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Post mill

A post mill is an early European windmill design in which the entire wooden body of the mill, housing the grinding machinery and millstones, is mounted horizontally on a central vertical post, enabling the structure to pivot fully and align its sails with changing wind directions.^[1]^[2] This configuration, typically featuring four sails attached to a horizontal shaft, allowed the mill to harness wind power for grinding grain into flour, marking a significant advancement in pre-industrial agriculture.^[3]^[4] The origins of the post mill trace back to the 12th century in northern Europe, with the earliest documented reference appearing in England in 1191 at the Abbey of Bury St. Edmunds.^[5] Likely developed from earlier horizontal-axis designs influenced by Middle Eastern or Persian vertical-axis windmills, post mills spread rapidly across England, the Low Countries, and France by the late medieval period, becoming a common sight in rural landscapes for their simplicity and adaptability.^[4]^[1] Their use peaked in the 18th and 19th centuries before declining with the rise of steam-powered mills and more efficient tower designs.^[1] Structurally, the post mill's body—often a box-like buck—rests on a sturdy central post elevated by a trestle or crossbeams for stability, with rotation achieved via a long tailpole and wheels that allow manual adjustment into the wind.^[2]^[3] Inside, a main gear wheel connected to the sail shaft drives the upper millstone against a stationary lower one, producing meal whose coarseness is regulated from the ground floor; sails could be adjusted or reefed for varying wind speeds.^[3] Variants include open-trestle, hollow-post, and roundhouse models for added support or storage, though fewer than 1,000 survive worldwide as of 2023, many preserved as cultural heritage sites.^[1]^[2]

History and Origins

European Origins

The post mill, the earliest form of European windmill, emerged in the late 12th century as a horizontal-axis design adapted for harnessing wind to drive machinery, primarily in northern France and England.^[6] The first documented appearance occurred in Normandy in 1180, with the design likely originating in the Seine Valley region amid growing agricultural demands.^[7] By 1185, records confirm the use of a post mill in Weedley, Yorkshire, England, marking the earliest specific reference in British sources.^[8] The origins of the post mill are debated, with some historians arguing for an independent European invention and others suggesting possible indirect influence from earlier vertical-axis windmills developed in Persia around the 7th century and in China possibly as early as the 1st century CE.^[6]^[7] European builders developed a horizontal-axis configuration with fabric-covered wooden sails on a horizontal shaft, enabling efficient power transmission for milling and better suiting local wind patterns and existing grain-grinding technologies.^[6] Initially purposed for grinding corn (grain) into flour, post mills addressed the labor-intensive needs of rural medieval communities, where families required processing up to 1.2 bushels of wheat or barley weekly—tasks that otherwise demanded nine hours of manual effort.^[6] These mills offered a wind-dependent alternative to centralized watermills often monopolized by manorial lords under feudal systems, facilitating more accessible grain processing in wind-prone areas without reliance on rivers.^[9] Key early features included a simple wooden body mounted on a central vertical post supported by a cross-shaped trestle, eliminating the need for stone foundations and allowing the entire structure to rotate for wind orientation—a mobility that suited temporary or communal setups in agrarian landscapes.^[9] This design's portability and low-cost construction using local timber promoted rapid adoption across rural Europe by the 13th century.^[6]

Evolution and Spread

Following their initial development in the 12th and 13th centuries, post mills underwent significant technological refinements and spread rapidly across northern Europe starting in the 14th century, becoming a cornerstone of rural economies in regions with reliable winds but limited water resources. Dutch engineers pioneered key improvements, such as enhanced sail designs and gearing systems, which increased milling capacity and versatility for tasks beyond grain grinding, including drainage and industrial processing. By the 16th century, post mills had proliferated in the Low Countries, England, and northern France, adapting to local needs like land reclamation in the Netherlands' polders.^[10]^[11] The 16th and 17th centuries marked the peak of post mill usage, with estimates indicating around 9,000 operational windmills in England by the late 17th century, many of which were post mills dominant in areas without suitable watercourses. In the Netherlands, the number reached approximately 9,000 during this period, supporting extensive agricultural and proto-industrial activities, while France had thousands in operation, particularly in the north and along the coasts, contributing to a total European windmill count exceeding 200,000 by some accounts. Adaptations for efficiency included the addition of roundhouses in the late 1690s to shelter the trestle structure from weather, and composite designs elevating the post on brick piers for greater stability and reduced maintenance. These innovations allowed post mills to handle larger loads and operate more reliably, briefly referencing the basic pivot mechanism that enabled full-body rotation to face the wind.^[12]^[13]^[11]^[14] Post mills played a vital role in Europe's agricultural revolutions by enabling faster and more efficient grain processing, which boosted flour production and supported population growth in agrarian societies from the 16th to 18th centuries. Their widespread adoption mechanized milling, reducing labor demands and allowing surplus for trade, thus facilitating economic expansion in rural areas.^[14]^[15] The decline of post mills began in the early 19th century amid industrialization, as steam-powered mills offered consistent operation independent of weather, and more advanced tower mills provided superior capacity without the need to rotate the entire structure. By mid-century, post mill numbers in England had fallen sharply, from peaks of 7,000–10,000 to fewer than 200 surviving examples by 1900, with similar trends in the Netherlands and France where steam and electrification supplanted wind power. Despite this, post mills persisted in remote rural areas into the early 20th century, particularly in England where some operated until the 1950s.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[11]

Design and Operation

Structural Components

The central vertical post, commonly referred to as the king post, forms the foundational support of a post mill, bearing the weight of the entire rotating mill body and enabling its pivoting motion. Typically crafted from durable hardwoods such as oak or elm to withstand rotational stresses and weather exposure, the post is often hewn from a single tree or assembled as a compound structure, with examples measuring 14 feet 6 inches to 22 feet 9 inches (4.42 to 6.93 meters) in height and approximately 2 feet square (0.6 meters by 0.6 meters) at the base.^[12] It is mounted atop crosstrees—horizontal timbers that intersect at the post's base—and steadied by quarterbeams, which are sloping struts tenoned into the post to distribute the load evenly and prevent lateral movement.^[16] These connections allow the post to rotate freely within a bearing cap, such as a crown tree, while the quarterbeams transfer the mill's weight to ground-level supports.^[12] The buck, or mill body, is a robust wooden framework that encases the internal machinery, including gears and millstones, and serves as the platform for the sails. Constructed primarily from oak framing with weatherboarding cladding for protection against the elements, the buck typically measures around 9 feet 9 inches wide by 14 feet long (approximately 3 by 4.3 meters) in historical examples, though larger variants reach depths of 20 feet 6 inches and widths of 10 feet 6 inches (6.25 by 3.2 meters).^[12]^[17] It rests directly on the king post via a central bearing, allowing the entire structure to pivot as a unit, and is often topped with a zinc-sheeted roof to shield the components from rain.^[17] The buck's design emphasizes lightweight yet strong assembly, with side girts and corner posts reinforcing the frame to handle the dynamic loads from wind-driven sails.^[17] The sails, usually four in number and configured as common sails or spring sails, are the primary aerodynamic elements that capture wind energy and transmit it to the mill's horizontal windshaft. Each sail consists of a wooden framework with shutters or slats, mounted on elongated stocks typically made from pitch pine or steel, with individual sail assemblies extending up to 33 feet (10 meters) in stock length and featuring 35 to 51 shutters per sail for optimal airflow.^[17] Attached radially to the windshaft—a cast-iron or wooden beam angled at about 8 degrees—the sails generate rotational torque, with the windshaft journaled into the buck's front wall to connect seamlessly with internal gearing.^[17] Materials like weatherboard for shutters and galvanized steel for modern reinforcements ensure durability, while the overall span can approach 80 feet (24 meters) in diameter for larger mills.^[12] At ground level, the post mill relies on a trestle or staging system for elevation and access, comprising crosstrees, quarterbeams, and brick piers without fixed foundations to facilitate full rotation. The crosstrees, often three in number and made of oak, act as tiebeams that intersect beneath the king post, while the quarterbeams—timber struts of pine or oak—extend to rest on four brick piers, evenly distributing the mill's 20-tonne weight and providing stability.^[17]^[12] This open framework, sometimes enclosed in a roundhouse of 24 feet (7.3 meters) diameter, allows manual access for maintenance and underscores the mill's portable, non-permanent design.^[16]^[17]

Wind Orientation Mechanism

The wind orientation mechanism of the post mill enables the entire mill body, known as the buck, to pivot around a central vertical post, allowing the sails to align with shifting wind directions for optimal power capture. This pivoting design, supported by crosstrees and quarterbars at the base, distinguishes post mills from fixed structures and was a key innovation in early European wind technology, emerging around the 12th to 13th centuries.^[18]^[14] Manual rotation of the buck is typically achieved using a long tailpole or tiller beam extending from the rear of the mill to ground level, which the miller pushes or pulls to swing the structure into the wind. The tailpole is secured to one of several ground anchor points, often 12 in number, spaced around the base to hold the mill in position once aligned. In some designs, a wheel or winch attached to the tailpole facilitates turning by rolling along a circular track, enabling a single worker to rotate the mill despite the weight of the machinery and sails. This process requires significant physical effort, particularly against wind resistance, and was a routine task for millers to maintain efficiency.^[14]^[18]^[3] Later developments introduced semi-automated elements, such as the fantail or tail fan, a small auxiliary sail mounted at the rear and geared to rotate the buck automatically as wind direction changes. Patented in 1745 by Edmund Lee, the fantail aligns perpendicular to the main sails to drive the orientation mechanism via wheels and racks, though it remained rare in traditional early post mills and was more common in subsequent tower mill designs. These additions reduced manual labor but were not standard in the post mill's formative period.^[19] The mechanism's reliance on manual or semi-automated adjustment posed limitations, especially in high or gusty winds, where turning the buck became hazardous and inefficient due to increased resistance and the risk of uncontrolled sail movement. Such challenges contributed to the evolution of protective enclosures like roundhouses in later post mill variants, shielding the buck from extreme weather while preserving the pivoting functionality.^[14]^[20]

Milling Process

In a post mill, the milling process commences as wind propels the sails, imparting rotational motion to the horizontal windshaft mounted at the front of the mill body. The windshaft directly drives the brake wheel, a large wooden gear affixed to its rear end, which in turn engages the wallower—a bevel gear positioned at the top of the central upright shaft. This gearing arrangement converts the horizontal rotation into vertical motion, channeling power downward through the upright shaft to the grinding mechanism below.^[21]^[22] At the stone floor, the upright shaft powers the great spur wheel, a substantial horizontal crown gear encircling it near the bottom. The great spur wheel meshes with one or more stone nuts, small bevel gears connected to the quants (vertical spindles supporting the upper millstones). Each stone nut rotates the runner stone (the upper, movable grindstone) against the stationary bedstone, shearing and crushing the grain placed between them to produce flour or coarser meal. The stones are typically dressed with grooves to facilitate even grinding and material flow outward from the center.^[22]^[23]^[24] Grain introduction occurs via a hopper mounted above the stones on the bin floor, which funnels raw grain through a adjustable wooden shoe directly into the central eye of the runner stone; a vibrating damsel rod attached to the stone nut ensures consistent feed by agitating the grain supply. The resulting product falls through the stone furrows and is collected beneath for sacking or further processing. Depending on stone size and wind strength, post mills could grind several bushels of grain per day.^[22]^[23]^[25] To halt operations, the miller applies a brake band—typically wooden or iron—around the circumference of the brake wheel using a lever and rope mechanism, generating friction to slow and stop the windshaft and sails. This system allows safe control during wind shifts or maintenance, with the entire mill body occasionally pivoted for optimal sail alignment as needed.^[21]^[22]

Types and Variations

Sunk Post Mill

The sunk post mill represents an early variant of the post mill design, characterized by the main vertical post and supporting substructure being partially buried in a pit or earthen mound to enhance stability. This embedding reduces the mill's overall height and limits the leverage exerted by strong winds on the rotating buck, making it suitable for exposed sites where taller structures might topple. Unlike later elevated designs, the sunk post mill lacks a raised trestle, allowing direct ground-level access to the machinery via a simple ladder, which simplifies entry for maintenance and operation.^[12]^[26] Prevalent in England and France during the 13th to 15th centuries, the sunk post mill emerged as a response to the fragility of initial post mill prototypes, with archaeological evidence indicating use from the late 12th century onward. In England, over 20 excavated sites attest to its adoption, particularly in regions like Somerset, where records show early construction costs around £11 for materials including timbers and millstones, as in the Walton mill example from 1342–1343. Early examples in the Low Countries, including medieval sites in what is now Belgium and the Netherlands, further illustrate its spread across northern Europe, often as compact structures under 10 meters tall to minimize wind exposure.^[12]^[27]^[26]^[28] This design offered notable advantages in construction and upkeep, requiring fewer timbers and lower costs compared to more elaborate variants, which facilitated quicker assembly in rural or flood-prone areas like England's Somerset Levels, where it supplemented watermills. Maintenance was also eased by the ground-level access, allowing millers to inspect and repair components without climbing elevated supports. However, these benefits came with significant drawbacks: the buried timbers were highly susceptible to rot from soil moisture and groundwater, often necessitating full replacement every 50–60 years, while the low profile increased vulnerability to flooding in low-lying sites. Excavated remains, such as those at Chedzoy (Somerset, 1971), highlight these issues, with sunken timbers succumbing to decay over time.^[28]^[27]^[12]^[26]

Open Trestle Post Mill

The open trestle post mill features a central vertical post supported by a wooden trestle frame, typically constructed from oak beams and quarterbars arranged in a cross-like configuration on brick or stone piers, elevating the entire mill body (known as the buck) 2 to 4 meters above the ground.^[29] This raised design facilitates under-mill access for loading and unloading grain sacks or carts, as well as providing space for storage of tools and materials beneath the structure.^[30] The trestle typically allows sufficient clearance for practical operations in agricultural settings.^[31] Unlike later enclosed variants, the open trestle offers no protective covering for the supporting framework, exposing the timbers to rain, wind, and soil moisture, which accelerates rot and necessitates frequent repairs, as evidenced by the replacement of decayed oak beams in historic examples like Bourn Mill in 2022.^[32]^[33] However, this elevation positions the sails at a greater height, enabling better capture of steadier and stronger winds above ground level obstacles such as trees or buildings.^[29] This design was particularly common in the 16th century, representing an early evolution of post mill technology suited to rural landscapes.^[34] It prevailed in rural areas of England, where six fully intact examples remain today (as of 2023), and in Germany, as seen in structures like the Lindhorst trestle mill. The lighter weight of the open base compared to grounded or enclosed alternatives made pivoting the mill into the wind relatively easier using a tailpole, though the lack of weatherproofing increased long-term maintenance demands.^[35]^[33]

Post Mill with Roundhouse

The post mill with roundhouse represents an evolutionary advancement in post mill design, incorporating a protective enclosure around the trestle base to mitigate environmental degradation. Constructed primarily from circular stone or brick structures during the 17th and 18th centuries, the roundhouse fully encases the wooden trestle supports, preventing rot and decay caused by exposure to rain, wind, and ground moisture.^[33] This addition not only shielded the critical load-bearing timbers but also created a dedicated space for storing grain, tools, or processed flour, enhancing operational efficiency.^[36] The pivoting mechanism in these mills was adapted to accommodate the roundhouse, featuring a metal track or series of rollers mounted on the sill or curb at the top of the enclosure. This setup allowed the entire buck to rotate a full 360 degrees to face prevailing winds, while the fixed roundhouse provided continuous protection for the supports below, distributing the mill's weight more evenly than open trestle designs.^[33] Rotation was typically achieved manually using a tailpole, though some later examples incorporated fantails for automation.^[37] A notable regional subtype is the Midlands post mill, prevalent in central England, where the buck extends prominently over the roundhouse roof, often clad in a "petticoat" of weatherboarding for added protection and aesthetic integration. This configuration included additional staging platforms around the roundhouse for loading and maintenance, facilitating multi-grain processing such as wheat, barley, and oats in a single facility.^[33] The design's advantages include a significantly extended lifespan exceeding 200 years for well-maintained examples, due to the robust weatherproofing of the base, though it incurred higher construction costs from the use of durable masonry materials compared to simpler wooden trestles.^[33]

Hollow Post Mill

The hollow post mill, known as the wipmolen in Dutch, represents a specialized variant of the post mill designed to facilitate the transmission of rotational power from the rotating upper body to fixed ground-level machinery through a central vertical driveshaft housed within a hollowed-out main post.^[38] This innovation allowed the mill to power auxiliary equipment, such as drainage pumps in the Netherlands or grinding millstones in Scandinavia, without requiring the entire structure to pivot, thereby enabling efficient operations in compact or multi-functional sites like polders or rural granaries.^[39] Unlike standard solid post designs, which integrate all machinery within the rotating buck, the hollow post configuration separates the wind-capturing sails and gearing in the upper body from the stationary processing components below, connected solely by the driveshaft.^[38] Originating in the Netherlands around 1450 as an adaptation of the traditional post mill for land reclamation, the hollow post mill quickly became essential for polder drainage, where it drove paddle wheels or Archimedean screws via a central upright shaft rotating inside the hollow post and linked to a fixed horizontal axis through gearing.^[38] By the 15th to 17th centuries, these mills were instrumental in draining vast areas, such as the 27,000 hectares reclaimed between 1564 and 1632, supporting agricultural expansion in low-lying regions.^[38] In Scandinavia, particularly Finland and southwest Sweden, the design appeared later, around the second half of the 18th century, adapted primarily for corn grinding with local timber; of the 53 surviving examples in Finland, most date to the 19th century and feature an iron driveshaft extending through the hollow post to power millstones in a fixed base structure.^[39] This regional variation emphasized grain processing over drainage, reflecting differing environmental needs.^[39] The core structural feature is the hollow vertical post, which encases the driveshaft and allows the lightweight upper body—containing the sails, wind shaft, and initial gearing—to rotate independently via a tail pole to face the wind, while transmitting power downward to stationary machinery like pumps or stones for tasks such as water lifting or grain milling.^[38]^[39] This setup supported dual-purpose potential in suitable locations, combining wind orientation for power generation with ground-level operations, though implementation varied by region.^[38] However, the design's complexity in balancing the pivoting hollow post and ensuring shaft alignment contributed to its relative rarity; only a limited number were built compared to simpler solid-post variants, and few survive today outside preserved sites in the Netherlands and Finland.^[39]

Composite Mill

The composite mill is a hybrid windmill design that merges the pivoting upper buck of a traditional post mill with a fixed lower section, often a masonry tower or stage, to combine rotational mobility with enhanced structural stability and durability. In this arrangement, the upper wooden body, including the sails and associated gearing, rotates around a central post to face the wind, while the stationary base houses fixed machinery such as grinding stones, eliminating the need to turn the heavier lower components. This configuration addressed limitations of pure post mills by providing a more robust foundation capable of supporting increased loads.^[40] These mills emerged prominently in 18th- and 19th-century France and Belgium, with early precursors appearing in the Loire Valley as far back as 1682, including hybrid grist mills at Saumur and Chinon that featured fixed bases and pivoting upper sections. In Belgium, similar post-tower hybrids supplemented standard post and tower mills, reflecting regional adaptations to local wind patterns and industrial demands. Alternative weather protections for post mill trestles, such as thatched skirts, offered basic shielding but were less durable than the enclosed masonry bases of composite designs.^[40]^[40] The fixed lower structure enabled taller sails and the accommodation of heavier machinery, making composite mills suitable for intensive industrial tasks like oil pressing and large-scale grain grinding. By stabilizing the base, these mills could handle greater power transmission from the sails to below, boosting output for commercial operations without compromising the post mill's wind-orientation efficiency. Representative examples from the Loire region demonstrate sails driving robust stone pairs for flour production, underscoring their role in evolving milling technology.^[40] A key drawback of the composite mill lies in its partial fixed base, which can restrict the ease of full rotation compared to fully pivoting post mills, often necessitating a curb track for the upper buck and potentially increasing friction or alignment challenges during wind shifts. Despite this, the design offered a balanced solution for regions seeking greater capacity while retaining some post mill advantages, serving as a transitional form before the dominance of fully static tower mills.^[40]

Paltrok Mill

The paltrok mill represents a Dutch innovation in post mill design, emerging in the late 16th century as an adaptation suited to the Netherlands' dense landscapes and economic needs during the Golden Age. Attributed to inventor Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest, it evolved from earlier hollow post mills, featuring a compact structure that prioritized efficient rotation and stability for industrial applications. Unlike broader post mill variants, the paltrok's body, named after a traditional sleeveless garment due to its flared silhouette, was optimized for operations in constrained environments, such as riverine towns where space was limited.^[41] Central to its design is the replacement of a traditional full trestle with a simplified support system relying on a short central wooden post encircled by a rim bearing on a low brick base fitted with wooden or stone rollers. This configuration, sometimes incorporating angled bracing elements akin to poles (palen in Dutch) for added rigidity, forms a stable triangular-like framework around the post, eliminating the need for extensive staging while maintaining structural integrity under load. The result is a smaller base footprint, typically accommodating operations in areas as compact as 3-5 meters across, often integrated with a roundhouse for weather protection and storage. The rollers facilitate smooth pivoting around a central pivot point, allowing the entire mill to orient toward the wind with minimal effort, an enhancement over earlier post mills.^[42]^[41] Particularly valued in urban and semi-urban settings, paltrok mills were employed for fine flour milling, leveraging their precise control for grinding high-quality grain products in towns along waterways like the Zaan River. The poles in the support system are typically braced with cross-members, creating accessible under-mill space ideal for storing grain sacks or tools without impeding operations. This layout not only reduced construction costs but also maximized utility in space-limited locales, contributing to the proliferation of hundreds of such mills in the 17th and 18th centuries, though only a handful survive today, such as De Gekroonde Poelenburg (built 1866).^[42]^[43]

Geographical Distribution

In Europe

Post mills achieved their widest historical distribution in Europe during the medieval and early modern periods, originating in regions around the North Sea and spreading southward and eastward. The type's prevalence was particularly notable in areas with suitable wind resources and agricultural needs, such as grain processing and land drainage. By the 18th century, thousands operated across the continent, though regional variations reflected local environmental and economic conditions.^[33] England hosts the highest concentration of surviving post mills, with 47 examples documented as of the early 2020s, the majority clustered in East Anglia where flat terrain and consistent winds favored their construction and operation. In the Netherlands, post mills were integral to polder drainage systems, with historical records indicating over 400 in use by 1851, primarily in low-lying areas like North Holland to pump water from reclaimed land. France also saw significant adoption, especially in Normandy, where post mills were commonly employed for grinding grain to support local agriculture, though fewer survive today due to later industrialization.^[33]^[44]^[45] Regional adaptations enhanced the post mill's functionality amid diverse landscapes. In the Netherlands, the paltrok variant—a specialized form for sawmilling and drainage—featured a short central post and open staging suited to flat polders, allowing efficient operation on soft ground without deep foundations. English post mills often incorporated roundhouses, circular stone or brick enclosures around the trestle base, to shield the structure from variable coastal winds and provide storage space. These innovations peaked in the 18th century but contributed to the type's decline in the 19th century, as steam-powered roller mills offered greater efficiency and reliability, leading to widespread abandonment by mid-century.^[30] Post mills hold profound cultural significance as enduring symbols of rural ingenuity and heritage across Europe, representing the technological advancements that shaped agrarian societies. Many surviving examples benefit from protected status under national monument laws and broader EU frameworks for cultural heritage preservation, with initiatives strengthening since the early 2000s to safeguard industrial and architectural legacies. As of the 2020s, while exact figures vary, several dozen post mills remain operational or semi-operational, maintained by heritage societies for demonstration and limited production.^[46]^[33]

In North America and Beyond

Post mills arrived in North America with early European colonists, marking the beginning of wind-powered milling on the continent. The first such mill is recorded as having been built in 1621 at Flowerdew Hundred plantation in Virginia by English settlers under Sir George Yeardley, serving as a grist mill for grinding grain. Dutch settlers introduced similar post mills to the New York region shortly thereafter, with the initial windmill constructed in New Amsterdam (present-day Manhattan) in 1626 by millwright Franchoys Fezardon to support the growing colony's needs for flour production. By the mid-17th century, these mills had spread to Long Island, where the first operational windmill began grinding grain in Southold in 1644, reflecting the Dutch influence in the area. English post mills also proliferated in the Northeast, becoming common in New England by the early 18th century as settlers adapted European designs to local agriculture. In the American context, post mills underwent modifications to suit the diverse landscapes and crops of the New World. Larger sails were incorporated in Midwestern and prairie regions to harness stronger, more consistent winds, enhancing efficiency for grain processing on expansive farmlands. In the Appalachian region, hybrid configurations emerged, combining post mill structures with water wheels to provide dual power sources in areas with variable wind but reliable streams, allowing for more consistent operation during grinding seasons. These mills were primarily used for corn grinding, a staple crop, and remained vital to rural economies until the mid-19th century, when steam-powered alternatives began to supplant them in many locations. The spread of post mills extended beyond North America but remained limited. In Australia, 19th-century imports introduced post mills to support colonial agriculture, with notable examples including a wooden post mill erected in North Parramatta around 1820 by millwright George Howell and another at Appin by Edward Nicholas Larkin in 1846, both focused on flour production. Similarly, in South Africa's Cape Colony, Dutch settlers established post mills in the late 18th century, such as Mostert's Mill completed in 1796 near Cape Town, which ground grain for the burgeoning settlement.^[47] Globally outside Europe, fewer than 50 post mills survive today, preserved as historical artifacts in museums and heritage sites across these regions. The decline of post mills in North America and other colonial areas accelerated in the late 19th century due to competition from cheaper imported flour and more reliable steam engines, which offered greater control over production. By 1900, widespread rural electrification further diminished their role, as electric motors provided consistent power without dependence on weather, leading to the obsolescence of most traditional windmills by the early 20th century.

Preservation and Legacy

Surviving Examples

One of the most notable surviving post mills is the Outwood Post Mill in Surrey, England, constructed in 1665 and recognized as the oldest working windmill in Britain.^[48] This post mill features a brick roundhouse that allows the entire structure to rotate into the wind, and it continues to grind corn using its original mechanisms, preserving its historical functionality.^[49] In Buckinghamshire, England, the Brill Windmill stands as a prime example of an early open trestle post mill, built around 1680 for miller Isaac Cummings.^[50] The mill's design exposes the supporting trestle structure without a roundhouse in its original form, highlighting 17th-century engineering where the full buck pivots on a central post braced by quarterbars.^[16] Although substantially restored over the centuries, including a brick roundhouse addition in later years, it remains a key representation of trestle-based post mills and operated until 1923.^[51] The Netherlands preserves several paltrok variants of post mills at the Zaanse Schans open-air museum, including the De Gekroonde Poelenburg sawmill, a paltrok type built in 1867 and relocated to the site in 1963.^[52] This mill exemplifies the paltrok's unique wattle-and-daub platform supported by a central post, designed for heavy timber sawing, one of only five remaining paltrok mills in the Netherlands (two in North Holland), operational for demonstrations, from the hundreds that once operated in the Zaan region in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[43] In North America, the De Zwaan windmill in Holland, Michigan, represents a rare imported Dutch post mill, originally constructed in the Zaan district in the 1760s and relocated to Vinkel in the 1880s before being dismantled and shipped to the United States in 1964.^[53] Now operational at Windmill Island Gardens, this authentic working example grinds flour for educational demonstrations, featuring traditional common sails and a buck that rotates on a central post, serving as a cultural link to Dutch milling heritage.^[54]

Modern Restoration Efforts

Contemporary restoration efforts for post mills emphasize the use of traditional materials and methods combined with modern analytical tools to ensure structural integrity while preserving historical authenticity. Since the 1990s, restorers have increasingly employed digital modeling for structural analysis, allowing for precise simulations of load-bearing capacities in the mills' distinctive post-and-beam frameworks. For instance, the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) utilized 3D fly-through models during the 2020-2021 restoration of Kibworth Harcourt Post Mill in Leicestershire, UK, to plan repairs and visualize outcomes before physical intervention. Non-invasive repairs, such as targeted replacement of decayed elements with sustainably sourced oak timbers, are standard to minimize disruption to original fabric; green oak is favored for its durability and compatibility with historic joinery techniques like mortise-and-tenon.^[55]^[56]^[57] Key organizations drive these initiatives, often supported by heritage grants and public funding. In the UK, the SPAB's Mills Section provides technical advice, training for millwrights, and grants through its Mill Repair Fund to facilitate sympathetic restorations, having contributed to projects like Kibworth Harcourt, which was removed from the Heritage at Risk Register after major works costing £350,000. In France, the Fédération des Moulins de France (FDMF) coordinates national efforts for windmill preservation. These bodies collaborate internationally through networks like the International Molinological Society (TIMS), promoting best practices across Europe. Funding typically comes from national heritage lotteries and EU grants, enabling comprehensive overhauls that blend craftsmanship with engineering assessments.^[56]^[58]^[59] Restoration faces significant challenges, including accelerated timber rot from climate change-induced wetter conditions and a shortage of skilled volunteers and millwrights. Increased rainfall and humidity exacerbate decay in exposed oak components, necessitating proactive monitoring and adaptive strategies like improved ventilation to combat moisture ingress. Volunteer shortages, particularly in specialized trades, hinder progress, as noted in discussions by UK mills groups on industrial heritage skills gaps. Despite these, successes abound, such as Dutch restorations in the 2020s where traditional mills were integrated into flood defense systems using updated gearing while retaining core structures, demonstrating resilience against environmental pressures.^[60]^[61] Post mills serve an essential educational role as living museums, fostering public appreciation of milling heritage. Organizations like SPAB and FDMF host annual open days, such as the UK's National Mills Weekend and France's Journées Européennes des Moulins, which collectively attract over 100,000 visitors yearly, offering demonstrations of grinding operations and insights into sustainable engineering. As of 2025, restored sites like Kibworth Harcourt continue to offer public tours, including during National Mills Weekend in May and special September visits. These events not only generate community support but also train the next generation of preservers through workshops, ensuring the craft's survival amid modern threats.^[56]^[62]^[63]^[64]

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[8]
Timeline of mechanical engineering innovation
Nov 18, 2024 · 1185: Post windmill appears in Europe. The first recorded use of a post windmill occurs in 1185 in Yorkshire. 1195: Arab treatise by Fakhr ad- ...
[9]
The English Medieval Windmill | History Today
Windmills abounded in England from the twelfth century onwards. Terence Paul Smith describes how their bodies usually revolved on a vertical post.
[10]
History and spread of the Windmill: Origins until electricity
10,11 The first windmills of Europe were post mills, which, as the name suggest, rested and revolved around a main post. Because of their somewhat precarious ...
[11]
https://doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2025.141002
[12]
None
### Summary of Post Mills in England and Europe
[13]
https://doi.org/10.1080/03055477.2023.2253459
[14]
Wind Powered Factories: History (and Future) of Industrial Windmills
Oct 8, 2009 · Wind and water powered mills were in essence the first real factories in human history. They consisted of a building, a power source, machinery and employees.Missing: decentralized | Show results with:decentralized
[15]
4.10 The Medieval Agricultural Revolution
Thus, mills were still cost effective for peasants, and milled flour became the norm across most of Europe by the end of the twelfth century. The Medieval ...
[16]
open trestle post mill - Windmills . . . .
Post mills were the earliest type of windmill to reach Britain, probably late in the 12th century. They are so named because the body of the mill is supported ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[17]
[PDF] Argos Hill Windmill Trust
Jan 25, 2025 · The mill consists of three main parts, as shown above in a scale drawing of the side elevation. The buck (mill body) contains a windshaft that ...
[18]
History of Windmills
Sep 16, 2025 · As already mentioned, the whole body rotated on the central post, in order to face the wind. To allow this to happen, a tailpole or tiller beam ...Missing: orientation | Show results with:orientation
[19]
None
### Summary of Post Mill Orientation and Fantail/Tail Fan Mechanisms
[20]
Preserving the Windmill: A Conversation with Steve Chabra
Jan 8, 2023 · The vertical post has a round tenon that is morticed into the crown tree, which allows the entire millhouse to be rotated into the direction of ...Missing: orientation | Show results with:orientation
[21]
Glossary of terms | Brixton Windmill & Education Centre
The brake wheel turns the wallower and transfers energy from the horizontal windshaft to the vertical upright shaft to drive the millstones. Wallower. Windshaft.
[22]
[PDF] A Short Guide to Green's Mill
THE STONE NUTS AND THE QUANT. The stone nuts, the gear wheels driven by the cast iron great spur wheel, have beech wood teeth set into an iron ring. Thus this ...
[23]
iii. how a windmill works - Tring Local History
called stone nuts — that ...
[24]
How the Mill Works - Burwell Museum & Windmill
brake wheel (6), mounted on the windshaft, transmits power to the wallower (7) ... The spur wheel has 138 wooden cogs and each stone nut has 24 metal teeth.Missing: post | Show results with:post
[25]
[PDF] A HISTORY OF FLOUR MILLING IN MANITOBA
capability of grinding between 12 to 15 bushels per day.13 This horse mill ... Mitchell's windmill commenced grinding operations on October 1, 1825.16 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
https://archive.org/details/historyofcornmil02bennuoft
[27]
[PDF] Cost of the Mill - Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society
early windmill construction. The earliest ... Coulthard and Watts mention it as a possihle sunk post mill sire,7 and ... ·Building a Post Windmill in 1342".
[28]
[PDF] WINDMILLS OF SOMERSET - Bristol Industrial Archaeological Society
The incomplete sub- structure of another sunk post mill was uncovered near Chedzoy in March 1971 when a mound was ex- cavated in the path of an M5 access ...
[29]
New Grant to Save Bourn Mill Cambridgeshire - Historic England
Apr 7, 2022 · Bourn is an open trestle post mill; the entire weight of the body is supported on a central post, which is then supported by a trestle. The ...
[30]
Post Mill - Mark Joseph Jochim
Jul 14, 2018 · The post mill is the earliest type of European windmill. Its defining feature is that the whole body of the mill that houses the machinery ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
Moraczewo - post mills - Ancient and medieval architecture
The popularity of windmills lasted until the 18th century, and they were an element of the Polish landscape until the 19th century. diagram of a post ...
[32]
[PDF] Bourn Windmill - Cambridge Past, Present & Future
Their early design was of an open trestle post mill, just as you see here in Bourn. Over time the design of windmills changed to make them larger, more ...
[33]
What do dendrochronology and other timber-dating methods tell us ...
This paper attempts to summarise what we know concerning the history of post mills in England and how this understanding can be informed by dendrochronology ...
[34]
Nutley Windmill - Uckfield and District Preservation Society
Nutley Windmill standing in the beautiful Ashdown Forest is the last Open Trestle Post Mill ... It was built in the time of King Henry VIII in the 16th century ...
[35]
Open Trestle Post Mill (wooden construction set)
Dec 19, 2017 · ... lightweight, and built around a central post so that the entire building could be rotated. The central post was mounted on a trestle, which ...
[36]
COP26 and the Growth of Wind Power Series - Part 2
Oct 12, 2021 · Many were also built to incorporate a brick enclosure on the ground, called a roundhouse, which helped to protect the post from the weather and ...
[37]
History of Saxtead Green Post Mill | English Heritage
The mill is 14 metres high overall, of which the roundhouse at the base accounts for half. The mill is considered to be an especially well-proportioned example, ...Missing: advantages | Show results with:advantages<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
[PDF] Windmills in The Netherlands | Advances in Historical Studies
Feb 11, 2025 · In their hey-day there may have been 9000 windmills at work in the Netherlands, roughly equal to the number of mills in England, a country with ...
[39]
[PDF] Windmills in Estonia, Finland and Sweden
Photograph by Gustaf. Lindroos. Hollow post mills, which are a Dutch 13th century development of the post mill, were used for drainage in Holland and corn ...Missing: Netherlands | Show results with:Netherlands<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Windmills, by F. H. Shelton.
### Summary of Hybrid/Composite Post Mills from Windmills by F. H. Shelton
[41]
Windmills in The Netherlands - Scirp.org.
A post mill is a so-called ground winder. It was used as a grain mill. The post mill represents the beginning of two lines of development, a line of cap winders ...Missing: components | Show results with:components<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
None
Below is a merged response that consolidates all the information from the provided summaries into a single, comprehensive overview. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize the key information (definitions, structure, support, poles, history/use) across the different segments, followed by a narrative summary and a list of useful URLs. This approach ensures all details are retained while maintaining readability.
[43]
Sawmill De Gekroonde Poelenburg - Zaanse Schans
Jun 16, 2024 · The paltrok mill was once a highly successful type of windmill, with hundreds of them previously operating in the region. Only two now remain in ...Missing: triangular support
[44]
The demise of windmills in the Netherlands from 1850 to 1950
Current post mill numbers are a good reflection of the situation in 1880, but by ... 39 For the power output of windmills: I. Blanken and H.W. Lintsen ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
Windmills to visit in France
Oct 17, 2018 · The Moulin de Brignemont is now listed as a historic monument. The stone windmill has been fully restored and still crushes wheat into flour.
[46]
Roundhouse (windmill) - Wikipedia
A roundhouse is the part of a post mill that encloses the trestle. It serves two functions; to protect the trestle from the weather and to provide storage ...
[47]
EU Policy for cultural heritage
Oct 21, 2024 · The EU is committed to safeguarding and enhancing Europe's cultural heritage. It does so through a number of policy areas and programmes.Missing: post mills
[48]
Burstow - Exploring Surrey's Past
The post mill at Outwood dates from 1665 and is the oldest working windmill in Britain. ... LGBT+ History Month at Surrey History Centre · Mapping Surrey's LGBTQ+ ...
[49]
Windmill - Outwood
Outwood Mill, built in 1665, is the oldest working windmill in Britain. It's a 'turret' type post mill with a roundhouse, and still grinds corn.Missing: original | Show results with:original
[50]
Brill Windmill, Brill - The Mills Archive
The mill was constructed in the 1680s, and rebuilt and repaired several times throughout its life. It was originally constructed for Isaac Cummings and passed ...
[51]
Brill Windmill - Brill Parish Council
It's a post mill dating from around 1680, although most of the structure has been replaced or rebuilt at one time or another (the most recent refurbishments ...
[52]
See windmills from all over North Holland at the Zaanse Schans
It is estimated that the mill was built in 1610, as a polder mill. In 1672 it stood in Zaandijk as an oil mill. In 1891 the mill was converted into a paint mill ...
[53]
De Zwaan Windmill - Holland, MI
The De Zwaan windmill was brought from the Netherlands in 1964. It has self-guided tours, and is currently training to grind flour, but it is not currently ...
[54]
Project De Zwaan: The Journey of America's Authentic Dutch Windmill
In the early 1960's, a group in Holland, Michigan called “Project Windmill” sought to acquire an authentic, working Dutch windmill to embrace the city's ...
[55]
Kibworth Harcourt Post Mill Project | The SPAB
There were once dozens of post mills in Leicestershire alone – now, there are only 50 post mills left in the whole country. A post mill is the earliest type of ...<|separator|>
[56]
Mills | The SPAB
We provide technical advice, training and funding for the sympathetic repair of mills and their machinery; campaign to save traditional mills from destruction ...
[57]
An old mill rises from the ashes: a timber frame and a thorough fire ...
Apr 21, 2023 · Architects Kaner Olette explain how green oak craftsmanship and timber detailing helped restore a beautiful listed water mill after a ...Missing: restoration | Show results with:restoration
[58]
Kibworth Harcourt mill restoration project nears finish - BBC
Mar 12, 2022 · A rare type of windmill, which last worked in the 1930s, has passed a milestone in its £350,000 restoration.
[59]
https://fdmf.fr/
[60]
How can we help the historic environment cope with climate change?
Nov 30, 2023 · Traditional buildings are at risk of decaying and deteriorating at a faster rate because of climate change, which is causing increased rainfall.Missing: windmills preservation challenges rot<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
North UK Mills Group reflects on industrial heritage skills shortages
Jun 6, 2025 · Members of the North UK Mills Group met online on the 29th May to share their perspectives on skills shortages in industrial heritage ...
[62]
https://fdmf.fr/journees-europeennes-des-moulins-et-du-patrimoine-meulier-3/
[63]
National Mill Day - IamExpat
Annually, more than 100.000 people come out to enjoy National Mill Day, and every year the number rises. The event is organised by the Dutch Mill Association ( ...