Quotation mark
A quotation mark is a punctuation mark used in pairs to set off and represent exact language, either spoken or written, that has been taken from another source, such as direct speech or a cited passage.[1] These marks also enclose titles of shorter works like poems, articles, or chapters, and can highlight words used ironically, as slang, or for emphasis.[1] In English writing, the primary forms are the double quotation marks (“ ”) for main quotations and single quotation marks (' ') for quotations within quotations, though conventions vary by style guide.[2] The history of quotation marks dates to the second century BC in ancient Greece, where the diple (>), and its variant the diple periestigmene (⸖), a double oblique line with dots, were employed by Aristarchus of Samothrace to mark noteworthy or dubious passages in scholarly editions of Homer.[3] During the medieval period in Europe, scribes used marginal symbols like arrows, ditto marks, or paired commas to indicate passages for reading aloud, evolving from oral traditions into written notation.[3] By the late 16th century in France, printers standardized paired inverted commas at the beginning and closing commas at the end of quoted material, marking a key step toward modern usage.[3] By the 18th century, the double quotation mark had become prevalent for direct speech in English printing, a convention that persists as primary in American English. British English, which also initially used doubles as primary with singles for nesting, later adopted single quotes as primary in many 20th-century style guides—a distinction that persists in some today.[3] Quotation marks exhibit significant variation across languages and regions, reflecting cultural and typographic traditions.[4] In many Romance languages like French and Spanish, guillemets (« ») serve as the standard, placed at the paragraph's start and end without spaces inside.[2] German typically uses opening low double quotes („ ) followed by high closing quotes ( “ ), while Scandinavian languages often employ angled quotes (» «).[4] Eastern European languages such as Polish and Czech favor „ “ with commas for nested quotes, and some Asian languages like Japanese use paired 「 」 or English-style marks influenced by Western conventions.[4] These differences arise from historical printing practices and influence localization in multilingual texts.[5] In contemporary usage, rules for quotation marks are governed by style manuals like APA, MLA, and Chicago, which specify placement of periods, commas, and other punctuation—typically inside the marks in American English but outside in British English for non-quoted elements.[6] Misuse, such as "scare quotes" for unintended irony, can alter meaning, underscoring their role in precise communication.[7]History
Origins in Ancient Writing
The earliest precursors to modern quotation marks emerged in ancient Greek writing as diacritical and marginal symbols designed to guide recitation and highlight significant text divisions, such as direct speech or notable passages. In the 4th century BCE, scribes on papyrus rolls employed the paragraphos, a simple horizontal line drawn beneath the first line of a new section, to mark changes in speakers during dramatic dialogues or to separate quoted material from narrative. This practice, evident in surviving literary papyri, facilitated oral performance by signaling pauses and shifts in voice, particularly in plays where direct speech predominated.[8] By the 3rd century BCE, Alexandrian scholars refined these notations for textual criticism and recitation. Zenodotus of Ephesus introduced the obelos (—), a horizontal dash to flag suspected interpolations, while his successor Aristarchus developed the diple (>), an arrow-like mark placed in the margin to draw attention to noteworthy content, including quotations or variant readings. Aristophanes of Byzantium further advanced the system with the théseis, using single dots positioned at low, middle, or high levels within a line to indicate brief, medium, or full pauses, respectively—essential for delivering rhetorical dialogues and quoted speeches with appropriate intonation. These symbols, rooted in Hellenistic rhetorical traditions, enabled scribes to annotate plays and philosophical works, ensuring accurate representation of direct speech for both readers and performers.[3][9] In Roman and medieval manuscript traditions, these Greek innovations influenced marginal notations for similar purposes, emphasizing pauses in recited texts that often featured dialogues or scriptural quotations. From the 8th century CE, the virgula suspensiva—a forward slash (/)—became widespread in Latin manuscripts to denote short pauses, akin to a modern comma, aiding the fluid delivery of direct speech during liturgical or rhetorical readings. Scribes also used underlining or simple strokes to isolate quoted passages, preserving the ancient function of distinguishing voiced elements in prose and verse. This approach drew from classical rhetoric, where symbols guided the dramatic emphasis on spoken lines in works like those of Cicero or early Christian texts.[10] Parallel developments occurred in Semitic scripts, where early diacritics served recitation cues in sacred texts containing extensive quoted speech. In Hebrew, the Masoretic cantillation marks (ta'amim), formalized around the 9th–10th centuries CE but derived from pre-existing Babylonian and Palestinian traditions dating to late antiquity, indicated melodic patterns, syntactic pauses, and emphasis—crucial for chanting biblical dialogues and prophetic quotations during worship. Similarly, in Arabic, tashkeel (vowel diacritics) and i'jam (consonant dots), pioneered by Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali in the late 7th century CE under Umayyad patronage, along with later tajweed symbols, provided precise cues for Quranic intonation, ensuring the rhythmic delivery of verses that include divine address and narrative speech. These systems underscored a shared ancient emphasis on auditory clarity for quoted material across cultures.[11][12]Development in European Printing
The introduction of guillemets (‹ ›), also known as angled quotation marks, occurred in French printing during the 16th century; they first appeared in a 1527 book printed by Josse Bade and are named after the punchcutter Guillaume Le Bé (1525–1598), who adapted them from earlier marginal comma-like indicators for denoting cited passages.[13] These marks drew inspiration from the typographic innovations of Aldus Manutius, the Venetian printer whose italic types and punctuation refinements in the early 1500s emphasized clarity and portability in books.[14] By the late 16th century, guillemets had evolved into paired double inverted commas placed at the start of quotations, as seen in Parisian imprints like André Wechel's 1555 edition of Petrus Ramus's Dialectique, marking a shift from manuscript diple symbols to printed inline punctuation.[15] In English printing, the adoption of double quotation marks (" ") gained prominence during the 18th century, transitioning from marginal indicators to inline usage for direct speech and citations, with early examples appearing in refined editions such as John Baskerville's typographic works around 1750, which showcased his transitional serif types alongside improved punctuation spacing.[3] Regional variations proliferated during this period: in German typesetting, the low-high form („ “)—with the opening mark at baseline level and the closing elevated—emerged by the late 17th century as a distinct convention, reflecting compositor habits in works like those from Strasbourg printers, and solidified in the 18th century for clarity in dense Fraktur texts.[15] Italian and Spanish printers, influenced by French models, favored angled guillemets (« ») from the 16th century onward, integrating them into Renaissance editions for their visual alignment with roman and italic faces, as evidenced in early Spanish imprints adopting the form for dialogue in literature.[16] Standardization efforts intensified in the 19th century, notably through the Oxford University Press, whose Rules for Compositors and Readers (first compiled by Horace Hart around 1893) prescribed single quotes for primary quotations and doubles for nested ones in English texts, placing punctuation inside marks based on sense to ensure consistency across scholarly publications.[17] The invention of Linotype machines in the 1880s further shaped quote forms by casting curved typographic marks in hot metal for high-volume newspaper and book production, favoring elegant "smart" quotes over straight variants and influencing global adoption of paired opening-closing distinctions until typewriter and early digital shifts toward simplicity in the 20th century.[18]Modern Standardization
In the 20th century, major style manuals played a pivotal role in standardizing quotation mark usage within English-language publishing. The Chicago Manual of Style, first issued in 1906 and revised periodically thereafter, has consistently advocated for typographic or curved quotation marks (such as “ ” and ‘ ’) in book and academic publishing to maintain aesthetic consistency and readability.[19] In contrast, the Associated Press Stylebook, a cornerstone for journalistic writing since its origins in the early 1950s, favors straight or neutral quotation marks (" " and ' ') due to their simplicity in news production and compatibility with standard keyboards.[20] International organizations also contributed to unification efforts. The Association Typographique Internationale (ATypI), established in 1957 by French type designer Charles Peignot, fostered global dialogue among typographers on conventions including punctuation forms, influencing cross-cultural adoption of consistent styles in print media.[21] Similarly, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) efforts in character encoding, such as those in ISO/IEC 8859 series from the 1980s onward, standardized the digital representation of quotation marks across Latin-based scripts, facilitating multilingual typography.[22] Globalization accelerated shifts in quotation mark practices after World War II, as English-language influences spread through international media and publishing. In non-English contexts, particularly in Europe and Asia, English-style double quotes (“ ”) gained traction in technical and diplomatic documents, often alongside traditional forms like guillemets (<< >>).[4] UNESCO further supported these norms by promoting consistent punctuation in its multilingual publications, as outlined in its 2004 style manual, which adopts single quotes (‘ ’) for English texts while accommodating variations in other languages to enhance global accessibility.[23] By the 1980s, the advent of desktop publishing and personal computers reignited debates over "smart quotes" (curved typographic marks) versus ASCII straight quotes, with the former preferred in professional typesetting for visual elegance and the latter in digital plain text for compatibility.[18] These developments collectively bridged diverse traditions toward greater interoperability in global communication.Typographic Forms
Straight and Curved Variants
Straight quotation marks, also known as neutral, vertical, typewriter, or "dumb" quotes, consist of simple vertical lines resembling apostrophes: the single form (') and the double form ("). These were introduced in the late 19th century with the advent of typewriters, where mechanical constraints and the need to minimize the number of keys led manufacturers to adopt a single undifferentiated mark for both opening and closing positions.[18] As noted in a 1893 article by U. Sherman MacCormack in The Stenographer, this simplification prioritized practicality for stenographers and reduced production costs for typewriter keyboards.[18] Straight quotes became a standard in plain text environments, including early digital systems limited by 7-bit ASCII encoding, which supported only these basic vertical forms for compatibility across platforms.[18][24] In contrast, curved quotation marks, often called "smart," typographic, or curly quotes, feature directional curves that distinguish opening from closing pairs: single forms (‘ ’) and double forms (“ ”). These evolved from traditional printing practices, where they were designed to enhance visual flow and aesthetic harmony in typeset text, with curves that guide the eye more naturally into the quoted material.[24][18] Unlike straight quotes, curved variants are integral to professional typography, appearing in manuscripts and printed books since the era of metal type, where their shapes mimicked the contours of handwritten marginalia used to denote spoken passages.[24] Technically, straight quotes function as neutral symbols without directional orientation, making them simpler for basic input but prone to ambiguity in rendering; they align vertically and do not require specialized spacing adjustments in most plain-text contexts.[24] Curved quotes, however, demand precise kerning in typesetting to optimize spacing with adjacent characters—for instance, pairs like "A”" may use negative kerning values (e.g., -32 units in tools like Adobe InDesign) to prevent awkward gaps, while a hair space (approximately 1/24 em) is often added to the left of opening marks and right of closing ones for balanced readability.[25] Ligatures are rarely applied to quotation marks themselves, but their curved forms benefit from font-specific metrics that ensure seamless integration with surrounding glyphs, unlike the uniform treatment of straight quotes in ASCII-based representations.[25][24] The historical preference has shifted over time: curved quotes remain the standard in book publishing and high-quality print media for their superior legibility and typographic elegance, while straight quotes persist in digital drafts, web content, and casual typing due to ease of input and encoding simplicity.[24][18] This divide reflects broader tensions between traditional craftsmanship and modern pragmatism, with tools like word processors now offering automatic conversion to curved forms to bridge the gap.[24] The curved variants include distinct opening and closing pairs to denote directionality.[24]Opening and Closing Forms
Quotation marks are employed in directional pairs to delineate the beginning and end of quoted material, with the opening mark typically positioned at a higher or lower baseline to signal the start and the closing mark mirroring or contrasting it to indicate closure. In typographic conventions, the high opening double quotation mark “ (U+201C LEFT DOUBLE QUOTATION MARK) is commonly used at the commencement of primary quotations in English-language styles, while its counterpart, the high closing double quotation mark ” (U+201D RIGHT DOUBLE QUOTATION MARK), concludes them, creating a visual enclosure that enhances readability by directing the eye from left to right.[22] Low opening forms, such as the single low-9 quotation mark ‚ (U+201A SINGLE LOW-9 QUOTATION MARK), appear in styles like German typography for nested or secondary quotes, paired with a high closing apostrophe-like ’ (U+2019 RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK) to maintain directional flow.[24] Closing quotation marks are designed to match their opening counterparts in orientation, with the high closing double ” curving downward to the right and the low single ’ ascending to the left, ensuring symmetry in enclosure. Placement rules for closing marks relative to punctuation vary by style: in American English, periods and commas are positioned inside the closing quotation mark regardless of whether they belong to the quoted material, as in “She said, ‘Hello.’” to promote uniform visual alignment.[26] In contrast, British and Australian conventions follow a logical approach, placing punctuation inside only if it is part of the quotation, such as ‘It’s true,’ she replied, while external punctuation remains outside.[27] This directionality in closing forms aids readability by providing a clear termination signal, preventing ambiguity in text flow.[28] For nesting quotations, single quotation marks ‘ (U+2018 LEFT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK) and ’ serve as inner pairs within double marks in American English, as in He announced, “The event is ‘tonight’ after all.”, allowing hierarchical distinction without confusion.[26] In French typography, guillemets « (U+00AB LEFT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK) open primary quotes at a low position, closed by » (U+00BB RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK), with non-breaking spaces separating them from adjacent text—« comme ça »—to preserve line integrity and visual clarity in typesetting.[29] Nested quotes in this system revert to single guillemets or standard quotes, emphasizing enclosure through pointed directionality that guides the reader's progression. These paired conventions underscore the rationale for directionality: opening marks point inward to invite entry into the quoted content, while closing marks direct outward, reinforcing textual boundaries for improved comprehension.[22]Summary of Forms Across Styles
Quotation mark forms vary across typographic styles, influenced by historical printing traditions and regional standards. This summary compiles the primary opening and closing pairs, along with nesting conventions, for key styles in British English, American English, German, French, Spanish, and Italian. These variants typically employ curved (typographic) glyphs, though substitutions occur in certain contexts.[4]| Style | Primary Opening/Closing Pair | Nesting Forms |
|---|---|---|
| British English | ‘ ’ (single curved) | “ ” (double curved) |
| American English | “ ” (double curved) | ‘ ’ (single curved) |
| German | „ “ (low double to high double) | ‚ ’ (low single to high single) |
| French | « » (guillemets) | “ ” (double curved), then ‘ ’ (single curved) |
| Spanish | « » (guillemets) | “ ” (double curved), then ‘ ’ (single curved) |
| Italian | « » (guillemets) | “ ” (double curved), then ‘ ’ (single curved) |
Usage in English
Direct Speech and Quotations
In English writing, quotation marks primarily enclose direct speech, representing the exact words spoken by a character in narrative fiction or reported in nonfiction. This convention distinguishes spoken language from the surrounding narrative, ensuring clarity and fidelity to the original utterance. For instance, in dialogue, each speaker's words are set off in a new paragraph, with opening quotation marks at the start but no closing marks until the speech ends, even if it spans multiple paragraphs. [37] Rules for punctuating dialogue emphasize integration with introductory tags like "said" or "asked." A comma typically follows the tag when introducing the quotation, placed inside the closing marks in American English: She whispered, "It's time to go." Colons may introduce longer or more formal quotations, such as in explanatory contexts: The witness stated: "I saw everything unfold." In British English, commas and periods appear outside the marks unless part of the quoted material itself. [38] [39] [40] For nested dialogue, single quotation marks enclose inner speech: He shouted, "Don't say 'I quit' just yet!" [41] When citing sources, quotation marks denote exact wording from texts, speeches, or articles, preserving the original phrasing while allowing limited alterations for clarity. Omissions are indicated by ellipses (...), and insertions by brackets [ ], as in: The president declared, "We will [not] yield to pressure..." Such marks ensure transparency in academic and journalistic contexts, where overuse of direct quotes is discouraged in favor of paraphrasing to maintain narrative flow. [37] [42] In journalism, conventions like those in The New York Times style guide prioritize brevity and attribution, using direct quotes sparingly for impact while verifying accuracy against the source's intent. Partial quotes must not distort meaning, and tags integrate seamlessly without excessive punctuation. [43]Titles and Other Applications
In English writing, quotation marks are commonly used to denote titles of shorter or minor works, such as poems, short stories, articles, essays, songs, and chapters, while longer works like books, films, albums, and periodicals are typically italicized.[44] For example, Robert Frost's poem is titled "The Road Not Taken," enclosed in quotation marks, whereas his collection Mountain Interval would be italicized.[44] This distinction helps distinguish self-contained works from components within larger publications, as outlined in major style guides like MLA, APA, and Chicago.[6][45] Another application involves "scare quotes," which enclose words or phrases to indicate irony, skepticism, non-literal usage, or distance from the term's conventional meaning.[7] For instance, referring to self-proclaimed "experts" in a field uses scare quotes to imply doubt about their expertise.[7] Style guides recommend using scare quotes judiciously to avoid overuse, which can confuse readers or dilute their ironic effect, and suggest alternatives like rephrasing for clarity in formal writing.[7] In APA style, they are appropriate for slang or coined terms on first use but should not substitute for italics when defining key terms.[6] Quotation marks also serve to highlight slang, colloquialisms, or foreign words integrated into English text, often on their initial appearance to signal unfamiliarity.[6] Examples include enclosing "fracking" when introducing it as an oil-extraction slang term or "obrigado" followed by its translation "thank you."[46][47] For defining a term upon first use, such as explaining "mindfulness" as paying attention to the present moment, italics are preferred over quotation marks in APA and MLA styles to maintain consistency.[6] In headlines, quotation marks may emphasize quoted phrases or titles for impact, though formal prose advises against using them solely for general emphasis to prevent ambiguity.[46] Specific style guides provide tailored conventions: MLA recommends quotation marks for literary titles like short stories and poems to reflect their subordinate status within anthologies or collections.[44] APA similarly uses double quotation marks for article and chapter titles but explicitly cautions against quotation marks for emphasis in scholarly writing, favoring structural revisions instead.[6][48] Chicago aligns with these for titles while permitting quotation marks for ironic emphasis when contextually clear, though it prioritizes readability over frequent application.[45]Punctuation Interactions
In English typography, the placement of punctuation relative to quotation marks varies between American and British conventions, reflecting a tension between logical positioning—where marks belong to the quoted material—and conventional rules that prioritize sentence structure. American style, as outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style, places periods and commas inside the closing quotation marks regardless of whether they are part of the original quote, treating them as integral to the enclosing sentence.[28] In contrast, British style, per the Oxford University Style Guide, positions these marks outside the quotation marks unless they are inherent to the quoted text, emphasizing fidelity to the source material.[49] For dialogue and attributions, commas typically appear inside the closing quotation marks in both styles when they conclude the spoken words, ensuring grammatical flow. An example in American English is: "Hello," she said.[50] British English follows a similar pattern for the comma but places a period outside if it ends the sentence: She said, "Hello".[30] Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the quotation marks if they apply to the quoted material and outside if they pertain to the broader sentence, a rule consistent across both American and British styles for logical clarity. For instance, in American English: Did he say "yes"? (where the question applies to the sentence), but "Yes!" he said. (where it belongs to the quote).[51] The same principle holds in British English: Did she ask 'Why?' or 'Why?' she asked.[49] Semicolons and colons generally fall outside the quotation marks in both conventions, as they function at the sentence level rather than within the quote. According to the Chicago Manual of Style, an example is: He reviewed the reports "on time"; however, the analysis was incomplete.[52] Similarly, for a colon: She quoted the rule: "Always verify sources".[52] British guidelines align, placing these marks externally unless part of the quoted content.[49]Quotation Practices in Other Languages
Romance and Germanic Languages
In Romance languages such as French, Spanish, and Portuguese, quotation marks typically employ directional pairs, often favoring guillemets (angled quotes) over the curved double quotes common in English, with spaces or indentation playing a key role in dialogue presentation.[53] French typography predominantly uses double guillemets « » to enclose direct speech or citations, separated from the quoted text by non-breaking spaces on both sides, as in « C'est une belle journée ».[54][55] For nested quotations within a primary quote, single guillemets ‹ › are employed, maintaining the directional orientation.[29] Titles of works are not enclosed in quotation marks but italicized instead, aligning with broader typographic conventions that prioritize clarity and elegance in print.[56] In Spanish, the Real Academia Española recommends double guillemets « » as the primary form for quotations, followed by curved double quotes “ ” as an alternative, and single quotes ' ' for inner quotations; these are placed adjacent to the text without internal spaces.[57] Dialogue in narrative texts often combines these marks with line indentation or em dashes for speaker turns, rather than relying solely on quotes. Regional variations exist, with guillemets more prevalent in Spain for formal writing, while Latin American Spanish frequently adopts curved double quotes “ ” influenced by English conventions in journalism and digital media.[16] Portuguese follows a similar pattern, using guillemets « » in European varieties for primary quotations and curved doubles “ ” in Brazilian Portuguese, with punctuation placed outside the marks unless integral to the quote.[58][59] Germanic languages like German and Dutch emphasize consistent directional pairs, differing from Romance preferences by often starting with lower-positioned opening marks. In German, the Duden prescribes low-high double quotes „ “ for direct speech and citations, with the opening pair positioned at the baseline and pointing left, while closing marks are raised and point right; this "Hoch- und Tiefsetzung" (high-low placement) rule ensures visual hierarchy.[53] Nested quotes use single low-high marks ‚ ‘, and the style applies uniformly to titles, irony, or emphasis without regional deviation. Dutch conventions favor single quotation marks (' ') for primary use in direct speech and citations, aligning with British English, though some traditional texts employ the German low-high „ “; double quotes “ ” serve for nesting, with no strict official mandate but a preference for consistency in formal prose.[60][61] Across these languages, a shared trait is the reliance on typographically distinct pairs to guide readability, with adaptations for print versus digital contexts; for instance, non-breaking spaces in French prevent awkward line breaks, while German and Spanish rules integrate quotes seamlessly with preceding colons in dialogue.[53]Slavic and Baltic Languages
In Slavic and Baltic languages, quotation practices often reflect a blend of historical influences from French guillemets and German-style low-high quotes, adapted to both Latin and Cyrillic scripts. For Polish, which uses the Latin alphabet, the primary form for quotations is the low-high pair „...“, with the angular guillemets »...« reserved for nested or secondary quotes, such as in academic or book contexts.[4][29] Dialogue in Polish literature and prose typically employs em dashes (—) to introduce speakers without enclosing the speech in quotation marks, a convention that emphasizes narrative flow and is common in direct speech representations.[62] East Slavic languages like Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, written in Cyrillic, standardize the French-style angular guillemets «...» as the primary quotation form, influenced by typographic norms established in the 1956 Soviet codification of orthography and punctuation, which promoted uniformity across Cyrillic-using regions.[29] For nesting, these languages favor the low-high curly quotes „...“, though low quotes are rarely used as primaries, maintaining a hierarchy that distinguishes outer from inner quotations in formal writing.[29] This system extends to titles of works, ironic expressions, and direct speech, with no spaces between the marks and the enclosed text, reflecting adaptations for Cyrillic's visual density.[29] Baltic languages, using Latin scripts, show variations shaped by regional proximity to Germanic traditions. Lithuanian primarily employs the low-high „...“ pair, similar to neighboring Polish and German, for direct quotations and titles, with single low commas ‚...‘ for secondary levels.[63] Latvian, while officially aligning with this low-high style in handwriting („...“), often prefers the English-style double quotes “...” in printed and digital media, frequently combined with paragraph indentation to denote dialogue rather than paired marks.[63][64] Shared features across these languages include the integration of quotation marks with em dashes for dialogue in prose, a practice rooted in 19th-century literary conventions and reinforced by Soviet-era standardization efforts that aimed to unify punctuation in East Slavic contexts.[62] Post-1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Eastern European typography has occasionally adopted Western double quotes (“...”) alongside traditional forms in digital and informal writing, driven by keyboard layouts and global software influences, though traditional guillemets persist as the standard in formal publishing.[29]Asian and Semitic Scripts
In East Asian scripts such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, quotation marks typically employ full-width forms adapted from Western conventions, including guillemets « » or double quotes “ ”, without spaces separating the marks from the quoted text.[65] In Chinese, book titles and longer quotations often use the corner brackets 《 》 , while shorter direct speech may use “ ” or « ».[66] Japanese primarily uses the kagi kakko 「 」 for direct quotations, with the nijū kagi kakko 『 』 serving as nested quotes, and these marks are rotated 90 degrees clockwise in vertical text to form bent shapes like 〟 and 〃 for readability along the column.[67][68] Korean follows similar patterns, utilizing 「 」 and 『 』 for quotations, including in hanja (Chinese character) contexts where full-width forms ensure compatibility with syllabic hangul; titles may interchangeably use 《 》 .[69][70] For Semitic scripts, practices account for right-to-left directionality. Arabic, the most widely used Semitic language, employs guillemets « » (with the opening mark on the right) or English-style double quotes “ ” for direct quotations, mirrored to align with the script's flow and placed without internal spaces. Hebrew, another Semitic script, mirrors quotation marks to align with its directionality, employing “ ” or « » with the opening mark on the right and closing on the left, often without spaces.[71] In rabbinic texts and abbreviations, the gershayim (״) functions as a double quotation mark, placed before the final letter to indicate acronyms, while the geresh (׳) serves as a single quote; these are distinct from standard quotes but share bidirectional rendering challenges.[72] The maqaf (־), a hyphen-like dash, sometimes hybridizes with quotes in compound terms or citations, connecting words read as a single unit.[73] Modern Greek, though not Semitic, adopts guillemets « » for primary quotations in literature, influenced by ancient practices lacking dedicated marks, with “ ” as an alternative for nested or informal use; this reflects Byzantine-era adaptations to classical texts.[74][4] Hungarian, using a Latin-based script, employs low-high quotation marks „ ” for direct speech, akin to German conventions, with older texts occasionally featuring angled variants like » « for emphasis or titles; spaces follow the marks internally but not externally.[75][76] Post-2000 digital standardization via Unicode has unified these forms across scripts, encoding full-width quotes (U+201C–U+201D) for CJK compatibility and bidirectional overrides (e.g., U+202E) for Hebrew and Greek, enabling consistent rendering in mixed-language environments.[77]Quotation Dash
Definition and Historical Context
The quotation dash, rendered as an em dash (—), functions as a punctuation mark to introduce direct speech or dialogue in narrative prose without the use of enclosing quotation marks. Each speaker's contribution begins on a new line with the dash, creating a clean, indented structure that emphasizes the flow of conversation. This method is especially common in French and Russian novels, where it replaces traditional quotes to mark the onset of spoken words, allowing authors to convey dialogue with visual clarity and rhythmic pacing.[78][79] The origins of the quotation dash trace back to 18th-century French literature, emerging prominently in Jean-François Marmontel's 1761 Hague edition of Contes moraux, where dashes were innovatively used to denote dialogue turns, drawing from earlier theatrical scripts that employed similar line breaks for spoken parts. The em dash, used for the quotation dash, originated in 15th-century European printing presses as a mark for pauses, interruptions, and emphasis, evolving from earlier marginal notations. Marmontel's application marked a shift toward its prose utility, influencing subsequent European styles.[78] In Russian literature, the quotation dash gained widespread adoption through Leo Tolstoy's masterful use in epic works like War and Peace (1869), where it structures extensive dialogues to mirror natural speech patterns, emulating the French precedent while suiting the narrative density of Slavic prose. The convention subsequently spread to other Romance and Slavic languages, becoming standard in Spanish novels for isolated speaker lines—where the em dash introduces each line without quotes—and in Polish literature for marking conversational shifts, often without additional tags. This contrasts sharply with Anglo-American preferences for paired quotation marks, highlighting regional divergences in typographic dialogue representation. Key spacing rules, such as placing no space before the dash in French but a space after it (e.g., — Parlez-vous français ?), further distinguish its application from general em dash usage.[79][80][81][82]Usage Conventions
In languages that adopt the quotation dash, also known as the em dash (—), it serves primarily to demarcate direct speech in narrative prose, particularly in dialogue-heavy fiction. Unlike standard quotation marks, which enclose each utterance individually, the quotation dash initiates each speaker's turn without closing punctuation at the end of lines, allowing for a seamless flow in extended conversations. For instance, a simple exchange might appear as: —Hello. —How are you? This contrasts with English conventions like "Hello," he said, where tags follow within or after quotes.[83] In French literature, the quotation dash is commonly used to introduce each speaker's dialogue, often without enclosing guillemets, though some styles frame the entire conversation with guillemets (« »). Each new speaker's line begins with a dash, often indented, and narrative tags follow the dash without additional quotes; for multi-line speeches in novels, the dash opens the block, with subsequent lines indented further but unadorned. An example from printed works: « — Bonjour ! dit Sophie. — Tu vas bien ? — Bien. Et toi ? répondit Anne. — Très bien, merci ! » This format avoids repetitive enclosure, promoting readability in dense prose. The Larousse dictionary recognizes the "tiret" (dash) specifically for dialogue separation in printing.[83] Russian usage mirrors this approach, employing the em dash to offset direct speech without quotation marks, a practice rooted in typographic norms for literature. Dialogue starts with a dash, and tags or attributions appear after it, with new paragraphs indented for each speaker to indicate shifts; in novels, multi-turn exchanges continue this pattern across lines for clarity. For example: — Я тебя люблю! — сказал Виктор. (Translation: "I love you," said Victor.) Indentation varies by publisher, but a standard half-em space often precedes the dash for visual distinction.[84][85] The quotation dash offers advantages in prose by enhancing fluid reading, as it minimizes visual interruptions from paired marks, especially in long exchanges where repeated quotes might clutter the page and disrupt pacing. This method integrates speech more organically into narrative, reducing the staccato effect of frequent punctuation.[86] Major style guides reinforce these conventions regionally while advising against them in English. The Larousse guidelines endorse the dash for French dialogue to maintain typographic elegance. Conversely, the Oxford University Press style manual prescribes quotation marks for English speech, avoiding dashes to prevent confusion with interruptions or parenthetical elements.[49]Relation to Standard Quotes
The quotation dash and standard quotation marks serve complementary roles in literary punctuation, with the dash often enhancing narrative flow in extended dialogues by integrating speech seamlessly into the prose, while quotation marks provide clear demarcation for emphasis, direct citations, or isolated statements. In practice, the dash is preferred for fluid, uninterrupted conversations that mimic natural speech patterns, whereas quotation marks excel at highlighting quoted material or conveying subtle nuances like irony through "scare quotes." Hybrid uses appear in bilingual texts, where the original language's convention—such as dashes in French—may be retained alongside English-style quotation marks for translations, allowing readers to distinguish source and target languages without altering the core structure.[62][87][88] Regional preferences starkly divide usage, with the quotation dash dominant in continental European literatures, particularly Romance languages like French and Spanish, as well as Slavic ones such as Polish and Russian, where it introduces each line of dialogue to maintain rhythmic continuity. In contrast, Anglo-American English overwhelmingly favors quotation marks to enclose dialogue, reflecting a tradition prioritizing visual separation of speech from narration. Translations from dash-heavy languages to English often adapt by converting to quotation marks to align with target conventions, though some scholarly editions preserve the original dashes for fidelity.[62][87] The quotation dash offers advantages in reducing visual interruptions, creating a cleaner page layout that immerses readers in the narrative without the repetitive enclosure of quotes, which can feel cluttered in dense dialogue scenes. However, it risks confusion in abbreviated or fragmented forms, such as short stories or scripts, where the lack of bounding marks may blur speech boundaries. Quotation marks, conversely, provide greater clarity for conveying irony or sarcasm—via ironic emphasis—and facilitate easy insertion of attributions or asides within lines, though they can disrupt flow in longer exchanges.[89][86] Illustrative examples highlight these distinctions: Victor Hugo's Les Misérables (1862) employs the quotation dash in its original French edition to propel dramatic dialogues, as in scenes of confrontation where speech emerges abruptly from description, fostering a theatrical intensity. Charles Dickens, in works like A Tale of Two Cities (1859), adheres to English norms with quotation marks, enclosing lines such as "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times" to sharply delineate character voices amid intricate narration. Modern graphic novels often blend both, with European-influenced titles like Persepolis using dashes for fluid panel dialogue, while American series like Watchmen rely on quotes; this fusion accommodates visual storytelling across cultural boundaries.[90][91]Representation in Digital Media
Early Mechanical and Computing Challenges
The development of mechanical typewriters from the 1870s onward imposed significant constraints on the representation of quotation marks, primarily due to the limited number of keys and typebars available on these machines. Early models, such as the Sholes and Glidden typewriter introduced in 1873, featured only straight, vertical quotation marks—specifically the neutral double quote (") and single quote (')—as curved or directional variants were mechanically infeasible given the fixed character set of around 44 to 88 symbols.[24] This limitation persisted through the 1980s, fostering the widespread adoption of "neutral" or "straight" quotes as a convention in typed documents, even though traditional printing had long used typographic curly quotes for aesthetic and directional purposes.[92] Hot metal typesetting systems, exemplified by the Linotype machine invented in 1884, further highlighted glyph limitations in mechanical printing. These systems cast entire lines of type from molten metal using brass matrices, but standard matrix cases contained only a finite set of common English-language characters, excluding specialized punctuation like curly quotes or guillemets (« ») routinely used in Romance languages such as French.[18] For international printing, compositors often resorted to manual adjustments, such as inserting hand-cast sorts or special-order matrices for guillemets, which increased production time and costs while risking inconsistencies in alignment and spacing.[18] In the realm of early computing from the 1960s to the 1980s, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), finalized in 1963, perpetuated these challenges by allocating just two code points—0x22 for the neutral double quote (") and 0x27 for the neutral single quote (')—with no support for directional or curved variants, prioritizing compatibility across teleprinters and basic terminals.[22] This omission ignored typographic directionality, leading developers to improvise workarounds; for instance, Donald Knuth's TeX typesetting system, released in 1978, employed ligature hacks where pairs of backticks (``) and single quotes ('') were automatically rendered as opening and closing double curly quotes (“ ”) via font metadata, bridging the gap between ASCII input and professional output.[93] Specific innovations offered partial relief but underscored ongoing constraints. The IBM Selectric typewriter, launched in 1961, introduced interchangeable typeballs with up to 88 characters, including limited punctuation variants on some elements, yet most standard balls retained straight quotes for simplicity and broad compatibility.[94] Similarly, ARPANET email protocols, as standardized in RFC 822 (1982), defaulted to ASCII straight quotes in message bodies to ensure reliable transmission across heterogeneous systems.[95]Keyboard and Input Methods
In the standard QWERTY keyboard layout prevalent in English-speaking regions, straight single quotation marks (') are entered using the dedicated key located to the right of the semicolon (;), while straight double quotation marks (") require holding the Shift key and pressing the same key.[96] For typographic curved quotation marks on Windows systems, numeric Alt codes provide access: Alt+0147 produces the left double quotation mark (“), Alt+0148 the right double (“), Alt+0145 the left single (‘), and Alt+0146 the right single (’).[97] These methods ensure compatibility across applications, though software like Microsoft Word offers additional shortcuts such as Ctrl + ' followed by the quote key for right single quotes.[98] International keyboard layouts adapt quotation mark access to regional conventions. The French AZERTY layout prioritizes guillemets (« and ») as primary quotes, often entered via Alt+174 for the left guillemet («) and Alt+175 for the right (») on Windows, with native hardware featuring them on or near the numeral row for direct input.[99] In the German QWERTZ layout, low-opening quotes („ )—common in German typography—are accessed using AltGr + v, while high quotes (“ ) use AltGr + b, reflecting the layout's emphasis on umlauts and special characters over standard straight quotes.[100] These variations stem from national standards to facilitate efficient typing in Romance and Germanic languages. Mobile and virtual keyboards introduce automated features for quotation marks, particularly on iOS where smart punctuation converts straight quotes to curly variants (“ ” and ‘ ’) by default upon long-pressing the quote key in the emoji or symbols panel.[101] Android keyboards like Gboard support similar autocorrection for smart quotes via settings, though non-English input method editors (IMEs) may encounter issues, such as unintended full-width conversions in Chinese or Japanese modes.[102] Adaptations for bidirectional scripts include right-to-left (RTL) handling in Hebrew and Arabic IMEs, where quotation pairs reverse visually—opening marks appear on the right—to align with script directionality, often requiring right-to-left marks (RLM) for proper embedding in mixed text.[103] In Asian languages, full-width quotation marks (such as ＂ ＂ or 「 」) are composed via IME toggles like Shift + Space in Microsoft Pinyin or Japanese IME, switching to wide forms suitable for CJK typography.[104]Software Rendering and Compatibility
In word processors, Microsoft Word has featured automatic conversion of straight quotation marks to curved "smart quotes" since version 6.0 in 1993, enhancing typographic appearance by replacing neutral vertical marks with directional curly ones during typing or pasting.[105][106] LibreOffice Writer provides configurable options for quotation mark replacement via its AutoCorrect settings, allowing users to enable or disable the substitution of straight quotes with curved variants in the Localized Options tab.[107] Web browsers leverage the CSSquotes property to automatically insert appropriate quotation marks around elements like <q> or via the content property with open-quote and close-quote keywords, supporting locale-specific styles such as English curly quotes or French guillemets. However, font fallback mechanisms can lead to rendering inconsistencies for guillemets (‹ ›), where unsupported fonts substitute with basic sans-serif approximations, potentially disrupting visual consistency in multilingual content.[108]
Cross-application challenges often arise during copy-paste operations, where curved smart quotes from a PDF may convert to straight quotes in email clients or plain text editors due to differing AutoFormat behaviors and encoding normalization.[109] In PDFs, ligature support through OpenType fonts enables proper rendering of contextual quotation mark forms, ensuring curved quotes display as intended without decomposition, though this depends on the embedding font's capabilities during export.
Post-2010 developments include Unicode 6.0's introduction of emoji variants for quotation marks, such as the heavy double turned comma quotation mark ornament (❝, U+275D), enabling decorative or stylized quotes in digital media.[110] Tools like Grammarly incorporate AI-driven corrections to detect and suggest fixes for inconsistent or misplaced quotation marks, analyzing context for proper pairing and style adherence in real-time editing.[111][26]
Unicode Encoding
Unicode encodes quotation marks across several blocks to accommodate neutral, directional, and language-specific typographic needs, ensuring compatibility with diverse writing systems. The neutral double quotation mark, U+0022 ", serves as a versatile punctuation symbol inherited from ASCII, while curved and angled variants provide preferred forms for typographic accuracy. These characters are primarily located in the Basic Latin (U+0000–U+007F), Latin-1 Supplement (U+0080–U+00FF), and General Punctuation (U+2000–U+206F) blocks.[112] Core code points for common English-style quotation marks include U+201C “ for the left double quotation mark and U+201D ” for the right double, with single variants at U+2018 ‘ (left) and U+2019 ’ (right). These directional forms distinguish opening from closing quotes, improving readability over the symmetric U+0022. For single quotes, U+0027 ' (apostrophe) often substitutes but is semantically distinct. Guillemets, used in many European languages, appear as U+00AB « (left double angle) and U+00BB » (right double angle), while low and reversed variants support bottom- or top-placed conventions in scripts like German or French.[112] The following table lists key Unicode code points for quotation marks, including glyphs, names, and blocks:| Code Point | Glyph | Name | Block |
|---|---|---|---|
| U+0022 | " | Quotation Mark | Basic Latin |
| U+0027 | ' | Apostrophe | Basic Latin |
| U+00AB | « | Left-Pointing Double Angle Quotation Mark | Latin-1 Supplement |
| U+00BB | » | Right-Pointing Double Angle Quotation Mark | Latin-1 Supplement |
| U+2018 | ‘ | Left Single Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+2019 | ’ | Right Single Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+201A | ‚ | Single Low-9 Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+201B | ‛ | Single High-Reversed-9 Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+201C | “ | Left Double Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+201D | ” | Right Double Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+201E | „ | Double Low-9 Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+201F | ‟ | Double High-Reversed-9 Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+2039 | ‹ | Single Left-Pointing Angle Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |
| U+203A | › | Single Right-Pointing Angle Quotation Mark | General Punctuation |