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Relevance theory

Relevance theory is a cognitive framework in pragmatics and communication studies, developed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson, which posits that human cognition and ostensive communication are oriented toward achieving maximal relevance, defined as a balance between the cognitive effects produced by processing an input and the mental effort required to obtain those effects.^[1] The theory argues that every communicative act, such as an utterance, carries a presumption of its own optimal relevance, meaning it is worth the audience's attention by yielding sufficient contextual effects—such as new inferences, strengthened assumptions, or eliminated contradictions—with the least possible processing cost.^[2] This inferential approach contrasts with traditional code models of communication, emphasizing how hearers derive intended meanings through contextual inference rather than solely through decoding linguistic forms.^[1] Originating in the 1980s, relevance theory was first systematically presented in Sperber and Wilson's 1986 book Relevance: Communication and Cognition, which laid the foundation for an inferential model rooted in cognitive psychology and drew on Paul Grice's cooperative principle while critiquing its reliance on maxims like quantity and quality.^[1] A revised and expanded second edition appeared in 1995, incorporating responses to critiques and refining concepts such as mutual manifestness over mutual knowledge to explain how communicators make intentions overt without requiring infinite recursion of beliefs about beliefs.^[3] The theory has evolved through subsequent works, including Meaning and Relevance (2012), where the authors explored its implications for semantics, philosophy of language, and mind-reading abilities.^[4] At its core, relevance theory operates on two interrelated principles: the cognitive principle of relevance, which states that the human cognitive system tends to maximize relevance by processing inputs that promise the greatest cognitive effects for the least effort, and the communicative principle of relevance, which asserts that every ostensive stimulus (e.g., an utterance) communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevance, thereby guiding the comprehension process.^[3] The comprehension heuristic instructs hearers to follow a path of least effort, deriving explicatures (fully propositional forms of what is said) and implicatures (inferred implications) in order of accessibility until the presumption of relevance is satisfied, thus unifying the treatment of explicit and implicit content.^[2] This framework rejects the idea that semantics alone determines truth-conditional meaning, instead viewing much of it as pragmatically enriched through ad hoc concept adjustment and contextual assumptions.^[1] Relevance theory has profoundly influenced fields beyond pragmatics, including semantics, where it explains phenomena like lexical narrowing, loosening, and metaphor as relevance-driven inferences rather than ambiguities; cognitive psychology, through its emphasis on modular mind-reading faculties and experimental validations (e.g., in irony detection and scalar implicatures); and applied linguistics, such as translation and literary interpretation, by modeling how relevance guides cross-cultural or stylistic adaptations.^[3] Its interdisciplinary reach extends to developmental psychology, examining how children acquire pragmatic competence, and evolutionary biology, exploring the cognitive adaptations underlying ostensive communication in humans.^[4] Despite critiques regarding its handling of cultural variability or non-verbal communication, the theory remains a cornerstone of inferential pragmatics, with ongoing research testing its predictions via neuroimaging and cross-linguistic studies.^[1]

Foundations

Historical Development

Relevance theory emerged in the 1980s as a cognitive approach to pragmatics, building on the inferential view of communication initially outlined by philosopher H.P. Grice in his cooperative principle. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson, drawing from Grice's ideas on implicature and the role of inference in understanding utterances, sought to develop a more psychologically realistic framework that integrated cognition and communication without relying on assumptions of strict cooperation.^[5]^[6] The theory was formally proposed in Sperber and Wilson's seminal 1986 book, Relevance: Communication and Cognition, which presented a comprehensive account of how humans process information for maximal relevance, balancing cognitive effects against processing effort. This work marked a shift from code-based models of language to an inferential one, emphasizing ostensive communication where speakers signal intentions to convey relevant information. Early dissemination included a 1987 précis published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, which elicited commentaries from linguists, philosophers, and psychologists, highlighting initial debates on the theory's scope and testability.^[7] A second edition of the book appeared in 1995, incorporating a new postface that addressed key criticisms—such as concerns over the vagueness of relevance as a metric and its compatibility with non-cooperative discourse—and refined core concepts like explicature and implicature in light of emerging cognitive science evidence. The 2000s saw further evolution through expansions in academic journals, including special issues and articles in Journal of Pragmatics that applied the theory to topics like irony, metaphor, and prosody, solidifying its influence across pragmatics and interdisciplinary fields. Responses to early critiques, including those on the theory's explanatory power for atypical communication, continued to shape refinements, as seen in works like Sperber and Wilson (2002).^[8]

Core Assumptions

Relevance theory posits that human cognition is fundamentally oriented toward the maximization of relevance, where relevance is understood as a trade-off between the cognitive effects achieved—such as new information, strengthened beliefs, or eliminated uncertainties—and the mental effort required to process them.^[3] This cognitive principle assumes that individuals spontaneously attend to and process stimuli that promise the greatest relevance, with greater effects or lesser effort yielding higher relevance.^[3] As articulated by Sperber and Wilson, "human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance," reflecting an evolved capacity to optimize information processing in resource-limited minds. Central to the theory is its inferential model of communication, which departs from the traditional code model of language that views utterances as direct encodings of meaning to be decoded by the hearer.^[3] Instead, utterances function as ostensive stimuli—acts that manifest the speaker's intentions and prompt the hearer to infer the intended meaning through non-demonstrative inference, drawing on contextual assumptions and mutual knowledge.^[3] This shift emphasizes that linguistic semantics provides only partial input, with full interpretation relying on pragmatic inference to resolve ambiguities and enrich the message.^[9] Comprehension in relevance theory is conceived as an automatic, relevance-guided process, where hearers construct interpretations by following a path of least effort, testing hypotheses in order of accessibility until an adequately relevant outcome is reached.^[3] This procedure assumes that the human mind operates under a presumption of optimal relevance, ensuring efficient recovery of the speaker's meaning without exhaustive exploration of all possible interpretations.^[3] Sperber and Wilson describe this as a heuristic mechanism that aligns cognitive processing with communicative goals, minimizing effort while maximizing inferential yield.

Key Principles

Cognitive Principle of Relevance

The cognitive principle of relevance posits that human cognition is oriented toward the maximization of relevance, a process in which the mind spontaneously seeks out and processes stimuli that offer the greatest potential benefit relative to the cognitive resources expended.^[10] This principle, central to relevance theory, underscores that cognitive systems are adapted to achieve optimal outcomes by prioritizing inputs likely to yield significant informational gains with minimal processing costs.^[11] As articulated by Sperber and Wilson, the mind functions as an efficient mechanism that filters environmental and internal stimuli to focus on those enhancing understanding or decision-making most effectively.^[6] Relevance in this context is not absolute but comparative, defined by the balance between cognitive effects and processing effort. Cognitive effects encompass a range of outcomes from information processing, such as deriving contextual implications that expand or refine an individual's assumptions about the world, strengthening pre-existing beliefs through confirmation, eliminating erroneous assumptions via contradiction, or revising mental representations to align with new evidence.^[10] These effects represent the positive impact on an individual's cognitive environment—the set of assumptions influencing perception, thought, and action—making them the numerator in the relevance equation.^[11] For instance, encountering a stimulus that resolves an uncertainty or connects disparate ideas yields higher effects than one requiring extensive reinterpretation without clear payoff.^[6] The effort-relevance trade-off is fundamental: processing effort acts as the denominator, where greater anticipated cognitive effects justify increased expenditure of attentional and computational resources, but diminishing returns occur if effort outweighs benefits.^[10] This trade-off manifests across all forms of cognition, from perception and memory retrieval to problem-solving, ensuring that the human mind operates as a relevance-oriented system rather than one driven by exhaustive analysis of all available data.^[11] Conceptually, relevance can be intuited as increasing with the magnitude of effects (E) while inversely related to effort (P), though no formal quantification is proposed; instead, it serves as a heuristic guiding spontaneous cognitive selection without requiring metarepresentational awareness.^[6] This general cognitive mechanism provides the foundation for more specific applications, such as the communicative principle of relevance, which presumes that ostensive acts in communication are optimally relevant manifestations of the communicator's intentions.^[10]

Communicative Principle of Relevance

The Communicative Principle of Relevance, as formulated by Sperber and Wilson, states that every act of ostensive communication communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevance.^[10] This principle posits that when a communicator produces an ostensive stimulus—such as an utterance or gesture—they implicitly guarantee that the stimulus is worth the hearer's processing effort and represents the most relevant option available given the speaker's abilities and preferences.^[10] Optimal relevance here means achieving adequate contextual effects, such as new inferences or strengthened assumptions, for the minimal cognitive effort required.^[10] At the core of this principle is the ostensive-inferential model of communication, where speakers overtly manifest their intentions through stimuli designed to attract attention, while hearers infer the intended meaning by maximizing relevance in their interpretation process.^[10] For instance, in response to an offer of coffee, a speaker might say, "Coffee would keep me awake," overtly signaling an intention to inform; the hearer, guided by the presumption of relevance, infers a polite refusal by accessing a context where staying asleep is desirable, rather than exploring less relevant alternatives.^[10] This model ensures that communication succeeds because hearers assume the speaker has selected the stimulus that best balances cognitive effects against effort, making the intended interpretation the most accessible and efficient one.^[10] The presumption of relevance plays a crucial role in disambiguating underdetermined linguistic forms, where utterances often leave elements like reference or scope open to multiple readings.^[10] Hearers recover the intended meaning by testing interpretive hypotheses in order of accessibility, selecting the first one that yields an overall interpretation consistent with the principle—namely, sufficient effects for the effort expended.^[10] Consider the sentence "I saw that gasoline can explode" in the context of a recent incident with a specific container; the hearer shifts from a generic possibility reading ("it is possible for gasoline to explode") to a deictic one ("that can of gasoline explode") because the latter provides greater contextual effects with comparable effort, aligning with the speaker's presumed intent.^[10] This process relies on the hearer's expectation that the utterance would not have been produced unless it met the threshold of optimal relevance, thereby constraining the range of viable interpretations.^[10]

Comprehension Mechanisms

Explicature

Explicature in relevance theory refers to the inferential development of the linguistically encoded semantic form of an utterance into a fully propositional explicit meaning, achieved through disambiguation of lexical or structural ambiguities, resolution of referential expressions, and conceptual enrichment to ensure truth-evaluability. This process transforms an incomplete or schematic logical form into a communicated assumption that serves as a premise for further interpretation.^[6]^[12] The hierarchy of explicature begins with the logical form, the underdetermined syntactic-semantic representation directly recovered by decoding the utterance's linguistic structure, such as the schematic proposition "x left" from "Some people left." This base is then elaborated into a basic explicature by applying contextually driven inferences: disambiguation selects the intended sense (e.g., resolving "bank" as a financial institution rather than a river edge), reference assignment identifies specific entities (e.g., interpreting "he" as a particular individual like "John"), and enrichment adds unspecified elements to complete the proposition (e.g., specifying tense or manner). Finally, full explicature incorporates ad hoc concept adjustment, where encoded meanings are narrowed, broadened, or loosened to align with the speaker's intended denotation, ensuring maximal relevance; for example, "Some people left" might enrich to "Some (of the relevant group) people left" in a context where a specific set of people is salient.^[12]^[13] A key distinction from purely semantic decoding is that explicature requires minimal but essential inference, guided by the hearer's expectation of optimal relevance, rather than being exhaustively encoded in the language system. This ensures the explicit content is a manifestly communicated proposition, not merely a decoded string, while avoiding over-reliance on context that would blur into implicit meaning. For instance, in the utterance "He forgot to go to the bank," the basic explicature might resolve to "John forgot to go to the financial institution," combining decoding with reference resolution and disambiguation, whereas further attitudinal embedding (e.g., "John promised he forgot...") yields a full explicature. The explicit layer of explicature thus provides the foundational propositional content, complemented briefly by the complementary implicit layer of implicature.^[6]^[12]

Implicature

In relevance theory, implicature refers to the additional assumptions that are mutually manifest to the speaker and hearer through a relevance-guided inferential process, extending beyond the explicitly communicated content of an utterance.^[10] These assumptions are not encoded in the linguistic form but arise as contextual implications when new information from the utterance interacts with the hearer's existing context, yielding cognitive effects that justify the communicative effort.^[10] Implicatures are classified along two main dimensions: strength and generality. Strong implicatures are those that are precisely intended by the speaker, fully determinate, and for which the speaker takes full responsibility, often entailing the explicature combined with contextual premises in a way that makes them highly warranted.^[10] In contrast, weak implicatures are less determinate, suggesting a broader array of possible interpretations with only probabilistic links to the utterance, commonly found in poetic or vague expressions where multiple weak effects contribute to relevance.^[10] Regarding generality, particularized implicatures depend on specific contextual factors and are not inferred in the absence of those conditions, such as a directional implication in a particular conversation.^[10] Generalized implicatures, however, arise as default inferences across a wide range of contexts without requiring special circumstances, including scalar implicatures like the use of "some" implying "not all."^[10] The inference process for implicatures involves non-demonstrative reasoning, where the hearer spontaneously forms and tests hypotheses about the speaker's intentions in order of accessibility, stopping at the interpretation that achieves optimal relevance by maximizing contextual effects relative to processing effort.^[10] This process draws on both deductive rules and inductive generalizations, combining the utterance's explicit content with contextual assumptions to derive implications until the relevance threshold is met.^[10] For instance, in the scalar implicature from "Some of the boys came to the party," the hearer infers "Not all of the boys came" because assuming the stronger alternative ("all") would yield greater effects without additional effort, unless context cancels it.^[10] Implicatures play a crucial role in relevance by providing the extra cognitive effects that make an utterance worthwhile, ensuring that the overall interpretation—combining explicature and implicature—optimizes relevance despite the hearer's limited processing resources.^[10] They allow speakers to convey complex meanings efficiently, as the presumption of optimal relevance guides hearers to recover these implications without exhaustive search, thereby enhancing communicative success.^[10]

Real-Time Interpretation

In relevance theory, real-time interpretation refers to the dynamic, incremental process by which hearers comprehend utterances online, without waiting for complete input or exhaustive analysis. This involves parallel enrichment of the explicature—the explicitly communicated proposition—and any accompanying implicatures through contextual inference, guided by the pursuit of optimal relevance. The hearer constructs and tests interpretive hypotheses in order of accessibility, integrating linguistic decoding with mutual adjustment of explicit content and contextual assumptions to maximize cognitive effects relative to processing effort. Processing continues until the first interpretation yields satisfactory relevance, at which point it halts, ensuring efficient comprehension under cognitive limitations.^[10] Cognitive constraints play a central role in this procedure, as human processing capacity is finite, leading to a "good enough" strategy rather than a comprehensive search for all possible meanings. Hearers rely on non-demonstrative inference, drawing on immediately accessible contextual information and avoiding the need for mutual knowledge, which would demand excessive effort. This heuristic approach prioritizes interpretations that promise the greatest contextual implications with the least computational cost, reflecting the theory's view of cognition as geared toward relevance maximization. As a result, interpretation is spontaneous and automatic, adapting to the unfolding utterance without specialized modular mechanisms beyond initial decoding.^[10] A classic illustration of this incremental resolution appears in garden-path sentences, where initial parses lead to temporary misinterpretations that are revised as relevance guides recovery. For instance, in the utterance "I saw that gasoline can explode. And a brand new can it was too," the hearer first encounters a garden path suggesting observation of an exploding container, but relevance prompts a shift to interpreting it as witnessing the potential for explosion in a new gasoline can, favoring the simpler, contextually effective reading initially. This example demonstrates how real-time processing prefers accessible hypotheses, recovering from syntactic ambiguities through relevance-driven enrichment rather than backtracking exhaustively.^[1]^[10] The implications of this model extend to explaining everyday comprehension phenomena, such as misinterpretations arising from mismatched contextual assumptions between speaker and hearer, or breakdowns in processing when initial hypotheses fail to achieve adequate relevance. By emphasizing effort minimization, real-time interpretation accounts for why hearers often settle on partial or provisional understandings, which can lead to revisions only if subsequent evidence warrants further processing. This framework underscores the theory's cognitive realism, portraying communication as a risk-prone but efficient inferential activity.^[10]

Utterance Types and Interpretation

Descriptive vs. Interpretive Use

In relevance theory, utterances are categorized into two primary modes of use: descriptive and interpretive. Descriptive use occurs when an utterance represents a state of affairs in the external world as true, thereby committing the speaker to the truth of the propositional content expressed.^[10] For instance, the statement "The cat is on the mat" is typically employed descriptively to convey a factual assumption about reality, aiming to modify the hearer's representation of the world by adding or strengthening beliefs about actual events or conditions.^[10] This mode aligns with truth-conditional semantics, where the success of the utterance depends on its correspondence to observable facts, and the speaker manifests an intention for the hearer to accept the content as veridical.^[10] In contrast, interpretive use involves an utterance that represents another thought or utterance, rather than directly describing an external state, without committing the speaker to the truth of the represented content.^[10] Here, the focus is on resemblance between the speaker's utterance and the attributed representation, such as in direct quotes, indirect reports, or echoes of prior discourse.^[10] For example, "John said that the cat is on the mat" interpretively renders John's thought or words, allowing the hearer to evaluate or respond to John's perspective without the speaker endorsing the truth of the cat's location.^[10] This use facilitates metarepresentational effects, such as expressing agreement, disagreement, or irony toward the echoed content, and echoic utterances represent a subtype where the speaker overtly attributes and comments on another's representation.^[10] The distinction between descriptive and interpretive use is not inherent in the linguistic form but is determined by contextual cues, prosodic features, and the principle of relevance, which guides interpretation toward maximal cognitive effects with minimal effort.^[10] In descriptive use, relevance arises from the utterance's potential to yield new factual implications or confirm existing assumptions about the world.^[10] Interpretive use, however, achieves relevance by enhancing metarepresentations, such as strengthening the hearer's understanding of others' attitudes or enabling evaluative responses, often through second-degree inferences about the speaker's stance toward the attributed thought.^[10] This framework explains how the same propositional form can shift modes depending on communicative intent and context, ensuring efficient ostensive communication.^[10]

Literal and Non-Literal Meaning

In relevance theory, the literal meaning of an utterance corresponds to the semantically encoded content provided by the linguistic forms used, serving as a starting point for interpretation rather than a fixed endpoint. This encoded meaning is often incomplete or underspecified, requiring contextual adjustments to yield the intended interpretation, such as narrowing or broadening concepts to achieve optimal relevance. For instance, the adjective "empty" in "the glass is empty" encodes the absence of any contents but may be loosely interpreted in context as "empty of beer" or "nearly empty," allowing the hearer to infer the speaker's desire for a refill without exhaustive processing. Non-literal meanings, including metaphor and metonymy, arise through similar relevance-guided processes rather than distinct cognitive mechanisms. Metaphor involves interpretive similarity, where a linguistic expression is used to evoke an ad hoc concept resembling the encoded one in relevant respects; for example, "My lawyer is a shark" does not assert literal resemblance to the animal but echoes the stereotype of aggressive, predatory behavior to convey the lawyer's tenacity in a way that maximizes cognitive effects for minimal effort. Metonymy operates via relevance as well, often as a form of loose use where a term stands for a salient associated entity, such as "I drank the whole bottle" referring to the liquid contents rather than the container itself, justified by the contextual accessibility and inferential yield of the substitution.00016-2) Central to these interpretations is the formation of ad hoc concepts, temporary adjustments to encoded meanings that expand, narrow, or otherwise modify lexical concepts to fit the utterance's optimal relevance. These adjustments occur through a mutual parallel adjustment of explicit and implicit content, ensuring that the overall interpretation—whether seemingly literal or non-literal—yields the greatest contextual effects relative to processing costs. For example, in hyperbolic or approximate uses like "I'm starving," the encoded concept STARVING is broadened ad hoc to HUNGRY***, conveying a strong degree of hunger without literal truth.^[14] Relevance theory thus eliminates a strict divide between literal and non-literal meaning, positing that all utterance interpretation follows a unified inferential path driven by the comprehension procedure of following a path of least effort toward maximal relevance. Irony represents a special case of non-literal interpretation but shares this relevance-based framework.

Irony and Echoic Utterances

In relevance theory, echoic utterances constitute a subset of interpretive use, in which a speaker produces an utterance that resembles—either verbatim or in descriptive paraphrase—another representation, such as a prior utterance, thought, or expectation, while simultaneously manifesting their own attitude toward that represented content.^[15] This attitude may involve endorsement, doubt, approval, or rejection, with the communicative relevance deriving from the audience's recognition of both the resemblance and the speaker's stance rather than from the truth-conditional content of the utterance itself.^[16] For instance, responding to a description of a disastrous event with "What a success!" echoes the optimistic framing while conveying ironic rejection.^[15] Irony emerges as a particular form of echoic utterance characterized by the speaker's dissociative or mocking attitude toward an attributed thought deemed absurd, inappropriate, or inadequately true.^[15] Often, ironic utterances present the echoed content in a positive light to heighten the contrast with the negative attitude, as in the sarcastic exclamation "Beautiful day!" uttered amid pouring rain, which echoes a conventional expression of approval while rejecting the actual circumstances as ludicrously contrary.^[16] The relevance of such irony lies not in asserting a literal proposition but in revealing the speaker's critical perspective, which optimally balances cognitive effort with contextual effects like heightened awareness of discrepancies or social norms.^[15] This approach distinguishes irony from metaphors, which involve interpretive resemblance in descriptive use without the echoic attribution of a specific thought or the attendant attitudinal dissociation.^[15] Echoic utterances, including ironic ones, can take verbatim form by directly quoting or mimicking an expression, or descriptive form by loosely paraphrasing the echoed idea, allowing flexibility in conveying attitudes across contexts.^[16] In humor, irony exploits this echoic structure through exaggerated rejection of patently false assumptions, amplifying amusement via the audience's recovery of the attitudinal mismatch.^[15] Similarly, in criticism, it serves to highlight inadequacies or violations of expectations, such as echoing a politician's promise with scornful repetition to underscore its emptiness, thereby fostering evaluative insights with minimal processing cost.^[16]

Speech Acts

In relevance theory, speech acts are analyzed as a subset of ostensive acts, in which the speaker overtly signals an intention to make manifest not only a set of assumptions but also their own informative and communicative intentions regarding those assumptions. The illocutionary force of an utterance—such as asserting, questioning, or requesting—is not encoded through conventional linguistic means like mood indicators or performative verbs but is inferred by the hearer as the interpretation that optimizes relevance by maximizing contextual effects relative to processing effort. Perlocutionary effects, or the actual impact on the hearer, similarly arise from this inferential process rather than from predefined rules.^[10]^[6] A classic example is the utterance "Can you pass the salt?" at the dinner table, which is not interpreted as a genuine yes/no question about the hearer's ability but as a polite request to hand over the salt; this reading emerges because it generates relevant contextual implications (e.g., aiding the meal) with minimal inferential effort, whereas a literal question would yield fewer effects. Similarly, "Do you know what time it is?" often functions as a request for the time rather than an inquiry into knowledge, as the hearer infers the speaker's intention based on the presumption of optimal relevance raised by the ostensive act.^[10]^[6] Relevance theory rejects the felicity conditions of traditional speech act theory (e.g., preparatory or sincerity conditions), arguing that the felicity or success of a speech act hinges instead on the hearer's uptake through relevance-guided comprehension processes, without reliance on speaker-side conventions. If the inferred intention aligns with the context to produce adequate effects, the act succeeds; otherwise, it may misfire due to insufficient relevance.^[10] This approach distinguishes illocutionary force from semantics by treating it as part of the utterance's explicature—a pragmatically enriched explicit meaning that includes higher-level metarepresentations of the speaker's attitude, such as "The speaker is requesting that the hearer pass the salt," rather than as a separate implicature.^[6]

Extensions and Applications

Multimodal Communication

Relevance theory has been extended to multimodal communication since the 2010s, incorporating non-verbal elements such as gestures, visuals, and emojis as ostensive stimuli that contribute to the overall relevance of an utterance by enhancing cognitive effects while minimizing processing effort. In this framework, gestures function as intentional signals that guide inference, similar to verbal cues, by directing attention to relevant aspects of the context and facilitating the recovery of explicatures and implicatures.^[17] Visuals, including images and diagrams, serve as ostensive devices in mass communication, presuming optimal relevance to diverse audiences by combining with verbal elements to maximize interpretive efficiency. Emojis, in particular, act as multimodal enhancers in digital discourse, providing procedural cues that narrow down possible interpretations and boost relevance through their visual and affective properties.^[18] Recent proposals, influenced by Sperber and Wilson, advocate for an inclusive model of relevance theory that unifies verbal and non-verbal modalities into a comprehensive account of communication.^[19] This 2025 framework posits that relevance theory can encompass all forms of ostensive-inferential communication, including multimodal ones, by treating non-verbal signals as equally capable of manifesting communicator intentions and achieving contextual effects.^[19] For instance, in visual narratives such as comics, relevance guides the integration of sequential images and text, where viewers infer narrative progression through a balance of effort and effects, as modeled in verbal-visual analyses.^[20] Emojis further exemplify this by enhancing implicatures; in advertising, an emoji like a heart paired with text can imply emotional appeal without explicit statement, allowing audiences to derive richer inferences with reduced cognitive load.^[18] Integrating effort and effects across modalities presents challenges, particularly with non-propositional elements like expressive gestures or visuals that convey affect rather than explicit content.^[21] These elements require procedural encodings to align with verbal propositions, but their ineffable affective dimensions complicate the uniform application of relevance metrics, as processing non-verbal cues may demand varying levels of contextual adjustment.^[21] Despite this, the theory's cognitive foundation supports ongoing refinements to handle such integrations, ensuring multimodal inputs contribute to optimal relevance.^[19]

Applications in Other Fields

Relevance theory has been applied in psychology to model communication deficits in autism spectrum disorders, particularly by examining how impairments in relevance processing affect pragmatic inference. In the 2000s, researchers proposed that autistic individuals exhibit difficulties in deriving implicatures due to challenges in accessing contextual assumptions that align with optimal relevance, leading to atypical utterance interpretation.^[22] For instance, studies highlighted that while explicit content is often processed adequately, the effort required to infer intended meanings from weak contextual cues can result in misunderstandings, reframing these as processing differences rather than outright deficits.^[23] This approach integrates relevance theory with theory-of-mind frameworks to explain why autistic communicators may prioritize literal over inferential interpretations, providing a cognitive basis for targeted interventions in social communication.^[24] In artificial intelligence and natural language processing (NLP), relevance theory informs the development of systems that handle pragmatic inference, such as dialogue agents and sentiment analysis tools, by modeling how implied meanings arise from contextual relevance in the 2020s. For dialogue systems, probabilistic models inspired by relevance theory simulate conversational implicatures, enabling more natural responses by estimating the optimal balance of cognitive effects and processing effort in multi-turn interactions.^[25] In sentiment analysis, the theory guides the detection of subtle emotional tones through implicature resolution, where algorithms infer attitudes from non-literal cues like irony or understatement, improving accuracy in processing user-generated text.^[26] These applications draw on relevance-guided prompting in large language models to enhance comprehension of implied content, bridging theoretical pragmatics with computational efficiency. Relevance theory extends to translation and literary studies by providing a framework for handling cultural implicatures, where translators must recreate optimal relevance across linguistic and cultural boundaries. Seminal work in the field treats translation as an interpretive use of language, aiming to convey explicatures and implicatures that achieve similar cognitive effects in the target audience as in the source text.^[27] In literary analysis, the theory explains how readers infer layered meanings from implicit cultural references, such as metaphors or allusions, by adjusting contextual assumptions to maximize relevance.^[28] This approach has been particularly useful in intercultural contexts, where explicating or adapting implicatures prevents loss of intended effects, as seen in studies of popular fiction translation.^[29] Recent advancements in 2025, documented in arXiv preprints, further apply relevance theory to computational pragmatics, focusing on implied meanings in AI systems. These works model relevance probabilistically to improve large language models' handling of implicatures in dialogue, emphasizing in-context learning prompts that incorporate relevance-theoretic principles for better inference of non-explicit content.^[25] Such developments highlight the theory's growing role in enhancing AI's pragmatic capabilities, with applications to real-time interpretation in automated systems.

Criticisms and Comparisons

Major Criticisms

One major criticism of relevance theory concerns the vagueness of its central concept of relevance, defined as a balance between cognitive effects and processing effort, which critics argue is difficult to quantify or operationalize empirically. This ambiguity makes it challenging to generate precise, falsifiable predictions, as the theory's principles—particularly the cognitive principle that human cognition maximizes relevance—can be interpreted broadly to accommodate diverse outcomes without clear refutation criteria. For instance, Kent Bach has described the theory's terminology, such as "explicature," as idiosyncratic and unhelpful for precise analysis, potentially rendering the framework more descriptive than predictive.^[30]^[31] Another key critique is that relevance theory overemphasizes individual cognitive processes at the expense of social and cultural factors in communication. Post-Gricean scholars favoring sociolinguistic approaches argue that the theory's inferential model, rooted in cognitive principles, largely overlooks how power dynamics, social roles, and cultural norms shape interpretation and relevance assessment. Sperber and Wilson themselves acknowledged in early work that relevance-theoretic analyses had "largely ignored" sociological aspects like role-playing and turn-taking, focusing instead on ostensive communication within a narrow cognitive frame. Recent extensions, such as those incorporating testimonial injustice, highlight how social prejudices can systematically affect perceived relevance, challenging the theory's universality.^[32]^[33] Proponents respond that the theory's flexibility—its non-modular, relevance-guided approach—constitutes a strength rather than a flaw, allowing adaptation to new empirical data without ad hoc revisions. Deirdre Wilson has countered falsifiability concerns by noting that the cognitive principle could be disproven by evidence of systematic non-relevance-based attention allocation, and ongoing experimental pragmatics continues to refine testable hypotheses. This adaptability has enabled relevance theory to incorporate social dimensions in later developments, positioning it as a robust, evolving framework despite its challenges.^[30]

Contrast with Conduit Metaphor

The conduit metaphor conceptualizes language as a conduit or container that transfers thoughts from speaker to hearer, where meanings are encoded into words and decoded literally at the receiving end, assuming a direct and complete transfer of propositional content.^[34] This model, often termed the code model of communication, posits that successful interpretation relies on shared linguistic conventions to unpack pre-packaged ideas without significant contextual inference.^[10] (pp. 2-4) Relevance theory rejects this conduit-based code model as inadequate for capturing the complexities of human communication, arguing instead for an ostensive-inferential framework where utterances serve as evidence of the speaker's intentions, interpreted through context-dependent inference guided by expectations of optimal relevance.^[10] (pp. 9, 46-50) Under the code model, meanings are fixed and transferable like objects in a pipeline, but relevance theory emphasizes that linguistic forms provide incomplete logical structures that hearers enrich inferentially to achieve contextual effects, such as modifying assumptions about the world, with processing effort minimized.^[10] (pp. 71-72, 183-202) For instance, the utterance "Some students came" might literally encode a partial truth but inferentially implicate "Not all students came" based on relevance to the hearer's context, rather than through decoding a fully specified code.^[10] (p. 37) This inferential approach offers advantages over the conduit metaphor's literalism by naturally accounting for linguistic ambiguity and non-literal uses, such as metaphor or irony, without treating them as deviations from a core literal meaning; instead, all interpretations, literal or otherwise, emerge from the same relevance-guided process of hypothesis formation and testing.^[35] (pp. 175-176) The code model struggles with such phenomena because it assumes utterances encode complete, context-independent thoughts, leading to "semantic pathology" where non-literal expressions appear inexplicable or erroneous.^[34] In contrast, relevance theory's dynamic context selection explains how the same utterance can yield varied interpretations across situations, prioritizing cognitive efficiency over mechanical decoding.^[10] (pp. 118-145) The implications of this shift are profound, moving the focus from passive encoding and decoding to active ostensive acts—where speakers manifest intentions to inform or influence—and inferential comprehension, where hearers attribute intentions based on relevance principles, thereby highlighting communication as a collaborative, cognitively oriented process rather than a mere transfer of content.^[10] (pp. 162-163, 230-231)

References

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Below is a merged response that consolidates all the information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive summary. To retain maximum detail and ensure clarity, I will use a structured format with tables where appropriate, followed by a narrative summary. This approach balances density and readability while preserving all key points, definitions, and claims.
[2]
(PDF) Outline of relevance theory - Academia.edu
Links & Letters 1, 1994 85-106 Outline of relevance theory' Deirdre Wilson*, D a n Sperber** *Department of Linguistics University College London **CNRS and ...
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Summary of each segment:
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Meaning and Relevance - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
... relevance theory and exploring its implications for linguistics, philosophy ... By Dan Sperber, Deirdre Wilson. You have access Access. PDF; Export ...
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Relevance Theory
### Summary of Relevance Theory (1980s–2000s)
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[PDF] 27 Relevance Theory - Dan Sperber
Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of. Grice's central claims: that an essential feature of most human communication.
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http://www.dan.sperber.fr/wp-content/uploads/1987_wilson_precis-of-relevance.pdf
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[PDF] A decade of relevance theory
In this paper I provide an insight into Sperber and Wilson's relevance theory, an analysis of its situation after ten years, and comments on the theory and ...
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Journal of Pragmatics | Vol 32, Issue 6, Pages 651-853 (May 2000)
Current issues in relevance theory: Villy Rouchota and Andreas H. Jucker, eds., Pragmatics and Beyond New Series 58. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 368 pp ...
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(PDF) Relevance Theory - ResearchGate
This paper outlines the main assumptions of relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson 1985, 1995, 1998, 2002, Wilson & Sperber 2002), an inferential approach to ...Missing: milestones | Show results with:milestones
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[PDF] Relevance: Communication and cognition - Monoskop
Sperber, Dan. Relevance: communication and cognitionJDan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-631-19878 ...
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Relevance Theory | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
Sep 30, 2019 · Sperber and Wilson (1986/1995, ch. 3) begin by defining two more general notions: relevance in a context and relevance to an individual. A ...
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[PDF] Linguistic form and relevance | Dan Sperber
Logical forms are 'developed' into explicatures by inferential enrichment. Every explicature, then, is recovered by a combination of decoding and inference, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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### Summary of Enrichment of 'Some' to 'Some but Not All' as Explicature in Relevance Theory
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### Summary of Key Sections on Literal Meaning, Non-Literal Meaning, Metaphor, Loose Use, and Ad Hoc Concepts in Relevance Theory (RT)
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[PDF] Explaining irony - Dan Sperber
Irony is a contrary or contradictory utterance, where the speaker expresses a mocking attitude towards a thought, not the literal meaning.
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[PDF] Relevance Theory - BU Personal Websites
This paper outlines the main assumptions of relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson 1985,. 1995, 1998, 2002, Wilson & Sperber 2002), an inferential approach to ...
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Relevance Theory as model for analysing multimodal communication.
In this chapter I argue that the new discipline will benefit from adopting Sperber and Wilson's Relevance Theory as the basic model for analysis. This will ...
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A Relevance-theoretic Approach to Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Apr 11, 2023 · This study concludes that emojis serve as a tool of ostensive communication, conveying the message with the presumption of relevance.
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Relevance theory as the foundation for an inclusive theory of communication
### Summary of Key Points on Relevance Theory for Inclusive Multimodal Communication
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[PDF] Relevance theory and media discourse: a verbal-visual model of ...
Verbal-visual narrative discourses like films, for example, provide many instances fitting the sixteen categories which conform the Model. For other verbal ...
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(PDF) Relevance, effects and affect - ResearchGate
Aug 8, 2025 · In this paper, we argue that the successful integration of expressive acts of communication into an inferential theory of pragmatics faces a major challenge.
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A Relevance-Theoretic Account of the Development and Deficits of ...
This paper argues that positing a Theory of Mind and mindreading abilities in particular is necessary in order to be able to account for the development and ...
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Reframing Autistic Pragmatic “Impairments” Using Relevance Theory
Apr 28, 2021 · This paper presents the findings from a small-scale, linguistic ethnographic study of autistic communication featuring eight core autistic participants.
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A Relevance-Theoretic Account of the Development and Deficits of ...
Aug 10, 2025 · For this reason, relevance theory has largely been used to explain the cognitive mechanisms of (both successful and unsuccessful) utterance ...
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1566253524004901
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A survey on pragmatic processing techniques - ScienceDirect.com
... natural language processing (NLP) techniques for the contextual ... WałaszewskaE. Broadening and narrowing in lexical development: How relevance theory can ...
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(PDF) Relevance Theory in Translation and Interpreting: A Cognitive ...
It provides an overview of key concepts in Gricean and relevance-theoretic pragmatics, and showcases Relevance Theory-inspired research in a wide range of ...
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Relevance Theory and Literary Interpretation - Oxford Academic
This concluding chapter reflects in general terms on some aspects of relevance theory that have been fruitfully used in the analyses in this volume.
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Relevance-Based Approach to Translation of Contemporary Popular ...
According to the Relevance Theory, the translator should convey as much information as needed in any given context for communication to minimize the processing ...<|separator|>
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### Summary of Criticisms and Responses on Vagueness and Falsifiability of the Cognitive Principle in Relevance Theory
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[PDF] 1 1. relevance theory, communication and cognition
I touch your arm, hold up my empty glass and say 'My glass is empty'. Ostensive stimulus: used to attract the audience's attention and indicate a speaker's ...
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Dan Sperber & Deirdre Wilson (1997) Remarks on relevance theory ...
Relevance theory takes a different approach. It characterises communication as a different type of social process than does the code model. From the point ...Missing: development | Show results with:development
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Relevance theory and the social realities of communication - Frontiers
Jan 28, 2024 · By dropping Grice's third clause, Sperber and Wilson open up the sorts of relevant cases to include “meaning that” as well as “showing that,” ...
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[PDF] Testing the cognitive and communicative principles of relevance
Most work in relevance theory so far has been focused on utterance interpretation rather than on utterance production. The theory, however, has testable ...
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Pragmatics Always Matters: An Expanded Vision of Experimental ...
Theoretical models in psycholinguistics now mostly embrace the idea that pragmatics, often through access to prior pragmatic background knowledge and more ...
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10 - The conduit metaphor: A case of frame conflict in our language ...
The conduit metaphor: A case of frame conflict in our language about language. By Michael J. Reddy, Columbia University. Edited by Andrew Ortony, Northwestern ...
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[PDF] Parallels and Differences in the Treatment of Metaphor in Relevance ...
A hearer using this heuristic during online comprehension ... 4 For fuller exposition of relevance theory, and comparison with alternative approaches, see Sperber.