as evidenced by recent articles on yeast-driven bioimpedance-sensitive systems and organoid-integrated robots.^[146] Complementary outlets such as Advanced Materials, which includes dedicated sections and issues on soft robotics, explore material innovations like thermally actuated compliant structures and piezoelectric enhancements for energy-harvesting soft devices. Likewise, Frontiers in Robotics and AI maintains a specialized section on soft robotics, promoting open-access research on deformable structures, biomimetic fabrication, and adaptive control, with 41 research topics active as of 2025.^[147] These journals collectively archive high-impact work, prioritizing verifiable advancements over speculative trends.

Major Conferences

The IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft), organized annually by the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society since 2018, serves as the premier dedicated event for the field, bringing together researchers to present advancements in soft materials, actuation, modeling, and applications.^[148] The 2025 edition, held from April 22 to 26 in Lausanne, Switzerland, at the SwissTech Convention Center, adopted the theme "Interdisciplinarity and Widening Horizons" to emphasize cross-disciplinary collaborations in areas such as bio-inspired design and human-robot interaction.^[149] It featured keynote speeches, interactive demonstrations, workshops, and competitions, fostering innovation through hands-on sessions on topics like soft grippers and compliant mechanisms. Complementing RoboSoft, major general robotics conferences incorporate dedicated soft robotics tracks and workshops. The IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) 2025, held May 19–23 in Atlanta, USA, included a plenary keynote on soft robotics, multiple technical sessions such as "Soft Robotics 1," and specialized workshops like "Soft Robotics for Space Applications" and "Supporting Reproducibility in Soft Robotics," highlighting challenges in modeling, fabrication, and deployment for extraterrestrial environments.^[150]^[151] Similarly, the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) 2025, October 19–24 in Hangzhou, China, hosted workshops including "The SOFT Frontier 2: Practical Applications in Soft Robotics," focusing on real-world integration in manipulation and locomotion, alongside sessions on soft robot learning and actuators.^[152]^[153] The ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition (IMECE) 2025, November 16–20 in Memphis, Tennessee, USA, featured soft robotics sessions within broader tracks on dynamics and controls, with submissions exploring compliant structures for human-safe interactions and biomimetic designs.^[154] These events collectively drive the field's progress by enabling knowledge exchange, with RoboSoft 2025 proceedings published in IEEE Xplore to archive over 200 contributions on diverse themes, including search-and-rescue applications, while attracting hundreds of global attendees for networking and collaboration.^[155] Extended conference papers often appear in key journals for deeper dissemination.^[148]

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Hydrogel soft robotics - ScienceDirect.com
Hydrogels are promising as compliant materials for soft robots because of their outstanding features, including high stretchability, transparency, ion ...
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Tetanus-driven biohybrid multijoint robots powered by muscle rings ...
Jul 16, 2025 · Biohybrid actuators using muscle rings have been limited to twitching movements and are unsuitable for sustained contractile force ...
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Soft Self‐Healing Robot Driven by New Micro Two‐Way Shape ...
Nov 20, 2023 · Soft robotic bodies are susceptible to mechanical fatigue, punctures, electrical breakdown, and aging, which can result in the degradation ...
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https://www.nature.com/articles/s44182-025-00049-w
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https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu9962
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Fabrication of Soft Robotics by Additive Manufacturing
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Soft Actuators and Robots Enabled by Additive Manufacturing
May 3, 2023 · This paper discusses soft actuators and robots enabled by additive manufacturing. Authors include Dong Wang, Jinqiang Wang, and others.
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Direct-Ink-Write 3D Printing of Hydrogels into Biomimetic Soft Robots
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(PDF) Multi‐Material Additive Manufacturing of Soft Robotic Systems
The review examines key materials, including elastomers, polymers, and composites, while addressing material compatibility and selection challenges.
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Click chemistry stereolithography for soft robots that self-heal
Stereolithography (SLA) is an additive manufacturing technique that can rapidly fabricate the complex device architectures required for the next generation of ...
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Advances in 3D and 4D Printing of Soft Robotics and Their ...
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Pneumatic Artificial Muscles - Soft Robotics Toolkit
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[PDF] Measurement and Modeling of McKibben Pneumatic Artificial Muscles.
Abstract: This paper reports mechanical testing and modeling results for the McKibben artificial muscle pneumatic actuator. This device, first developed in ...
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A Recipe for Soft Fluidic Elastomer Robots - PMC - PubMed Central
This work provides a recipe for designing and fabricating soft fluidic elastomer actuators and robotic systems.
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[PDF] Cyclic Hydraulic Actuation for Soft Robotic Devices
A hydraulic pump attached to a soft body allows for water movement between two inner cavities, ultimately leading to a flexing actuation in a side-to- side ...
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Powering Soft Robotics: A Deeper Look at Soft Robotics Actuators
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Actuating Shape Memory Polymer for Thermoresponsive Soft ... - NIH
For soft robotics and programmable metamaterials, novel approaches are required enabling the design of highly integrated thermoresponsive actuating systems.
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Dielectric Elastomer Actuators - Soft Robotics Toolkit
Actuation strains of up to 1692% (Keplinger 2012) have been achieved and a theoretical maximum energy density of 1.4 J/g (Koh 2009) was calculated. DEAs ...
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Apr 25, 2024 · Electrically-driven soft actuators present significant benefits in untethered soft robotics, including versatile actuation mechanisms, ...
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Control Strategies for Soft Robot Systems - Wiley Online Library
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Control Strategies for Soft Robotic Manipulators: A Survey
Jan 3, 2018 · Probably the most challenging field in the control of continuum/soft robots is the development of nonstatic controllers that considers the ...
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[PDF] Model-Based Control of Soft Robots - TU Delft Research Portal
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FEM-based trajectory tracking control of a soft trunk robot
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Model-Free Reinforcement Learning with Ensemble for a Soft ...
Model-free reinforcement learning (RL) is a promising tool to resolve control problems in soft robotics alongside detailed and elaborate modeling.
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Towards Reinforcement Learning Controllers for Soft Robots using ...
Oct 24, 2024 · This paper introduces a novel approach to soft robotic control, leveraging state-of-the-art policy gradient methods within parallelizable ...
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[PDF] A Hybrid Control Approach for a Pneumatic-Actuated Soft Robot
Jan 15, 2025 · This paper proposes a hybrid controller for a pneumatic-actuated soft robot. To this end, a model-based feedforward controller is designed and.
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Comparison of Modern Control Methods for Soft Robots - MDPI
Dec 3, 2022 · In this contribution, one kinematic and two dynamic control methods for soft robots are examined. Thereby, an LQI controller with gain scheduling, which is new ...
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Control of soft robots with inertial dynamics - Science
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Advanced Design of Soft Robots with Artificial Intelligence
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Model-Based Nonlinear Feedback Controllers for Pressure Control ...
This article describes the application and comparison of three nonlinear feedback controllers for low-level control of soft actuators driven by a pressure ...
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Force and Pressure Control of Soft Robotic Actuators - PMC - NIH
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Voltage-controlled morphing of dielectric elastomer circular sheets ...
Dielectric elastomers provide large, fast, and reversible deformations which can be harnessed to provide predefined sophisticated actuation deformations.
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(PDF) Jacobian-based learning for inverse kinematics of soft robots
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[PDF] Efficient Jacobian-Based Inverse Kinematics With Sim-to-Real ...
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Sensing in Soft Robotics | ACS Nano - ACS Publications
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[PDF] Embedded 3D Printing of Strain Sensors within Highly Stretchable ...
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Highly Stretchable Additively Manufactured Capacitive Proximity ...
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Fiber Optic Shape Sensing for Soft Robotics - PMC - NIH
This work explores the potential of a nearly commercial fiber optic shape sensor (FOSS) and presents the first demonstrations of a monolithic, multicore FOSS.
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The stretchable, piezoresistive hydrogel sensor presented in this study represents a promising advancement for real-time biomechanical sensing in 3D ...
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A retrofit sensing strategy for soft fluidic robots - Nature
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We present a method for incorporating microelectronic sensors and integrated circuits (ICs) into the elastomeric skin of a soft robot.
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[PDF] Proprioceptive Curvature Sensing and Sliding-Mode Control of Soft ...
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Multimodal Sensors Enabled Autonomous Soft Robotic System with ...
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Wireless, battery-free multi-axial sensor for augmented reality ...
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[PDF] Adaptive Drift Compensation for Soft Sensorized Finger ... - arXiv
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Advances of soft robotics for gastrointestinal tract applications
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(PDF) Hard‐Magnetic Soft Millirobots in Underactuated Systems
Hard‐magnetic soft millirobots combine flexible polymer matrices with magnetic particles to achieve precise, remotely controlled deformation and locomotion.
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Robotic surgery is safer and improves patient recovery time
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Soft Exosuits | Harvard Biodesign Lab
We are creating innovative textiles that are inspired by an understanding of human biomechanics and anatomy. These wearable garments provide means to ...
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A soft robotic exosuit improves walking in patients after stroke
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Effects of a soft robotic exosuit on the quality and speed of ...
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Soft Robotic Glove for Neuromuscular Rehabilitation - Wyss Institute
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Effectiveness of a Soft Robotic Glove to Assist Hand Function ... - NIH
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Myoelectric untethered robotic glove enhances hand function and ...
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A bidirectional fabric-based soft robotic glove for hand function ...
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Reconfigurable Haptic Feedback: Comprehensive Design and ...
Jun 16, 2025 · Herein, a modular framework is presented for designing and controlling soft robotic haptic devices capable of shape and stiffness modulation.
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Soft Robot Modules for New Haptic Interactions
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Myoelectric Control in Rehabilitative and Assistive Soft Exoskeletons
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Human-in-the-Loop Myoelectric Pattern Recognition Control of ... - NIH
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ReStore™ Soft Exo-Suit For Stroke Rehabilitation - Lifeward
The ReStore™ Exo-Suit is a powered, lightweight soft device intended for use in stroke rehabilitation of persons with lower limb disability.
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Soft Robotics in Upper Limb Neurorehabilitation and Assistance
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Modeling and Simulation of Dynamics in Soft Robotics: a Review of ...
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View of Technologies and Applications of Soft Robotics: A Review
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(PDF) Untethered Soft Robots for Future Planetary Explorations?
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Shape-changing robots: New AI-driven design tool optimizes ...
Oct 1, 2025 · "So you can automatically design a robot able to meet all of your objectives—such as morphing into certain shapes, moving as fast as possible ...
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Georgia Tech's Soft Robotics Flips the Script on 'The Terminator'
Oct 27, 2025 · Yeo trains machine learning algorithms to adjust those pliable materials in real time with the right amount of force or flexibility for each ...
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Advanced Design of Soft Robots with Artificial Intelligence - PMC - NIH
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Living tissue could fuel robots that grow, heal and move like humans
Oct 24, 2025 · A new research paper suggests scientists are working on designing robots that could live on muscle cells like humans, ditching gears and ...
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Biohybrid Soft Robots Powered by Myocyte: Current Progress and ...
Aug 20, 2023 · Their light mass, high adaptability to target shapes, low contact collision forces with the environment, and self-healing capabilities allow ...
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Biodegradable electrohydraulic actuators for sustainable soft robots
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Advanced Materials for Energy Harvesting and Soft Robotics ...
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Becoming Sustainable, The New Frontier in Soft Robotics - PMC - NIH
This review outlines the rise of sustainable materials in soft and bioinspired robotics, targeting all robotic components from actuators to energy storage and ...
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Soft Robot Swarms - Collective Embodied Intelligence Lab
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Soft touchless sensors and touchless sensing for soft robots - Frontiers
This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art soft touchless sensors, their significant recent progress, and bottlenecks ...
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Soft Robotics : - Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
Journal Impact Factor: 6.1* *2024 Journal Citation Reports™ (Clarivate, 2025). The leading robotics journal, publishing world-class peer-reviewed research on ...
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Soft Robotics | Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers
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Keywords - IEEE Robotics and Automation Society
Soft Robotics. Soft Robot Applications. Soft Robot Materials and Design. Modeling, Control, and Learning for Soft Robots. Soft Sensors and Actuators ...
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IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters - Scimago
Scope. The IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters (RA-L) publishes peer-reviewed articles that provide a timely and concise account of innovative research ...
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A democratized bimodal model of research for soft robotics - Science
Feb 19, 2025 · A shift toward a democratized, bimodal model of research would allow soft robotics to realize its full potential.
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Design of Soft Robots: A Review of Methods and Future Opportunities for Research
Summary of each segment:
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Yeast-Driven and Bioimpedance-Sensitive Biohybrid Soft Robots
Apr 25, 2025 · This study focuses on leveraging yeast fermentation dynamics to enable actuation and sensing in soft robotic systems.
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Frontiers in Robotics and AI | Soft Robotics
Part of an exciting journal, this multidisciplinary section explores the use of "soft" materials or deformable structures to build robots.Soft Robotics41 Research Topics
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RoboSoft - IEEE Robotics and Automation Society
IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics · 2027 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates · 2026 Kanazawa, Japan (website) · 2025 Lausanne, Switzerland (website).
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IEEE RoboSoft 2025
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Keynote Sessions - IEEE ICRA 2025
: Designing Robots for Humans. View Presentation. Wednesday, 21 May. Soft Robotics. 8:30 AM. Meeting Room: Sidney Marcus Auditorium. KeynoteSpeaker ...
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Soft Robotics for Space Applications - IEEE ICRA 2025
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IROS2025 Workshops & Tutorials
Soft Robot Materials and Design; Soft Sensors and Actuators; Wearable Robotics ... Multi-Robot Systems; AI-Enabled Robotics; Swarm Robotics. l Organizers.
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The SOFT Frontier 2: Practical Applications in Soft Robotics
The second SOFT Frontier Workshop at IROS 2025 will focus on advancing the practical applications of soft robotics. Building on the success of the IROS 2024 ...
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Tracks & Chairs - ASME Events
The tracks include Acoustics, Vibration, and Phononics; Advanced Design and Information Technologies; Advanced Manufacturing; Biomedical & Biotechnology ...Missing: soft robotics
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2025 IEEE 8th International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft)
Read all the papers in 2025 IEEE 8th International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) | IEEE Conference | IEEE Xplore.