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Red rot

Red rot is a form of intrinsic deterioration affecting vegetable-tanned leather, particularly bookbindings and archival materials from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It manifests as a powdery, reddish-brown residue on the leather surface, resulting from acid hydrolysis that causes cracking, delamination, and loss of structural integrity.^[1]^[2] The degradation is primarily caused by exposure to acidic pollutants, such as sulfuric acid from industrial sulfur dioxide emissions during the era of mass book production, combined with high relative humidity (above 60%) and elevated temperatures that accelerate the breakdown of tanning agents like tannins.^[1]^[3] Poor tanning practices using impure vegetable extracts also contribute, leading to the leather becoming brittle and prone to disintegration when handled.^[2] Red rot poses a significant challenge to cultural heritage preservation, affecting millions of items in libraries and museums worldwide, with no effective reversal once advanced. Preventive measures include maintaining stable environmental conditions—ideally 40–50% relative humidity and 15–21°C (59–70°F)—and isolating affected items in acid-free enclosures to minimize further damage and dust dispersal.^[1]^[4] Treatment is limited to gentle cleaning and protective housing, as attempts like oiling can exacerbate the decay.^[2]

Overview

Definition

Red rot is an irreversible chemical degradation process that primarily affects vegetable-tanned leathers, leading to the breakdown of collagen fibers and the tannins that stabilize them. This deterioration renders the leather brittle and friable, ultimately causing it to crumble into a powdery substance. It is most commonly observed in historic and archival materials, such as bookbindings, where the leather's structural integrity is compromised over time.^[5]^[6] A hallmark of red rot is its occurrence in acidic conditions, typically at pH levels between 3.0 and 4.0, where the leather's natural acidity intensifies due to environmental or residual factors. This acidity promotes the formation of a distinctive red-brown powder, derived from the degradation products of oxidized tannins, such as phlobaphenes and anthocyanins, which give the decay its characteristic color. The process shortens and weakens the collagen fibers, reducing the leather's tensile strength and flexibility.^[5]^[6] Chemically, red rot involves acid hydrolysis of condensed tannins, accelerated by sulfuric acid formed from absorbed sulfur dioxide in the presence of moisture, alongside oxidative processes that polymerize tannins into reddish compounds. Oxidation of the collagen itself generates ammonia, which reacts with the sulfuric acid to produce ammonium sulfate and ammonium bisulfate, further contributing to the fiber disintegration and powdering effect. These reactions are non-enzymatic and occur gradually under suboptimal storage conditions.^[6]^[5] Unlike biological decay, which involves fungi or bacteria breaking down organic components, red rot is a purely abiotic chemical phenomenon driven by hydrolysis and oxidation, without microbial involvement. This distinction is critical for diagnosis, as biological agents often produce visible mold or odors absent in red rot.^[6]^[5]

Historical Context

Red rot emerged as a significant form of leather deterioration in vegetable-tanned materials during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, aligning with the Industrial Revolution's expansion of coal-based energy production, which dramatically increased atmospheric sulfur dioxide (SO₂) pollution in urban areas.^[7] This period saw a surge in leather production for industrial applications, where vegetable tanning—predominantly using oak bark, chestnut, and other plant extracts rich in tannins—became the standard method due to its scalability and cost-effectiveness for mass manufacturing.^[8] The absorption of SO₂ from polluted air into these leathers initiated acid hydrolysis, accelerating degradation in environments like factories, warehouses, and homes.^[1] The condition became particularly prevalent in bookbindings, upholstery, and archival documents produced between the 1870s and 1920s, as these items were commonly made from the vulnerable vegetable-tanned leathers of the era.^[7] Rapid urbanization during this time concentrated populations in cities with high coal smoke emissions, creating polluted storage conditions in libraries, museums, and private collections that exacerbated the issue; for instance, early cases were noted in European institutional holdings around 1900, where bound volumes from the preceding decades showed widespread embrittlement and powdering.^[8] Vegetable-tanned leather's inherent sensitivity to acidic pollutants, combined with often humid and unventilated storage spaces, led to rapid deterioration, affecting thousands of artifacts in cultural repositories across Britain and [continental Europe](/page/continental Europe).^[1] Recognition of red rot evolved in early 20th-century conservation literature, where it was frequently described as "red decay" or "powdering leather" to highlight its characteristic reddish dust and structural failure.^[9] Pioneering works, such as those by conservators examining library collections, identified the phenomenon as a direct consequence of industrial-era environmental factors interacting with traditional tanning practices, prompting initial efforts to document and mitigate its spread in heritage materials.^[2] By the 1920s, these terms had entered standard terminology in European and American preservation texts, underscoring the need for improved storage to protect at-risk leathers.^[7]

Causes

Environmental Factors

Red rot in sugarcane is favored by warm temperatures between 28–32°C and high relative humidity above 90%, which promote conidial germination and infection by the pathogen Colletotrichum falcatum.^[10] These conditions are common during pre-monsoon showers and the rainy season, with optimal pathogen growth at around 29.4–31°C and pH 5–6. Waterlogging and excessive rainfall further exacerbate disease development by creating moist environments that facilitate fungal spread, while drought stress during early growth stages can weaken plants and increase susceptibility.^[11] Poor soil drainage in tropical and subtropical regions, where the disease is prevalent, compounds these effects by prolonging periods of high soil moisture.^[12]

Infection and Agronomic Factors

The primary cause of red rot is infection by Colletotrichum falcatum, a hemibiotrophic fungus that enters sugarcane tissues through wounds, cut surfaces of setts, growth cracks, or natural openings like leaf scars and buds.^[13] The pathogen persists as latent infections in nodes of healthy-looking canes and activates under favorable conditions, spreading internally via mycelial growth through vascular bundles or cell-to-cell. Infected planting material, such as seed canes or billets carrying chlamydospores or mycelium, is a major source of primary inoculum, leading to rapid disease establishment in new fields.^[10] Crop residues and stubble from previous harvests serve as secondary inoculum sources, with the fungus surviving as sclerotia or conidia in debris for extended periods. Agronomic practices like mechanical injury during harvesting or ratooning without sanitation increase entry points, while susceptible cultivars heighten vulnerability; at least 10 races of the pathogen have been identified, varying in virulence.^[14]

Symptoms and Diagnosis

Visible Indicators

Red rot in sugarcane typically manifests externally through changes in leaf color and structure. Infected plants exhibit yellowing and wilting of the upper leaves, particularly the third and fourth from the top, which dry out prematurely and hang down. The leaves may turn from green to orange and then yellow, often accompanied by a narrowing and withering of the affected canes. Reddish-brown lesions appear on the midrib and leaf blades, featuring pale centers where the fungus sporulates, forming small black acervuli visible upon closer inspection. In the field, rows of infected sugarcane show progressive drying, with a characteristic sour, alcoholic odor emanating from affected stalks due to the breakdown of sucrose.^[12]^[14]^[15] As the disease advances, the rind of the cane may develop minute black velvety fruiting bodies, and the entire plant can wilt, leading to lodging. These external signs are most noticeable during the monsoon or post-monsoon period when humidity favors disease progression.^[13]^[14] Diagnosis begins with visual inspection of these foliar and cane symptoms, but confirmation requires examination of internal tissues, as external indicators can overlap with other diseases like pokkah boeng.^[12]

Structural Effects

Internally, red rot causes extensive damage to the sugarcane stalk, primarily through rotting of nodes and internodes. When the stalk is split longitudinally—a standard diagnostic procedure—the vascular bundles and ground tissue reveal characteristic reddish discoloration interspersed with white transverse spots or bands, representing cross-sections of fungal mycelium and acervuli. These white patches indicate areas of intense fungal growth, contrasting with the surrounding red-rotted tissue. In early stages, the rot is confined to vascular elements, but it spreads to pith and cortex, leading to hollowing, shrinkage, and a fibrous texture.^[12]^[13]^[14] Advanced infection results in complete node and internode decay, bud death, and reduced cane weight, severely impacting stand establishment from planting material like billets. The juice from affected stalks becomes acidic with low sucrose content and an off-flavor, contributing to yield losses of 29–83% in untreated fields. Microscopic examination confirms the presence of banana-shaped conidia and gray mycelium, while molecular methods such as PCR using markers like ITS or SCAR can identify Colletotrichum falcatum strains for precise diagnosis, especially to differentiate from similar symptoms caused by Fusarium species.^[12]^[13]^[16] The structural weakening leads to stalk collapse and plant death, with disease severity often rated on a 0–6 scale based on the extent of internode discoloration (0 = no symptoms; 6 = >90% affected). High humidity and temperatures around 25–30°C accelerate progression, shortening the crop cycle.^[13]^[14]

Prevention and Management

Preventive Strategies

Prevention of red rot in sugarcane emphasizes integrated disease management to minimize inoculum and enhance plant resistance. The most effective approach is planting resistant or tolerant cultivars, such as those derived from wild relatives including Erianthus, Saccharum spontaneum, and S. barberi, which show low rot indices (typically affecting fewer than 5–10 nodes).^[17] In regions like India and the United States, selecting varieties with known resistance, such as 'HoCP 00-950' or 'L 01-299', has reduced incidence rates significantly.^[18] Cultural practices are crucial for limiting pathogen spread. Hot water treatment of seed cane or setts at 50°C for 2 hours effectively kills Colletotrichum falcatum spores on planting material without harming viability, reducing disease transmission by up to 90% in treated fields.^[19]^[20] Field sanitation involves removing and destroying infected crop residues and rogueing diseased plants during the growing season to eliminate inoculum sources, particularly in tropical and subtropical areas where residues persist.^[19] Additionally, avoiding mechanical injuries during harvesting and planting billets (2–4 node segments) instead of whole stalks helps prevent entry points for the pathogen, though billets require careful monitoring for establishment.^[13] Environmental management includes optimizing planting times to avoid periods of high humidity and temperature stress, which favor disease development, and ensuring well-drained soils to reduce moisture-related susceptibility. Biological preventives, such as seed treatment with Trichoderma harzianum or T. viride (applied as a powder or suspension at 10 g/kg seed), have shown promise in suppressing fungal growth through antagonism, achieving up to 70% reduction in incidence when integrated with cultural methods.^[21]^[22]

Treatment Approaches

Once red rot is established, treatments focus on reducing disease severity and protecting yield, though curative options are limited due to the pathogen's internal colonization. Chemical controls involve seed or soil treatments with fungicides at planting. Combinations of azoxystrobin and propiconazole (e.g., Quilt Xcel at 0.29 liters per 1000 kg seed) effectively inhibit fungal development, reducing node rot by 50–70% in field trials.^[13] Adding the insecticide thiamethoxam (e.g., Platinum at 0.34 liters per hectare) enhances efficacy by controlling vectors and improving stand establishment in billet plantings, with treated plots showing yields comparable to healthy whole-stalk plantings.^[13]^[18] Foliar applications are generally ineffective due to the disease's systemic nature. Biological treatments using Trichoderma spp. offer an eco-friendly alternative or complement to chemicals. Sett treatment with T. harzianum (mixed culture at 2 kg per 1000 setts) has reduced red rot incidence by 60–80% in greenhouse and field studies by promoting competitive exclusion and inducing plant defenses.^[21]^[23] Integration of biocontrol agents with fungicides, such as carbendazim, further enhances control, achieving over 85% disease suppression in integrated trials as of 2023.^[24] Ongoing research as of 2024 explores molecular breeding for durable resistance and climate-resilient management, emphasizing monitoring pathogen strains for shifts in virulence. All strategies should be tailored to local conditions, with no single method providing complete control.^[12]

Impact and Conservation

Affected Materials

Red rot primarily affects sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) stalks, particularly susceptible commercial varieties such as Co 0238, Co 0118, and Suphanburi 60, leading to internal rotting, reduced sucrose content, and yield losses of 29–83% in cane weight and 24–90% in juice quality.^[12] The disease impacts tropical and subtropical production regions worldwide, including India, Brazil, Thailand, and the United States (Louisiana and Florida), where untreated fields can experience incidence rates of 60–80%, resulting in annual global economic losses estimated in billions of USD.^[14] In India alone, which produces about 40% of global sugarcane, red rot threatens over 5 million farmers, with severe outbreaks reducing national sugar output and necessitating the withdrawal of elite varieties.^[25] The pathogen persists in crop residues and infected planting material, compromising crop establishment in billet and setts, and exacerbating losses under monsoon conditions or high humidity.^[13] Varieties derived from noble canes (S. officinarum) are highly susceptible, while those incorporating wild relatives like S. spontaneum show greater tolerance. Economic implications include increased costs for disease management and restoration of affected fields, with integrated approaches essential to mitigate widespread devastation in major producing areas.^[17]

Notable Examples

One of the earliest documented outbreaks of red rot in sugarcane occurred in Java (present-day Indonesia) in 1893, where the disease was first described by Went as causing severe internal discoloration and yield losses in affected stalks. This initial recognition highlighted the pathogen's potential to disrupt sugarcane production in tropical regions, marking the beginning of global awareness of the disease.^[26] In India, a major epidemic struck the Godavari delta region between 1895 and 1900, leading to widespread devastation of sugarcane fields and prompting early research into resistant varieties; this outbreak underscored red rot's role as a "cancer" of the crop, with losses estimated in the millions of rupees at the time. The disease spread rapidly due to monsoon conditions and susceptible noble cane varieties, influencing breeding programs that continue to shape Indian sugarcane agriculture. By 1909, red rot had reached the United States, first appearing in Louisiana and causing significant reductions in cane yield and sugar recovery in commercial plantations.^[12] More recent severe outbreaks include those in Thailand during 1991–1992 and 2004–2005, where cultivation of susceptible varieties like Suphanburi 60 resulted in yield losses ranging from 34.6% to 73.7%, exacerbated by combined infections of Colletotrichum falcatum and Fusarium sacchari; these events led to the withdrawal of affected varieties and accelerated the adoption of integrated disease management practices across Southeast Asia.^[27] In Nigeria, a notable outbreak in 1999 severely impacted production, with infection levels reaching 40% in some fields and causing over 60% loss in sucrose content, highlighting the disease's persistence in African sugarcane belts despite limited reporting.^[28] In India, Uttar Pradesh experienced a critical outbreak in 2024, particularly affecting the popular variety Co 0238, which destroyed up to 25% of the crop in major districts like Meerut and Muzaffarnagar during the rainy season; this led to a statewide alert and estimated economic losses in the billions of rupees, threatening national sugar output.^[29] By November 2025, the varietal breakdown continued, with red rot epidemics reducing yields by 20–30% in central and western Uttar Pradesh, prompting urgent calls for crop rotation and resistant hybrids to safeguard the region's 5 million sugarcane farmers.^[25] Similar recent incidences in Brazil's São Paulo state since 2023 have introduced a dry rot variant caused by C. falcatum and Thielaviopsis paradoxa, causing stalk lodging and significant yield losses averaging around 12% in affected fields, contributing to overall reductions of up to 20% from stalk disorders in new plantations.^[30] Conservation efforts for red rot management include the preservation of resistant germplasm from wild sugarcane relatives such as Erianthus, Saccharum spontaneum, and S. barberi in international collections like those at the USDA Sugarcane Research Unit and India's Sugarcane Breeding Institute. Breeding programs emphasize developing durable resistant hybrids with rot indices below 5–10 nodes affected, supported by molecular characterization to sustain production amid climate variability.^[17]^[12]

References

[1]
Molecular Characterization and Pathogenicity of Colletotrichum ...
Oct 27, 2024 · Red rot disease reduces sugarcane yield and impacts the sugar quality, posing an important threat to the sugarcane industry in Florida.
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Effects of Pesticides on Red Rot of Planted Sugarcane - APS Journals
Nov 10, 2023 · Red rot, caused by Colletotrichum falcatum, is an important constraint to sugarcane production. In Louisiana, red rot primarily affects ...
[3]
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Red rot, caused by Colletotrichum falcatum Went, is one of the most common fungal diseases of sugarcane. The disease was first reported in 1893 in Java,.
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Interpretive Summary: Red rot is a fungal disease that rots planted stalks of sugarcane. The fungus primarily enters stalks through cut surfaces, and then ...
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(PDF) A Review on Red Rot: The "Cancer" of Sugarcane
Aug 7, 2025 · Red rot of sugarcane is the most threatening disease of sugarcane, rightly called as 'Cancer' of sugarcane. It causes severe loss in yield and quality of the ...
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Jul 14, 2021 · The fungus Fusarium verticillioides is one of the causes of red rot, the most serious sugarcane disease. Losses average around USD 1 billion ...
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Colletotrichum falcatum and Fusarium species induce symptoms of ...
Jun 18, 2021 · The main causal agent is Colletotrichum falcatum, which induces reddish internal stalk rot, resulting in loss of quality and quantity of sugars.
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Physical Treatment. Infected planting materials are the primary source of pathogen inocula for the occurrence of red rot disease in sugarcane fields [8,28]. ...
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Red rot is the name for the distinct acidic deterioration of the collagen fibers in vegetable tanned leather due to the hydrolysis of condensed tannins (Florian ...
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Apr 22, 2025 · Hydrolysable tannins break down by hydrolysis, then depositing esterifying acids within the fiber structure – called a “bloom”; Very reactive ...
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Red rot occurs when the tannin reacts with sulfuric acid. Leather objects affected by red rot will go through a variety of stages. Vegetable tanned leather made ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
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Aug 30, 2017 · Red rot is a fairly common type of leather degradation that most often occurs in bindings from the late industrial revolution onwards.
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Apr 26, 2021 · Red rot refers to a process of leather deterioration observed commonly in vegetable-tanned leathers from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
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Sep 21, 2015 · Both the leather manufacturing processes and environmental pollutants, particularly sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are thought ...
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Jul 2, 2025 · An irreversible deterioration that most often occurs in vegetable tanned leathers from the late 1800s to early 1900s.
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to as “red rot.” 15. •. Sulfur dioxide and its pollutant progeny react with ... aluminum in the presence of ammonium sulfate particles. Journal of the.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Red rot occurs when the tannin reacts with sulfuric acid. Leather objects affected by red rot will go through a variety of stages. Vegetable tanned leather ...Missing: sulfate | Show results with:sulfate
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The distinctive red colour sometimes observed is due to particular decay products of the tannins such as phlobophenes and anthocyadins (Florian Citation1985).Missing: sulfate | Show results with:sulfate
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Objects affected by red rot go through several stages. In the early stages of red rot, leather will exhibit a pinkish colour that becomes progressively darker ...Missing: visible | Show results with:visible
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[PDF] FROM THE VAULTS - Georgia Archives
Red rot causes the leather to disintegrate into a red dust that can build up in other parts of the book and spread unnecessary dust onto other objects. Under ...
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The visible changes usually include a powdery surface (often reddish/brownish, hence this particular deterioration is known as red-rot) and a complete or ...
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Jul 2, 2018 · ... (red-rot), and it can undergo denaturation as early as during ... (26) The presence of calcium sulfate bihydrated in leather has been ...
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Red rotted leather is characterized as a soft crumbling of a reddish brown powder. There is no way to reverse this deterioration, but the leather can be ...
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Red rot is caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures, high relative humidity, and environmental pollutants that catalyze the acid hydrolysis and.
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Additionally, the protein collagen constituting the skin fibers is susceptible to oxidation, partial hydrolysis, biological attack, and acidification (red-rot), ...
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century equipment is called “red-rot.” This is caused by excessive acidity ... 40-50%; avoid heat above 72 deg. F same as for display; use buffered ...
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Many conservators said that leather bindings with red rot are treated with Klucel G. Two conservators reported that specific binding types receive housings ...
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Jan 31, 2012 · It has long been accepted that both changes in the leather manufacturing processes and environmental pollutants (such as sulfur dioxide and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Take that you filthy red rot! | Guardians of Memory
Oct 27, 2022 · Red rot is a rusty maroon powder that, like pollen, once freed from its source ends up everywhere. Ev-er-y-where. Unlike pollen it lacks the potential up-side ...Missing: european museums 1900 cases
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This is one of the most severe of the known diseases of sugarcane. It was first described from Java by Went in 1893. It is widely distributed throughout the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Glomerella tucumanensis (red rot of sugarcane) | CABI Compendium
In recent years, red rot outbreaks in Thailand ( Pliansinchai, 1999 ) and Nigeria ( Olufolaji, 1999 ) have severely affected sugarcane production. Indirect ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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