Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Silent reading

Silent reading is the practice of interpreting written text without vocalizing the words aloud, often involving internal auditory imagery or "inner speech" to facilitate comprehension and mental processing of the material.^[1] Historically, reading aloud dominated in antiquity, but instances of silent reading appear in ancient sources, such as depictions in Euripides' Hippolytus (5th century BC) and Aristophanes' The Knights, where characters read silently on stage.^[2] In the 4th century AD, Saint Augustine noted the rarity of Bishop Ambrose's silent reading in his Confessions, describing it as a novel method that allowed for deeper concentration without disturbing others.^[2] By the 9th century, silent reading gained traction in monastic scriptoriums, aided by innovations like word separation in manuscripts, which reduced the need for vocal cues and enabled quieter, more efficient reading.^[2] The invention of the printing press around 1450–1455 further promoted silent reading by standardizing text and increasing book availability, shifting reading from communal oral practices to private, introspective ones.^[3] Cognitively, silent reading engages neural networks similar to those in oral reading, including activation of temporal voice areas in the brain approximately 400–800 milliseconds after word presentation, which simulates an internal auditory experience modulated by attention.^[1] This process involves asynchronous responses across visual, auditory, and higher-order cortices, allowing for top-down integration of meaning without external sound.^[1] In educational contexts, silent reading fosters reading proficiency, particularly for at-risk students, by providing practice in independent comprehension and fluency without the distractions of vocalization.^[4] Research since the early 20th century, including studies by Thorndike (1917) and Huey (1908), has underscored its superiority for understanding complex texts compared to oral methods alone.^[3] Programs like Sustained Silent Reading (SSR), developed in the 1960s, emphasize its role in building lifelong reading habits and vocabulary through self-selected materials.^[5]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Definition

Silent reading is the internal process of comprehending written text without producing audible sounds or visible articulatory movements, such as lip or tongue motion.^[6] This cognitive activity relies on the visual perception of printed or written symbols to extract meaning, distinguishing it from oral reading by eliminating external vocal output while preserving the mental reconstruction of language.^[6] At its core, silent reading encompasses several interconnected processes: visual processing decodes orthographic forms through eye movements that scan and fixate on text; internal phonological representation converts these visual cues into sound-based mental forms, often via subvocalization or "inner speech," to support working memory; and semantic integration synthesizes this information with prior knowledge to construct coherent understanding.^[6]^[7] These elements enable efficient comprehension, particularly in proficient readers, where the activity becomes largely automatic and self-directed.^[6] Silent reading emerged as a specialized skill within literate societies, evolving beyond the predominant oral traditions of antiquity where reading was almost invariably performed aloud to aid memory, pronunciation, and communal interpretation.^[8] A notable early account appears in St. Augustine's Confessions (c. 397–400 CE), describing Bishop Ambrose's silent perusal of texts as an unusual practice, with his eyes traversing the page while his voice remained silent and his mind sought meaning inwardly.^[8] This shift marked a transition toward private, introspective engagement with written material, facilitated later by innovations like word spacing in medieval manuscripts.^[6]

Comparison to Oral Reading

Silent reading differs from oral reading primarily in its efficiency and cognitive engagement. While oral reading typically proceeds at a rate of 150-160 words per minute due to the constraints of articulation and speech production, silent reading enables significantly faster processing, often reaching 250-300 words per minute in adults.^[9] This acceleration in silent reading stems from the absence of vocalization, allowing readers to bypass the physical demands of speaking and focus directly on textual comprehension. However, silent reading lacks the auditory feedback inherent in oral reading, which can aid in self-monitoring for errors, though it affords greater privacy and introspection during the process.^[10] Cognitively, oral reading activates additional neural and muscular systems beyond those used in silent reading. It engages the articulatory muscles involved in speech production and requires external phonation, drawing on motor control areas of the brain to coordinate voice output with text decoding.^[11] In contrast, silent reading emphasizes visual-orthographic pathways, where the brain processes letter patterns and word forms more directly without the overlay of phonological articulation, potentially streamlining semantic integration.^[12] Subvocalization, an internal speech-like process, often serves as a transitional mechanism between the two modes, simulating oral elements during silent comprehension.^[13] Historically, reading practices have shifted from a predominance of oral recitation in antiquity—where texts were typically voiced aloud in communal or educational settings—to the widespread adoption of silent reading as the dominant form in modern literacy cultures.^[14] This transition, accelerating in the late Middle Ages with innovations like word spacing in manuscripts, facilitated individual, introspective engagement with texts and aligned with rising literacy rates during the Renaissance and Enlightenment.^[15]

Historical Evolution

Ancient and Medieval Practices

In ancient Greece, silent reading appears in literary depictions from the fifth century BCE, indicating it was practiced, albeit infrequently, among the literate elite. For instance, in Euripides' Hippolytus (lines 856–875), Theseus silently reads a letter delivered by his wife, interpreting its contents without vocalizing them. Similarly, Aristophanes' The Knights (lines 115–128) portrays the character Demosthenes reading an oracle aloud at first but then silently to grasp its meaning, suggesting an awareness of quieter comprehension methods. These examples illustrate that while oral performance dominated Greek culture, silent reading served practical purposes like deciphering private messages.^[16] Roman elites extended this practice for efficiency in scholarly and administrative tasks, often reading without sound in personal or professional settings. Cicero, in Tusculan Disputations (5.116), contrasts the effects of reading poetry silently versus hearing it recited, implying the former was a familiar mode for internal reflection. Plutarch recounts Julius Caesar reading a message silently during a Senate session (Life of Brutus 5.2–3), astonishing onlookers who expected vocalization, which underscores the act's novelty yet feasibility among the educated. Such instances highlight silent reading as a tool for discretion and speed in a society where public recitation remained prevalent.^[16] During the medieval period, silent reading became more embedded in monastic traditions, particularly through practices like lectio divina, a contemplative approach to scripture that emphasized private, internalized engagement over communal aloud recitation. Originating in early monastic rules such as St. Benedict's (sixth century), this method involved slow, meditative reading followed by silent prayer and reflection, fostering spiritual depth in solitude. The ninth-century Carolingian reforms under Charlemagne and Alcuin further supported this by standardizing the Carolingian minuscule script in scriptoria—dedicated monastic copying rooms—producing legible, illuminated manuscripts that aided individual study and reduced reliance on oral transmission. These innovations, including early word separation in Insular scripts from Irish and Anglo-Saxon monasteries, gradually diminished the barriers of continuous writing, enabling broader silent comprehension by the late Middle Ages.^[17]^[18]^[19] Cultural barriers persisted across both eras, limiting silent reading's adoption. The prevalent scriptio continua—unspaced, continuous writing in Greek, Latin, and early medieval scripts—demanded vocalization to parse words, as the lack of separation mimicked spoken flow and hindered visual scanning. Low literacy rates compounded this: estimates suggest only 5–15% of ancient Greeks and Romans were literate, confined mostly to urban elites, while medieval rates dipped even lower amid feudal fragmentation, restricting reading to clergy and nobility. Communal norms, rooted in oral traditions for education, entertainment, and religious observance, further prioritized aloud reading to share knowledge in illiterate societies.^[17]^[20]

Modern Developments

The invention of the movable-type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s marked a pivotal advancement in the dissemination of texts, dramatically increasing book production and reducing costs to about one-eighth of manuscript prices, which made reading materials accessible beyond elite circles and facilitated the widespread adoption of silent reading during the Renaissance. By 1500, over 1,000 printers operated across Europe, producing an estimated 9 million books in 30,000 titles, enabling private, introspective engagement with texts that shifted reading from a primarily communal, oral activity to a more individualized practice among scholars and the emerging literate middle class. This transformation, as described by historian Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, allowed silent reading to "radically transform intellectual work, which in essence became an intimate activity," fostering deeper personal reflection and cultural changes in early modern Europe.^[21] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the expansion of public education systems further entrenched silent reading as a core skill, driven by compulsory schooling laws that became nearly universal in Europe and the United States by 1900, aiming to standardize literacy for industrial efficiency and civic participation. Governments assumed responsibility for primary education, leading to a pedagogical shift in schools from oral recitation—dominant through much of the 19th century—to silent reading, which allowed for faster processing and independent comprehension in crowded classrooms. Concurrently, the beginnings of psychological research on reading emerged in the late 1870s, exemplified by the invention of the tachistoscope in 1859 by German physiologist A. W. Volkmann, an instrument for exposing visual stimuli briefly to study perception thresholds, laying groundwork for experiments on eye movements and reading speed in experimental psychology labs.^[22] The 21st century introduced digital technologies that reshaped silent reading, with e-books and screens becoming prevalent from the 2000s onward, prompting research into their effects on comprehension compared to print. A 2018 meta-analysis of 54 studies involving over 171,000 participants found a small but consistent advantage for paper-based reading (Hedge's g = -0.21), particularly for informational texts under time constraints, attributing this to digital distractions and reduced spatial cues on screens. More recent meta-analyses, including one in 2023 analyzing leisure reading habits, have reinforced that digital reading yields smaller gains in comprehension compared to print (Delgado et al., 2023), with trends persisting as of 2025. These findings highlight ongoing adaptations in silent reading practices, as digital formats alter focus and retention while expanding access through devices like tablets and e-readers.^[23]^[24]

Cognitive and Physiological Processes

Eye Movements and Reading Speed

During silent reading, the eyes do not glide smoothly across text but instead exhibit distinct patterns of movement consisting of fixations and saccades. Fixations are brief pauses where visual information is processed, typically lasting 200-250 milliseconds, during which the reader absorbs details from a small region around the point of focus.^[25] Saccades are rapid, ballistic jumps between fixations, with durations of approximately 20-40 milliseconds and average lengths spanning 7-9 character spaces in English text.^[25] These movements enable efficient progression through the text, with the eyes typically landing on content words rather than function words, which are often skipped.^[25] Regressions, or backward saccades, interrupt this forward progression and occur in 10-15% of all eye movements, often as a corrective response to comprehension difficulties or processing ambiguities.^[25] Such regressions allow readers to revisit prior text for clarification, though excessive frequency can indicate challenges in integrating information. The overall pattern—alternating fixations and saccades—facilitates a perceptual span that extends asymmetrically: about 3-4 characters to the left of fixation (due to return sweeps at line starts) and 14-15 characters to the right, enabling parafoveal preview of upcoming words.^[25] This span supports word recognition and prediction without requiring foveal fixation on every element. Advancements in eye-tracking technology, beginning in the early 1900s with devices like Edmund Huey's 1908 apparatus that recorded movements via contact lenses and mirrors, have revealed these patterns in detail.^[26] Subsequent non-invasive methods, such as infrared-based trackers developed in the mid-20th century, allowed precise measurement of fixations, saccades, and the perceptual span, confirming that skilled readers process 7-9 characters effectively per fixation through optimized previewing.^[25] Reading speed in silent reading, typically averaging 238 words per minute for non-fiction and 260 for fiction among adults (as of 2019 meta-analysis), is directly tied to these eye movement dynamics.^[27] Faster rates, up to 300 words per minute or more in skilled readers, result from shorter fixation durations, longer forward saccades, and fewer regressions, while the effective reading rate can be calculated as total words divided by total reading time in minutes.^[28] Factors such as text complexity (e.g., longer words or denser syntax slowing processing), vocabulary familiarity (low-frequency words increasing fixation times), and practice (enhancing efficiency over repeated exposure) modulate these elements, with difficult texts reducing speeds to around 200 words per minute.

Dual-Route Reading Model

The dual-route model of reading, developed in the 1970s and refined through computational implementations, proposes two distinct cognitive pathways for processing written words during recognition and comprehension. The lexical route enables direct access to a mental lexicon for familiar words, allowing whole-word recognition without phonological mediation, which is particularly efficient for irregular words like "yacht" that do not follow standard spelling-to-sound rules. In contrast, the sublexical route assembles pronunciations through grapheme-to-phoneme conversion rules, applied sequentially to unfamiliar words, pseudowords, or nonwords such as "blurf," relying on sub-word units to generate phonological representations. This framework, originally formalized by Coltheart and colleagues, accounts for the parallel activation of both routes, with their outputs competing or combining to produce accurate reading performance. In silent reading, the dual-route model operates internally without overt vocal output, focusing on word recognition and semantic integration for comprehension rather than aloud production. Evidence from adapted naming tasks, such as lexical decision paradigms where participants silently judge word status, demonstrates the lexical route's advantage for irregular words, yielding faster response times compared to regular or pseudowords that engage the sublexical route more heavily. This internal activation supports efficient silent processing, as the model predicts minimal interference between routes during comprehension, allowing readers to bypass phonological assembly for known vocabulary while defaulting to rule-based decoding for novel items. Computational simulations of the Dual Route Cascaded (DRC) model confirm these dynamics, showing how route competition resolves in favor of the lexical path for high-frequency words in silent contexts. Neuroimaging studies provide empirical support for the model's distinction between routes, revealing segregated brain regions during silent word reading tasks. Functional MRI data indicate that the lexical route engages the left occipito-temporal cortex, including the visual word form area, for rapid whole-word identification, while the sublexical route activates superior temporal and parietal regions associated with phonological assembly.^[29] These findings align with lesion studies in deep dyslexia, an acquired reading disorder where damage to the lexical route impairs recognition of abstract or low-imageability words, leading to semantic errors even in silent comprehension tasks, as patients rely excessively on the intact but limited sublexical pathway. Such dissociations underscore the model's applicability to silent reading, highlighting how route-specific impairments disrupt overall textual understanding without affecting oral output.^[29]

Role of Subvocalization

Subvocalization refers to the internal articulation of words during silent reading, experienced as an inner voice without producing audible sound. This process involves covert speech-motor activity, where the brain simulates the pronunciation of text through attenuated movements of speech-related muscles, facilitating phonological encoding in short-term memory. Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that subvocalization activates Broca's area in the left inferior frontal gyrus, particularly the ventral pars opercularis, which supports articulatory planning even in the absence of overt speech production. This activation mirrors patterns seen in overt speech but occurs silently, aiding the translation of visual text into a phonological form for processing. Recent fMRI studies as of 2023 further highlight involvement of the superior temporal gyrus in generating auditory imagery during this process.^[1] Subvocalization plays a key role in enhancing comprehension, particularly for complex or unfamiliar texts, by supporting the integration of meaning and retention through internal rehearsal. Evidence from suppression experiments indicates that inhibiting subvocalization impairs understanding, with studies showing significant drops in comprehension performance for complex materials.^[30] For instance, when readers were instructed to suppress inner speech while processing syntactically complex sentences, comprehension scores declined notably compared to baseline conditions. This benefit is measurable through electromyography (EMG), which detects subtle electrical activity in speech muscles such as the lips, tongue, chin, and larynx during silent reading, confirming the peripheral motor involvement that correlates with improved recall and semantic processing.^[31] Techniques to suppress subvocalization, often employed in speed-reading training, include articulatory distraction methods like silently repeating irrelevant words (e.g., numbers or "the") or using biofeedback to monitor and reduce muscle activity. Visualization exercises, where readers focus on mental imagery rather than phonetic rehearsal, represent another approach to minimize inner speech. However, empirical studies reveal mixed results on retention; while these methods can increase reading speed by up to 100-200 words per minute in trained individuals, they frequently lead to reduced comprehension and poorer long-term recall, especially for detailed or abstract content.^[32] Subvocalization thus relates briefly to the sublexical phonological pathway in reading models, underscoring its necessity for robust processing in typical silent reading scenarios.

Applications in Learning and Practice

Educational Strategies

In early elementary education, phonics instruction facilitates the transition from oral to silent reading by emphasizing decoding skills, such as letter-sound correspondence, which build foundational fluency before students shift to independent silent practice around grades 2-3.^[33] This progression aligns with Jeanne Chall's stages of reading development, where Stage 1 (grades 1-2) focuses on basic decoding through oral reading, and Stage 2 (grades 2-3) introduces fluency with unglueing from print, paving the way for silent reading dominance in Stage 3 (grades 4-8).^[34] Sustained Silent Reading (SSR), developed by Lyman Hunt at the University of Vermont in the 1960s, further supports this by providing uninterrupted daily sessions where students select self-chosen texts to read silently, fostering voluntary engagement without accountability measures like quizzes. Recent meta-analyses (as of 2023) confirm SSR's benefits for reading motivation and comprehension, particularly with additions like choice and follow-up activities.^[35]^[4] For elementary students, age-specific approaches prioritize building silent reading fluency through short, consistent practice sessions of 10-15 minutes daily, allowing novices to develop stamina and automaticity while minimizing frustration from prolonged exposure.^[36] In secondary education, strategies shift toward advanced comprehension during silent reading, exemplified by the SQ3R method introduced by Francis P. Robinson in 1941, which structures the process into survey (skimming structure), question (formulating inquiries), read (seeking answers silently), recite (summarizing aloud or in notes), and review (reinforcing retention).^[37] This technique enhances deeper understanding of complex texts by promoting active engagement, with studies confirming its efficacy in improving recall for adolescent learners.^[38] Silent reading proficiency is assessed using tools like cloze procedures, where every nth word in a passage is deleted, and students silently fill blanks to demonstrate comprehension and rate without oral cues, yielding scores that indicate reading levels (e.g., 40-60% accuracy for instructional range, <40% for frustration).^[39] These tests, adapted for silent administration, measure both speed—typically in words per minute—and conceptual grasp by evaluating context-driven substitutions, providing educators with targeted feedback on literacy gaps.^[40]

Speed Reading Techniques

Speed reading techniques encompass a variety of methods designed to increase silent reading rates beyond typical baselines of 200-300 words per minute (wpm), often aiming for 400-1,000 wpm or higher while preserving adequate comprehension. These approaches build on natural eye movements by minimizing subvocalization and regressions—unnecessary backward eye jumps—through targeted practice. Pioneered in the mid-20th century, such techniques have been popularized through structured programs, though empirical evidence highlights trade-offs between speed and retention. Scientific reviews emphasize that while techniques can improve efficiency for skimming, maintaining high comprehension at speeds over 400-600 wpm is challenging.^[41] One foundational technique is skimming, which involves rapidly scanning text for main ideas by focusing on headings, topic sentences, and keywords rather than full sentences. This method reduces fixation time per line, allowing readers to cover material more quickly. Skimming is particularly effective for previewing documents or identifying key arguments. Chunking expands the perceptual span—the number of words processed per eye fixation—from the standard 1-2 words to 3-5 or more, achieved by training the eyes to group phrases visually. This technique, rooted in perceptual learning research, can boost speeds by reducing the total number of fixations needed per page. Practice can expand the perceptual span. Meta-guiding employs a physical or visual pacer, such as a finger, pen, or cursor, to guide the eyes smoothly down the page at a controlled pace, preventing regressions and enforcing forward momentum. This method leverages the brain's tendency to follow moving stimuli. Prominent training programs, such as Evelyn Wood's Reading Dynamics course introduced in the 1950s, integrated these techniques into a seven-step system claiming speeds exceeding 1,000 wpm with 75% comprehension. Wood's program became popular and trained many students, including notable figures, by the 1970s. Modern evaluations of similar programs, including those using apps like Spreeder, report speed increases, though often with some comprehension trade-off. Despite these benefits, speed reading techniques have notable limitations, particularly for dense academic or technical texts where deep comprehension is essential. Studies indicate that while novices can achieve short-term gains, sustained application requires deliberate practice to minimize errors like overlooking nuances. Furthermore, techniques falter with unfamiliar vocabulary or abstract concepts, underscoring their suitability for lighter, narrative content rather than rigorous analysis.

Psychological and Neurological Impacts

Cognitive Benefits and Drawbacks

Silent reading has been shown to enhance vocabulary acquisition, particularly through sustained independent reading practices that expose readers to diverse words in context. A study involving secondary students found that regular independent silent reading led to significant gains in vocabulary knowledge, as measured by standardized assessments, compared to control groups without such interventions.^[42] Additionally, engaging with literary fiction during silent reading improves empathy by fostering theory of mind, the ability to understand others' mental states. In a seminal experiment, participants who read excerpts from literary fiction outperformed those reading nonfiction or popular fiction on tests of cognitive empathy, demonstrating enhanced perspective-taking skills.^[43] Silent reading also promotes focus and concentration by training sustained attention. A key benefit is stress reduction; a 2009 study at the University of Sussex measured physiological markers like heart rate and muscle tension, revealing that just six minutes of reading a book lowered stress levels by up to 68%, outperforming activities such as listening to music or walking.^[44] This effect is attributed to the immersive nature of silent reading, which allows escapism and relaxation without external distractions. Despite these advantages, prolonged silent reading sessions can lead to cognitive fatigue, characterized by diminished comprehension and increased mental exhaustion due to sustained visual and attentional demands. Research on extended reading tasks has documented this "reading fatigue," linked to eye strain and cognitive overload. In multilingual contexts, over-reliance on silent reading may hinder the development of oral skills, such as pronunciation and fluency in a second language, as it bypasses the phonological practice essential for accurate speech production. Studies on English language learners show that while silent reading boosts comprehension, complementary oral activities are needed for building prosody and accent reduction. The cognitive impacts of silent reading vary by age, with adults deriving stronger benefits in areas like stress reduction and empathy due to their greater capacity for sustained focus and abstract reasoning. In contrast, children often require guided oral reading to build foundational skills before transitioning effectively to silent modes, as developmental research indicates slower adoption and lesser gains in comprehension for younger readers. For individuals with neurodiversity, such as those with dyslexia, silent reading presents unique challenges, including difficulties in decoding and maintaining fluency without auditory cues, potentially exacerbating frustration and reducing overall engagement. Empirical studies reveal that dyslexic readers exhibit slower silent reading speeds compared to peers, though targeted interventions like sustained silent reading can mitigate these effects over time.^[45] Subvocalization, the internal articulation during silent reading, aids comprehension for many but may be more disruptive for dyslexics, highlighting the need for personalized approaches. Recent research as of 2023 indicates that regular silent reading contributes to cognitive reserve, potentially reducing the risk of cognitive decline and dementia in older adults by strengthening neural networks involved in language processing.^[46]

Brain Activity Patterns

Silent reading engages a network of brain regions specialized for visual, phonological, and semantic processing. The visual cortex, particularly the left ventral occipitotemporal region including the visual word form area (VWFA), handles orthographic processing by recognizing letter strings and word forms.^[47]^[48] Wernicke's area in the left posterior superior temporal gyrus contributes to comprehension by integrating linguistic meaning, as evidenced by activation during word and sentence processing.^[49] The angular gyrus, located in the inferior parietal lobule, facilitates phonological conversion and semantic integration, showing bilateral activation in tasks involving word recognition and meaning extraction.^[48] These patterns were established through early functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies in the 1990s, which demonstrated consistent involvement of these areas in silent word and text comprehension without auditory or motor output.^[50] Compared to oral reading, silent reading exhibits reduced activation in motor-related regions while maintaining similar engagement in semantic processing hubs. fMRI research shows that silent tasks produce significantly less activation in the primary motor cortex (PMC), particularly the mouth, lips, and tongue region, with activated volumes reduced by approximately 67-80% relative to overt speech production.^[51] The supplementary motor area (SMA) demonstrates activation in both conditions but with diminished intensity during silent reading, reflecting the absence of articulatory movements.^[51] In contrast, areas such as Wernicke's region and the angular gyrus show comparable activation levels across modalities, underscoring their role in core comprehension processes independent of vocalization.^[51] Recent electroencephalography (EEG) studies from the 2010s and 2020s highlight neural efficiency in silent reading, particularly among skilled readers who exhibit streamlined pathways for familiar text. These individuals display reduced theta-band (4-8 Hz) power, associated with lower cognitive effort and greater familiarity processing, as theta oscillations correlate with memory retrieval and linguistic integration demands.^[52] Expert readers show enhanced inhibitory control linked to theta-band efficiency, enabling faster and more automated comprehension with less oscillatory disruption in frontotemporal networks.^[53] This efficiency manifests as optimized phase-locking in theta rhythms during rhythmic text processing, reducing overall neural resource allocation compared to less proficient readers.

References

[1]
How Silent Is Silent Reading? Intracerebral Evidence for Top-Down ...
Dec 5, 2012 · Our results demonstrate that the multimodal mental experience of reading is in fact a heterogeneous complex of asynchronous neural responses.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[2]
Silent Readers_Ch2 from History of Reading - Stanford University
32 By the ninth century, silent reading was probably common enough in the scriptorium for scribes to start separating each word from its encroaching neighbours ...
[3]
(PDF) Silent Reading Pedagogy: A Historical Perspective
### Overview of Silent Reading Pedagogy: A Historical Perspective
[4]
Effects of additions to independent silent reading on students ...
Additions to independent silent reading contribute to reading proficiency. Effects of contributions to ISR particularly occurred for at-risk students.
[5]
The Benefits of Sustained Silent Reading: Scientific Research and ...
Nov 9, 2011 · Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) is supported by research, is intuitively appealing, and is not just based on opinion.
[6]
[PDF] Revisiting Silent Reading: New Directions for Teachers and ...
She is the author or editor of 10 books and numerous journal articles. D ... together in a single volume current research and theory on silent reading practice, ...
[7]
Phonological coding during reading - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The exact role that phonological coding (the recoding of written, orthographic information into a sound based code) plays during silent reading has been ...
[8]
Read to Yourself, Please: Oral and Silent Medieval Reading Practices
Jan 29, 2015 · Silent reading became more popular, eventually becoming the most common way of reading in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
[9]
No Correlation Between Articulation Speed and Silent Reading Rate ...
Silent reading rate is well below 300 words per minute (wpm). In the present study it was 252 wpm. Reading aloud is slower (160 wpm) as is talking about ...
[10]
Developmental trajectories of eye movements in oral and silent ...
Nov 4, 2022 · Oral reading involves more ongoing processes than silent reading because processes related to overt language production, such as sounding out ...Missing: historical shift<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Differential weighting of information during aloud and silent reading
To date, cognitive and neural differences between aloud and silent reading have mainly been ascribed to articulatory processes. However, it remains unclear ...
[12]
No Correlation Between Articulation Speed and Silent Reading Rate ...
Jul 17, 2023 · Silent reading often involves phonological encoding of the text in addition to orthographic processing. The nature of the phonological code ...Missing: definition sources
[13]
The Same yet Different: Oral and Silent Reading in Children and ...
Mar 4, 2022 · Silent reading fluency was defined as the speed with which adults were able to understand and follow written instructions. Specifically, the ...Introduction · Study 1--Method · General Discussion
[14]
Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading - Paul Saenger
Modern reading is a silent and solitary activity. Ancient reading was usually oral, either aloud, in groups, or individually, in a muffled voice. The text ...Missing: shift | Show results with:shift
[15]
Silent Reading in Antiquity and the Future History of the Book - jstor
3 For that reason, the historiography of the book, particularly as it relates to silent reading, may affect the very future of the book.
[16]
[PDF] Silent Reading in Antiquity - Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies
Balogh submits no evidence for this formulation of the ancient ideal of reading aloud, except an obscure phrase-librum ab oculo legit-which comes from the lips ...Missing: aristotle | Show results with:aristotle<|separator|>
[17]
https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=2321
[18]
The Classical Monastic Practice of Lectio Divina
Jun 19, 2020 · The classical practice of Lectio Divina was done in private and consisted in following the movement of the Holy Spirit in regard to the time one might devote ...Missing: medieval | Show results with:medieval
[19]
How the Carolingian dynasty changed how we read | Europeana
Jan 7, 2022 · Alcuin and Charlemagne's reforms and investments in monastery schools and education had a huge impact on how people wrote and read during the ...
[20]
History of the Book – Chapter 3. Literacy in the Ancient World
Literacy was actively present in Greek culture, especially by the 5th century. ... The West would have a second influx of classical learning in the late Middle ...
[21]
https://users.manchester.edu/facstaff/ssnaragon/kant/lp/Readings/11-(short)%20Gutenberg%20Revolution.pdf
[22]
https://oxfordre.com/education/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-1652
[23]
What is a tachistoscope? Historical explorations of an instrument
The tachistoscope--defined, among other things, as an instrument for the brief exposure of visual stimuli in experimental psychology.Missing: 1870s | Show results with:1870s
[24]
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/00346543231216463
[25]
https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.124.3.372
[26]
Pioneers of eye movement research - PMC - PubMed Central
... Huey provided an historical account of research on eye movements and reading. It is in this book that Huey established Javal as the founder of research in ...
[27]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2019.104051
[28]
Neuroimaging studies of word reading - PNAS
Feb 3, 1998 · Dual-route models can account for phonological dyslexia by assuming that the assembled route is damaged, but the direct route is still available ...
[29]
Typical Reading Development | Reading Rockets
Jeanne Chall (1983) referred to this shift as the one from “learning to read” (in K to 3) to “reading to learn” (in Grades 4 and up).
[30]
[PDF] Source: Jeanne S. Chall, Stages of Reading Development. NY
By the end of Stage 3, reading and listening are about equal for those who read very well, reading may be more efficient. Reading comprehension is better than ...
[31]
Ten Minutes a Day for Silent Reading - ASCD
Oct 1, 2001 · Studies show that students who enjoy reading also read more books and develop better skills in reading comprehension, spelling, and vocabulary.
[32]
K-5 Small-Group Literacy Instruction: Sample Schedule and Activities
If students have difficulty sustaining attention for more than 10-15 minutes, consider breaking components apart or giving students a short brain break. Using ...
[33]
SQ3R: Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review - AdLit
SQ3R is a comprehension strategy that helps students think about the text they are reading while they're reading.
[34]
A Simple SQ3R Reading Method and Study Strategy
Sep 20, 2021 · What is SQ3R? SQ3R is a reading strategy first described by Francis Robinson in his 1941 book, Effective Study. The acronym SQ3R stands for ...Missing: original paper<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
[PDF] The Use Of Cloze Procedure To Determine Reading Instructional ...
In order to aid teachers in the determination of reading rate he devised an informal test which teachers could administer to students. During the next few years ...
[36]
https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/instructional-routines-and-grouping/k-5-small-group
[37]
Testing the Effects of Independent Silent Reading on Secondary ...
This study implemented an independent silent reading (ISR) program with 145 10th grade students. Students were measured on total reading ability, vocabulary ...
[38]
Reading Literary Fiction Improves Theory of Mind - Science
Reading passages of literary fiction, in comparison to nonfiction or popular fiction, does indeed enhance the reader's performance on theory of mind tasks.Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[39]
How Does Reading Affect Your Brain? - Hawaii Pacific Neuroscience
Reading increases focus, attention, concentration, memory, and neural connections, and enlarges neural networks.
[40]
Reading Ability and Reading Engagement in Older Adults With ...
Aug 22, 2014 · Glaucoma patients may experience reading fatigue as a result of the exertion needed to overcome the above-mentioned visual and environmental ...
[41]
[PDF] Silent and oral reading methods on improving English reading ...
Integration of stories in daily life, be it at home or in school can be done using silent reading techniques. Through this, pupils will get more exposed to ...
[42]
Developmental trajectories of eye movements in oral and silent ...
Nov 4, 2022 · Oral versus silent reading for children. Proficient readers typically adopt silent reading as the primary mode of reading, and they read faster ...
[43]
Silent reading fluency: Implications for the assessment of adults with ...
Our results strongly suggest that dyslexic readers are less capable of significantly improve their reading speed when they read silently.Missing: study | Show results with:study
[44]
https://www.sussex.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressrelease/id/11160
[45]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26332176/
[46]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9441953/
[47]
A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies ...
The anatomy of language has been investigated with PET or fMRI for more than 20 years. Here I attempt to provide an overview of the brain areas associated ...
[48]
https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/119.4.1221
[49]
Individual Differences in Inhibitory Control Relate to Neural ...
Oct 10, 2023 · Results from 140 participants showed a significant correlation between inhibitory control and neural efficiency in the theta frequency band ...
[50]
Individual Differences in Inhibitory Control Relate to Neural ...
Results from 140 participants showed a significant correlation between inhibitory control and neural efficiency in the theta frequency band within the right ...