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Snell's window

Snell's window is an optical phenomenon observed by submerged viewers in which the entire above-water world appears compressed and visible within a circular region of approximately 97° angular diameter at the water's surface, beyond which the view is obscured by total internal reflection of underwater scenery.^[1]^[2] This effect stems from the refraction of light rays at the interface between water (refractive index approximately 1.333) and air (refractive index 1.000), governed by Snell's law, which states that the product of each medium's refractive index and the sine of the angle of incidence equals that for the angle of refraction: n_1 \sin \theta_1 = n_2 \sin \theta_2.^[3]^[1] For an underwater observer looking upward, light rays from the air above the surface bend toward the normal upon entering the water, allowing visibility across the full 360° of the external environment but concentrated into the window's cone.^[2] The boundary of the window is defined by the critical angle for total internal reflection, calculated as \theta_c = \arcsin(1/n) \approx 48.6^\circ for light traveling from water to air, resulting in a full cone diameter of about 97.2°..^[3]^[2] Beyond this angle, incident rays in the water undergo total internal reflection, reflecting the submerged environment instead of transmitting light from above.^[1] The window's angular size remains constant irrespective of the observer's depth, though its apparent linear size increases with depth, and factors like water clarity or surface waves can distort its appearance without altering the fundamental geometry.^[2] Named after the 17th-century Dutch astronomer Willebrord Snell, who formulated the law of refraction, Snell's window plays a crucial role in the visual ecology of aquatic organisms, concentrating overhead light into a defined field of view that aids navigation, predation, and predator avoidance in low-light underwater conditions.^[4]

Fundamentals of Refraction

Snell's Law

Snell's law, also known as the law of refraction, describes the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction for a light ray passing through the interface between two media with different refractive indices. The law is mathematically expressed as n_1 \sin \theta_1 = n_2 \sin \theta_2, where n_1 and n_2 are the refractive indices of the first and second media, respectively, and \theta_1 and \theta_2 are the angles that the incident and refracted rays make with the normal to the interface.^[5] This equation holds for all wavelengths of light and governs how light bends due to a change in speed as it crosses the boundary.^[6] The law was first formally stated in 984 CE by the Persian mathematician and physicist Ibn Sahl in his manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, where he derived it to design aberration-free lenses that focus sunlight.^[7] It was independently rediscovered over six centuries later by the Dutch astronomer Willebrord Snellius (Snell) in 1621 during experiments measuring the refraction of light through various media, though his work remained unpublished until René Descartes reformulated and popularized it in 1637.^[8] Ibn Sahl's earlier contribution, based on geometric optics and empirical observations of light paths in lenses, predates European rediscoveries and highlights the law's roots in medieval Islamic science. In the context of light transitioning from air (n_1 \approx 1.0003) to water (n_2 \approx 1.333 at 20°C), Snell's law predicts that the ray bends toward the normal because the refractive index increases, slowing the light and compressing the angle: \sin \theta_2 = \frac{n_1}{n_2} \sin \theta_1.^[9] For normal incidence (\theta_1 = 0^\circ), there is no bending (\theta_2 = 0^\circ). As the incidence angle increases, the refraction angle lags behind; for example, a ray at \theta_1 = 30^\circ in air refracts to approximately \theta_2 = 22^\circ in water, while one at \theta_1 = 60^\circ bends to about \theta_2 = 40.5^\circ.^[5] These ray paths illustrate how the law redirects light rays, with steeper incidence angles resulting in progressively greater bending toward the normal.^[10] This refraction principle is foundational to Snell's window, as it ensures that light rays originating from the entire 180° hemisphere above the water surface are funneled into a narrower cone of directions underwater, compressing the view of the external world into a defined angular region.^[5] Conversely, when light attempts to exit water into air at sufficiently large incidence angles, the law implies that the corresponding refraction angle would exceed 90°, leading to total internal reflection rather than transmission.^[6]

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

The critical angle, denoted \theta_c, is the angle of incidence in a denser medium beyond which light rays cannot refract into a less dense medium but instead undergo total internal reflection. It is defined by the condition where the refracted angle in the second medium reaches 90°, derived from Snell's law as \theta_c = \sin^{-1} \left( \frac{n_2}{n_1} \right), with n_1 and n_2 being the refractive indices of the denser and less dense media, respectively.^[11]^[12] For light traveling from water (n_1 \approx 1.33) to air (n_2 = 1), the critical angle is approximately \theta_c \approx 48.6^\circ.^[12] When the angle of incidence exceeds \theta_c, total internal reflection (TIR) occurs, with all incident light reflecting back into the water without loss of energy at the interface.^[11]^[12] This reflected light provides a mirrored view of the underwater environment to an observer below the surface.^[11] The physical mechanism of TIR arises from the wave nature of light and conservation of energy at the boundary. Although no energy propagates into the second medium, a non-propagating evanescent wave forms, decaying exponentially within a few wavelengths of the interface in the less dense medium.^[12]^[13] In the context of Snell's window, the boundary of the observable above-water region is precisely defined by this critical angle, demarcating the central area where light from above refracts into the water from the surrounding annular region where TIR dominates and reflects underwater scenes.^[11]

Formation of Snell's Window

Geometric Description

When viewed from underwater, the entire 180° hemisphere of the air above the water surface is compressed by refraction into a circular cone with an aperture of approximately 97° centered on the zenith, manifesting as a bright circular region against a darker background dominated by total internal reflection.^[14] This geometric compression arises from the bending of light rays at the water-air interface, governed briefly by Snell's law and the critical angle.^[15] In ray tracing terms, light rays originating from the horizon—incident at 90° from the zenith in air—refract into water at an angle of 48.6° from the normal, defining the edge of the visible cone, while rays from directly overhead (0° incidence) pass nearly undeviated due to minimal bending near the normal.^[15] Beyond this 48.6° limit in water, total internal reflection prevents light from the above-water world from entering, blocking the view and creating a sharp boundary around the window.^[14] This refraction-induced mapping leads to significant perspective compression, particularly near the window's periphery, where distant horizontal features appear highly distorted, elongated, and squeezed into a curved band along the edge, altering the perceived geometry of the sky and horizon.^[14] A cross-sectional diagram of Snell's window typically illustrates this geometry with the water surface as a horizontal line, showing multiple incident rays from air (spanning from vertical zenith to grazing horizon angles) refracting downward into water along bent paths that converge within the 97° cone, while rays beyond the critical angle reflect internally to demarcate the TIR boundary.^[16]

Angular Extent

The angular extent of Snell's window is defined by the cone of light that allows an underwater observer to view the above-water world, with the full diameter given by twice the critical angle θ_c for total internal reflection at the water-air interface. For standard conditions with a refractive index of water n ≈ 1.333 at 20°C, θ_c = \arcsin(1/n) ≈ 48.6°, yielding a window diameter of approximately 97.2°. This value represents the compression of the entire 180° upper hemisphere into a circular field of view, independent of the specific geometry beyond the interface.^[17]^[18] The angular size remains constant with increasing observer depth due to the parallel nature of refracted rays originating from the surface, ensuring the cone's aperture does not expand or contract geometrically. However, at greater depths, water scattering and absorption progressively blur the window's edges, causing a slight reduction in its apparent extent and sharpness as light from the periphery is diffused.^[19]^[2] Variations in the refractive index alter the window's angular extent. In seawater with n ≈ 1.340 due to salinity, the diameter decreases to about 96°; and temperature changes further modulate n, with higher temperatures typically lowering it slightly and thus enlarging the window. The boundary between the window and the total internal reflection zone is abrupt in ideal conditions but appears marginally softened near θ_c because of increasing partial reflections, as described by the Fresnel equations, where transmittance drops toward zero at the critical angle.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Mathematical Description

Derivation of the Window Angle

The derivation of the angular extent of Snell's window begins with Snell's law of refraction, which relates the angles of incidence and refraction at the interface between two media with refractive indices n_1 and n_2: n_1 \sin \theta_1 = n_2 \sin \theta_2.^[1] For an underwater observer in water (n_1 = n \approx 1.33) looking toward the air-water interface (n_2 \approx 1), the boundary of the window is determined by the rays from air that are incident at grazing angles, where \theta_2 = 90^\circ (parallel to the surface) and \sin \theta_2 = 1.^[1] Applying Snell's law to this limiting case yields $1 \cdot 1 = n \sin \theta_1, so \sin \theta_1 = 1/n and \theta_1 = \arcsin(1/n).^[1] This angle \theta_1 is the critical angle \theta_c for the reverse path (light emerging from water into air), beyond which total internal reflection occurs, but here it defines the maximum angle in water for refracted rays from the full hemispherical view in air.^[23] The window thus spans from -\theta_c to +\theta_c relative to the nadir (vertical upward direction), giving a total angular extent of $2\theta_c.^[1] To outline the steps explicitly: (1) Consider the horizon ray in air, where \theta_\text{air} = 90^\circ. (2) Substitute into Snell's law: n_\text{air} \sin 90^\circ = n_\text{water} \sin \theta_\text{water}, with n_\text{air} \approx 1, so $1 = n_\text{water} \sin \theta_\text{water}. (3) Solve for \sin \theta_\text{water} = 1/n_\text{water}, hence \theta_\text{water} = \arcsin(1/n_\text{water}) = \theta_c. (4) The full window angle is then \theta_\text{window} = 2 \theta_c.^[1] For typical seawater (n \approx 1.33), \theta_c \approx 48.6^\circ and \theta_\text{window} \approx 97.2^\circ.^[24] This derivation assumes a flat air-water interface, monochromatic light, and negligible absorption or scattering; real-world extensions to curved surfaces or dispersive media alter the exact boundaries but follow similar refractive principles.^[1]

Intensity Distribution Within the Window

Within Snell's window, the intensity of light varies radially, with the central region appearing brighter and diminishing toward the edges. This gradient results from the non-uniform radiance of the sky above (brighter near the zenith) and increasing reflection losses at the interface due to Fresnel equations, which reduce transmittance for oblique incidence angles. Geometric foreshortening (the cos θ factor in irradiance projections) also contributes to lower effective flux at larger angles. For typical clear ocean water, downwelling irradiance at the zenith is approximately twice that at about 35° from the nadir.^[25] This non-uniform distribution arises from the mapping of the air hemisphere (2π steradians) into the water cone of solid angle 2π (1 - cos θ_c) steradians, where θ_c ≈ 48.6° for n = 1.33, yielding approximately 2.13 steradians and an average concentration factor of about 2.95, though uneven due to the nonlinear angular transformation from Snell's law. The flux density is higher near the center where the mapping is more direct and transmittance losses are minimal, and lower at the periphery where larger sky portions are mapped into smaller angular increments and losses increase.^[26] Additionally, refraction through the interface induces partial polarization of the transmitted light, with the degree of polarization increasing at oblique angles due to differential reflection of s- and p-polarized components as per the Fresnel equations implicit in Snell's law. Within the window, skylight that is partially linearly polarized in air becomes more prominently polarized underwater, particularly near the edges where incidence angles approach the Brewster angle, though the overall pattern remains dominated by the unpolarized direct solar beam at the center.^[27]

Observations and Visual Effects

Appearance to Underwater Observers

To an underwater observer, Snell's window manifests as a bright circular patch centered directly overhead, providing a compressed view of the sky and surface landscape above the water. This phenomenon compresses the full 180-degree celestial hemisphere into an angular extent of approximately 97 degrees, creating a wide-angle, fish-eye-like distortion where distant horizons and overhead features appear squeezed toward the center. The boundary of the window appears as a luminous ring corresponding to the horizon, beyond which the field of view darkens abruptly, revealing reflections of the submerged environment through total internal reflection.^[28]^[1] The visual experience is further influenced by the selective absorption of light by water, which attenuates longer red wavelengths more rapidly than shorter blue ones along their path to the observer. As a result, the central region of the window retains greater color fidelity and clarity due to shorter light paths, while the edges exhibit a pronounced blue-shift, with reds muted or absent, enhancing an overall cooler tone. A faint blue glow often encircles the window's perimeter, arising from scattered skylight and interactions with suspended particulates, contrasting sharply with the darker surroundings.^[29]^[28] As the observer moves, such as through lateral swimming, the window remains aligned with their zenith but the visible content within it shifts, unveiling different sectors of the above-water scene in a manner analogous to parallax viewing through a fixed aperture. This motion-induced change can reveal varying sky patterns or terrestrial features, depending on the observer's trajectory relative to the surface.^[1]^[28] For human divers, gazing upward through Snell's window often induces initial disorientation due to the unnatural compression and distortion, complicating assessments of ascent, descent, or spatial orientation relative to the surface and surroundings. This perceptual challenge underscores the window's role in altering familiar visual cues underwater.^[30]

Distortions from Surface Waves

Surface waves perturb the otherwise circular boundary of Snell's window, introducing dynamic distortions that affect its visibility to underwater observers. Small ripples cause the window to wobble and shift position, while also fragmenting its edge into irregular patches as local surface tilts alter the refraction paths. These effects can temporarily expand or contract the apparent angular extent, with non-breaking waves increasing the diameter from the calm-water value of 97° to up to 122° for maximum slopes around 16°. In choppy water, intensified wave action blurs the window's boundary, blending transmitted skylight with reflections from total internal reflection and creating a mottled appearance with dark and light spots near the edge. Severe conditions, such as breaking waves during storms, can distort the window into a chaotic, nearly hemispherical field spanning almost 180°, or cause it to vanish briefly amid surface disruptions. Wave amplitude and slope modulate the local critical angle for total internal reflection, with slopes exceeding a few degrees generating TIR patches—dark regions—within the nominal window area, as the effective incidence angle surpasses the threshold on tilted facets.^[31] Laboratory demonstrations using water tanks to simulate ripples reveal flickering and edge fragmentation, where artificial waves produce observable distortions in projected light patterns, reducing image structural similarity metrics like SSIM to around 0.77 before correction. In real-world oceanic settings, such as observations from the Black Sea at depths of 0.5 to 5 meters, wave-induced spots and border irregularities correlate with surface roughness, providing visual evidence of slope variance up to 20° under moderate swell conditions like 0.4-meter amplitudes.^[32]^[31]

Applications and Implications

In Aquatic Biology

Snell's window profoundly shapes the visual ecology of aquatic animals, particularly in how it structures their field of view and informs behavioral strategies. For many fish species, the visual system is adapted to the approximately 97° cone defined by the critical angle of total internal reflection at the water-air interface, through which the entire above-water hemisphere is compressed and visible.^[33] Outside this cone, total internal reflection mirrors the subsurface environment, creating a near-panoramic 360° view that enhances predator detection by reflecting movements from below or the sides against a dark backdrop.^[34] This dual structure—the bright, compressed window above and the reflective surround—allows fish to monitor aerial and lateral threats simultaneously, with the geometric compression of the window briefly noted as limiting the angular resolution of distant surface objects.^[33] Evolutionary adaptations in aquatic animals reflect this optical constraint, often emphasizing monocular vision to maximize coverage across the window and its reflective periphery. Laterally positioned eyes in most fish enable independent monocular fields exceeding 180° per eye, integrating the forward-focused window with lateral reflections for comprehensive situational awareness.^[35] Sharks exemplify acute central focus within the window, with high-resolution ventral retinas tuned for detecting silhouettes against the brighter sky, aiding in ambush predation from below.^[36] In contrast, jellyfish like the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora employ diffuse sensing through specialized upper lens eyes oriented toward the window, which matches their ~97° visual field and allows detection of terrestrial contrasts, such as mangrove canopies up to 8 m away, for habitat navigation.^[37] Behavioral impacts of Snell's window are evident in predation and anti-predator tactics, where the window's boundaries influence strike timing and evasion. Predators such as needlefishes (Beloniformes) execute ballistic aerial leaps through the window's shallow-angle periphery, exploiting its optical masking to approach schooling prey undetected and disrupt their subsurface escape, extending attack ranges beyond 2 m.^[38] Camouflage strategies in aquatic animals leverage the window's compression, with prey like baitfish schools adopting silvery, counter-illuminated patterns to blend seamlessly into the distorted aerial backdrop viewed through the cone, reducing detection by on-shore or subsurface predators.^[39] In deeper waters, Snell's window's utility diminishes as surface light attenuates rapidly—dropping by about 1.5 log units per 100 m below 100 m—rendering the cone effectively absent in the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones. Deep-sea creatures, such as lanternfishes, thus evolve reliance on bioluminescence for vision, with rod-dominated retinas and pigments tuned to 468–494 nm for detecting point-source emissions from conspecifics or prey, rather than faint downwelling daylight.^[40] This shift prioritizes sensitivity to sparse bioluminescent flashes over the compressed surface views relevant in shallower habitats.^[41]

In Human Activities and Optics

In scuba diving, the snorkel mask's air pocket interfaces with the water surface, amplifying the Snell's window effect by framing the 97-degree cone of surface visibility within the mask's field of view, which can induce a sensation of tunnel vision and spatial disorientation for novice divers looking upward.^[30] This distortion arises from refraction at the water-air boundary inside the mask, making the overhead world appear compressed and circular, potentially complicating depth perception during ascent or descent.^[42] Dive training programs emphasize adaptation to these visual cues through repeated exposure and active movement exercises, enabling divers to mitigate disorientation and maintain orientation effectively within minutes.^[42] Underwater photography leverages Snell's window to capture dramatic compositions by exploiting the compressed 180-degree above-water panorama within the narrow cone, with wide-angle fisheye lenses (typically 10-16 mm focal length) counteracting the visual compression to encompass the full window.^[43] Photographers position subjects, such as divers or marine life, centrally beneath the window for silhouetted effects against the bright surface light, often shooting from 3-6 feet depth in clear water to maximize contrast.^[44] Periscope-like designs in underwater housings exploit this cone to provide surface views without surfacing, enhancing compositional flexibility in low-light conditions where intensity gradients at the window's edge influence exposure settings.^[45] In optical instruments, Snell's window is applied in fish-eye cameras and submerged imaging systems, which model the refraction-limited 97-degree field to emulate 180-degree hemispherical views from submerged positions.^[19] Submerged cameras capture airborne scenes through the window as a virtual periscope, avoiding the need for protruding hardware and enabling stealthy remote sensing of surface conditions via image analysis of wave distortions.^[19] Fish-eye lenses in these systems replicate the window's radial compression, allowing 360-degree panoramic reconstruction while accounting for total internal reflection beyond the cone's boundary.^[43] Safety applications in diving highlight the window's limited extent, which in low-visibility waters restricts surface monitoring and elevates collision risks with vessels or structures; awareness training stresses frequent upward checks and buddy protocols to compensate for this constrained view.^[42] Specialized courses, such as those for night or cavern diving, incorporate simulations of refraction-induced limitations to build proficiency in navigating obscured environments.^[46]

History and Development

Origins in Snell's Law

The principle of refraction central to Snell's window originates from early investigations into how light bends at the interface between media of different densities. In antiquity, Ptolemy (c. 100–170 AD) conducted experiments on refraction using a water-filled vessel to observe shifts in apparent positions, compiling approximate tables of incidence and refraction angles for air-water and air-glass boundaries, though his results followed an erroneous quadratic relationship rather than the precise sine law.^[47] These efforts laid preliminary groundwork by linking refraction to media density, but lacked the accurate proportionality that would later define the law. A significant advancement occurred in the 10th century with the work of the Persian mathematician Ibn Sahl (c. 940–1000), who in his 984 manuscript On Burning Instruments derived the exact law of refraction while designing anaclastic lenses for focusing light. Ibn Sahl employed geometric ratios equivalent to the modern form of the law—sin i / sin r = constant—to compute lens shapes without spherical aberration, predating European rediscoveries by centuries and establishing the sine-based relationship for ray paths in denser media like glass and water.^[48] Willebrord Snellius (1580–1626), a Dutch mathematician and astronomer, independently rediscovered and refined this law in 1621 through meticulous measurements of refractive indices. Using graphical methods involving circles and secants to trace ray paths, Snellius quantified the constant ratio for various media, achieving results such as n ≈ 4/3 for water, without relying on trigonometry as it was later formalized. His experimental setup involved a water trough or vessel where he measured angles of incidence and refraction by sighting pins or markers through the interface, enabling precise determination of the bending proportionality that governs phenomena like the critical angle.^[49] Although Snellius documented his findings in a private manuscript, the law gained wider dissemination through René Descartes (1596–1650), who published it in 1637 in La Dioptrique as part of Discours de la méthode, claiming an independent derivation based on a mechanical analogy of light as particles. Descartes reformulated the law using sines and extended it to lens design, crediting no prior sources and thus obscuring Snellius's contribution until later historical analyses.^[50]

Modern Recognition of the Phenomenon

The phenomenon of Snell's window, though likely observed by 19th-century naturalists in descriptions of fish perspectives on the surface world, received formal recognition as a distinct optical effect in early 20th-century optics literature. In his influential 1940 book The Nature of Light and Colour in the Open Air, Dutch astronomer [Marcel Minnaert](/page/Marcel Minnaert) provided one of the first detailed accounts, terming it the "optical manhole" to describe the circular aperture through which submerged observers perceive the aerial hemisphere due to total internal reflection beyond the critical angle.^[28] During the 1930s and 1940s, as underwater exploration advanced through early diving technologies, the effect gained attention in practical manuals and biological research on vision. Diving literature from this era, including accounts of refraction in submerged environments, highlighted its implications for human and animal perception, with Minnaert's work bridging theoretical optics and practical observation.^[51] Biologist George L. Walls further elaborated on its role in aquatic vision in his seminal 1942 monograph The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation, analyzing how the compressed field of view shapes evolutionary adaptations in fish eyes; the book's 1963 reprint amplified its influence in 1960s studies of underwater optics by biologists.^[35] Advancements in the 1980s introduced computational methods to model Snell's window precisely, leveraging ray-tracing algorithms that simulate light refraction at air-water interfaces. Turner Whitted's 1980 illumination model, which incorporated Snell's law for realistic rendering of refractive effects, laid the groundwork for later simulations of underwater scenes, enabling quantitative analysis of the window's geometry and distortions. More recent studies, such as David K. Lynch's 2015 investigation in Applied Optics, employed numerical simulations to examine how surface waves expand the window's angular diameter from 97° for flat water to up to 180° for breaking waves, providing insights into dynamic environmental effects.^[52] The visual allure of Snell's window also entered popular culture through mid-20th-century media, notably Jacques Cousteau's pioneering underwater documentaries. Films like The Silent World (1956) captured the dramatic circular light portals in submerged footage, fostering widespread fascination with the effect and contributing to the adoption of the term "Snell's window" in both scientific and recreational diving contexts.

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[PDF] RESPONSES TO THE UNDERWATER DISTORTIONS OF VISUAL ...
In turbid water or at greater distances, however, the diver's perception cannot be predicted from a simple application of the principles of refraction.
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Snell's Window - Underwater Photography Guide
Snell's window examples in underwater photography, and photography tips for composition, settings and lens choices.
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An In-Depth Guide to Shooting Snell's Window
Snell's Window is a physics trick where light bends, allowing you to see the surface through a 96-degree cone of light, best seen between 3-6 feet deep.Missing: optics | Show results with:optics
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Wide-Angle Photography in Low Light Conditions
Low light intensifies Snell's window in underwater photos because the edges of the tunnel become black instead of dark blue as they would in clear water. A ...Missing: brightness | Show results with:brightness
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Low-Visibility Diving | DAN Southern Africa - Divers Alert Network
Mar 30, 2022 · A limited-visibility or night diving course, a cavern class, or an advanced wreck diving course will prepare you for some scenarios you ...
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https://www.uwphotographyguide.com/wide-angle-photography-low-light-conditions
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https://www.dansa.org/blog/2022/03/30/low-visibility-diving
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[PDF] Clear Underwater Vision - Technion
Mobley, Light and Water: Radiative Transfer in Natu- ral Waters, Ch. 3,5 (Academic Press, San-Diego 1994). [22] S. P. Morgan, M. P. Khong and M. G. Somekh ...
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https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104779t