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Taunting

Taunting is the deliberate use of mocking, derisive, or provocative remarks, gestures, or actions directed at an individual or group to elicit anger, humiliation, or a disrupted emotional state, often exploiting perceived vulnerabilities to assert psychological dominance.^[1]^[2] Unlike playful teasing, which may foster affiliation among equals, taunting typically involves an imbalance of power and intent to demean or ridicule without reciprocity, functioning as a form of verbal or non-verbal aggression.^[3]^[4] In competitive contexts such as sports, taunting—often termed trash-talking—serves as a strategic tool to impair an opponent's focus by heightening emotional arousal and provoking impulsive errors, with empirical evidence indicating it reduces performance under pressure by leveraging fears of social exclusion or inferiority.^[5]^[6] This tactic has roots in hierarchical social dynamics, where high-status individuals employ it less frequently to adhere to group norms of politeness, while lower-status actors may use it to challenge or test boundaries.^[3] Taunting appears across interpersonal, occupational, and online interactions, where it can escalate conflicts by signaling unyielding resolve or, conversely, reveal the taunter's own insecurities if met with indifference.^[7] Defining characteristics include its one-sided nature and potential for rapid de-escalation when the target maintains composure, underscoring taunting's reliance on the recipient's reactive response rather than inherent potency.^[2] Controversies arise in regulated domains like athletics, where it borders on unsportsmanlike conduct yet may cultivate mental resilience; studies differentiate it from fair competition by its aim to inflict psychological harm beyond the contest's rules.^[8]^[9]

Definition and Etymology

Core Definition

Taunting refers to the deliberate use of mocking, insulting, or jeering remarks, gestures, or actions to provoke, annoy, or antagonize another individual, often with the intent to demoralize or elicit an emotional response.^[10]^[11] This behavior typically involves sarcasm, ridicule, or challenges that highlight perceived weaknesses, failures, or vulnerabilities, distinguishing it from neutral or playful interactions by its one-sided aim to harm or dominate.^[12]^[13] Unlike teasing, which may occur reciprocally among equals and cease upon signs of distress, taunting persists as a form of psychological aggression, exploiting imbalances of power to demean or ridicule without regard for the target's well-being. It can manifest verbally through sarcastic comments or battle cries, or non-verbally via gestures such as the "loser" sign formed by thumb and forefinger, both designed to undermine confidence or incite retaliation.^[14] Empirical observations in social psychology frame taunting as a tactic rooted in provocation, where the taunter seeks gratification from the recipient's frustration or anger, rather than mutual amusement.^[1]

Historical Etymology

The English verb "taunt," meaning to reproach or challenge in a mocking or insulting manner, first appeared in the early 16th century.^[15] Its noun form, denoting a scornful remark or jeer, is attested circa 1527.^[10] The term derives from Middle French tanter, meaning "to tempt, try, or provoke," which is a variant of Old French tempter ("to try"), ultimately tracing to Latin tentare or temptare ("to attempt" or "to test").^[16] This etymological link positions "taunt" as a doublet of the English verb "tempt," reflecting a shared semantic root in provocation or testing limits, though "taunt" evolved specifically toward derisive mockery rather than mere enticement.^[15] The Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest evidence for "taunt" before 1534, in the works of English playwright Henry Medwall, where it conveyed biting reproach in dramatic dialogue.^[17] By the mid-16th century, usage expanded in literary and rhetorical contexts to describe verbal exchanges of banter or insult, often in adversarial settings like debates or personal disputes, as seen in period texts emphasizing sharp-witted provocation.^[10] Some historical linguists propose an alternative influence from French tant pour tant ("tit for tat" or "like for like"), suggesting a retaliatory connotation, though this remains less substantiated compared to the French tanter derivation.^[18] Over time, "taunt" stabilized in English by the late 1500s, distinct from related nautical terms like "taunt" (meaning high-masted, of uncertain but possibly unrelated origin), and came to encompass both verbal and implied gestural forms of antagonism.^[17]

Evolutionary and Psychological Foundations

Evolutionary Origins

Playful teasing behaviors, characterized by intentional provocation to elicit a response without serious aggressive intent, have been documented across all four genera of great apes—chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans—suggesting an evolutionary origin predating the human lineage by at least 13 million years in the common hominoid ancestor.^[19] Observations from over 75 hours of video footage recorded 142 instances of such teasing, with chimpanzees exhibiting the highest frequency (84 events), followed by orangutans (31), bonobos (20), and gorillas (7).^[19] These acts often occur in relaxed social contexts, such as grooming or resting, and involve tactics like poking (21% of cases), light hitting (15%), or offer-and-withdrawal of objects, which violate expectations and prompt attention or play.^[19] ^[20] The cognitive prerequisites for this behavior include an understanding of social norms, anticipation of others' reactions, and elements of theory of mind, enabling teasers to gauge and manipulate responses asymmetrically—92% of events began one-sided, with 66% remaining so.^[19] In chimpanzees, teasing can take agonistic forms to reinforce dominance hierarchies or teach social rules, while in other species it primarily fosters bonds through non-threatening provocation.^[19] ^[20] Evolutionarily, these patterns parallel early human infant teasing, such as offer-withdrawal games emerging around 8 months, indicating teasing as a precursor to more complex social signaling like joking or mockery.^[20] In human evolution, taunting likely emerged as an extension of these primate provocations into verbal and indirect aggression, adapting to larger group sizes where physical confrontations became costlier.^[21] Physical aggression peaks in human children around age 3 before declining, while indirect forms like relational taunting—aimed at damaging reputation through insults or exclusion—rise sharply between ages 4–8 and peak in preadolescence around age 11.^[21] This shift supports adaptive functions such as status competition without retaliation risk, norm enforcement via gossip or mockery, and coalition-building in extended hierarchies, reducing overall group conflict while maintaining social order.^[21] Such mechanisms align with evolutionary pressures for indirect reciprocity, where verbal taunts signal superiority or deter rivals efficiently in linguistically capable societies.^[21]

Psychological Mechanisms and Functions

Taunting engages cognitive and emotional processes that provoke targeted individuals by challenging their competence, status, or emotional equilibrium, often eliciting defensive responses such as anger or withdrawal. At the neural level, perception of taunting stimuli, including taunting laughter, activates regions like the superior frontal and temporal gyri, particularly when interpreted through a lens of hostility, modulating aggression-related attributions in children and adolescents.^[22] This involves heightened amygdala responsiveness to social threats, facilitating rapid evaluation of intent while prefrontal areas regulate the impulse to retaliate.^[6] A core mechanism distinguishes taunting from overt aggression through "off-record" markers—ambiguous or playful elements that embed provocation within plausible deniability, reducing the taunter's risk while still conveying challenge.^[3] This ambiguity exploits recipients' uncertainty, amplifying emotional arousal via cognitive dissonance between the taunt's surface levity and underlying contempt, which can impair executive function and decision-making in contexts like competitive sports.^[6] Schadenfreude, the pleasure derived from the target's discomfort, further reinforces the taunter's behavior through dopaminergic reward pathways, though chronic use correlates with emotional dysregulation in the perpetrator.^[23] Functionally, taunting serves to assert dominance in social hierarchies by signaling the taunter's superior formidability or wit at minimal physical cost, allowing assessment of rivals' resolve without escalating to violence.^[24] In group dynamics, it enforces norms by publicly humiliating deviations, as seen in corrective uses of mockery to penalize perceived mediocrity or moral failings, thereby promoting conformity.^[25] Evolutionarily, taunting laughter represents an adaptive signal in conflict scenarios, distinct from affiliative or tickle-induced variants, enabling low-stakes provocation to gauge alliances or deter threats in ancestral environments.^[26] However, maladaptive applications, such as in bullying, destabilize victims' self-concept through repeated humiliation, yielding short-term status gains for the taunter but long-term relational costs.^[27]

Historical Contexts

Ancient and Pre-Modern Taunting

In ancient Greek warfare, taunting functioned as a psychological tool to demoralize foes and bolster one's own resolve. During the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE, Spartan King Leonidas defied Persian demands for surrender by retorting "Molon labe" ("Come and take them"), a phrase embodying defiance and inviting attack to expose enemy overconfidence.^[28] Similarly, Greek slingers inscribed provocative messages on lead bullets during conflicts like the siege of Perusia around 400 BCE, including phrases such as "Take that" or references to targeting specific adversaries, enhancing the ammunition's intimidating effect beyond physical impact.^[29] Social taunting permeated Athenian culture through oratory, comedy, and public discourse, where verbal abuse ranged from ritualized mockery in Old Comedy—featuring personal lampoons of politicians and citizens—to courtroom invectives that belittled opponents' character or masculinity. Aristophanes' plays, such as The Clouds (423 BCE), exemplified this by satirizing figures like Socrates with exaggerated ridicule to undermine their public standing.^[30] Non-verbal gestures amplified these insults; the extended middle finger, termed katapygōn ("downwards finger"), mimicked a phallus protruding from a fist and signified emasculation or pathic submission, documented in Greek and Roman texts as a common obscenity for provocation or scorn.^[31] In ancient Rome, taunting extended to ceremonial mockery of the defeated during triumphs, where victorious legions paraded captives while chanting lewd songs that humiliated both enemies and their own commanders to avert hubris—such as troops ribbing Julius Caesar in 46 BCE for supposed baldness or impotence. Pre-modern practices evolved similarly in medieval Europe, where flyting—a ritualized exchange of poetic insults—served as verbal combat in Anglo-Scottish courts from the 5th to 16th centuries, pitting poets like Dunbar against rivals in battles of wit to assert dominance without physical violence.^[32] In warfare, such as preceding the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, English archers reportedly goaded French knights with cries mocking their heavy armor and hesitation, aiming to provoke rash charges and exploit terrain advantages.^[33] These tactics, while varying in efficacy, underscored taunting's role in eroding morale across eras, often succeeding when personalized to exploit cultural vulnerabilities like honor or virility.

Developments in Modern Warfare and Society

In the 20th century, taunting in warfare transitioned from localized battlefield exchanges to systematic psychological operations amplified by emerging technologies like radio. During World War II, German propagandists exploited broadcasts to mock Allied forces and civilians, aiming to erode morale through derision. William Joyce, known as Lord Haw-Haw, delivered taunting rants on British casualties and incompetence during the Blitz, contributing to Axis information warfare efforts.^[34] Similarly, American-born Mildred Gillars, broadcasting as Axis Sally, targeted U.S. troops with personal jibes about domestic infidelity and futile invasions, though such efforts often blended mockery with scripted demoralization tactics of limited verified impact.^[34] Iva Toguri, dubbed Tokyo Rose by GIs, issued playful put-downs on Radio Tokyo's "Zero Hour" program, slanting battle reports to question American resolve, yet her additions of humor reportedly subverted some propaganda intent.^[34] This evolution continued in the Vietnam War, where North Vietnamese radio used taunting to exploit U.S. troop isolation and doubts. Trịnh Thị Ngọ, known as Hanoi Hannah, aired nightly broadcasts from 1965 onward, ridiculing soldiers' losses, mocking equipment failures, and predicting abandonment by commanders, with messages like claims of high casualties to foster despair.^[35] Radio's reach enabled mass delivery, shifting taunts from direct confrontation to indirect psychological pressure, though empirical assessments of morale effects remain contested due to confounding factors like combat stress.^[35] Post-Cold War developments integrated digital tools, extending taunting into hybrid and cyber domains. In the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian conflict, Ukrainian border guards' radio retort—"Russian warship, go fuck yourself"—to a surrender demand on Snake Island became a viral symbol of defiance, rapidly disseminated via social media for global amplification and domestic rallying.^[28] Such incidents illustrate how instant communication and online sharing transform isolated taunts into strategic narratives, blending psychological operations with information warfare to influence perceptions beyond the front lines.^[28] In broader society, taunting has proliferated through digital platforms, fostering anonymous escalation in interpersonal and group conflicts. The internet's permanence records teasing and drama, enabling widespread exposure that intensifies social repercussions compared to pre-digital verbal exchanges.^[36] This shift correlates with heightened online aggression in political discourse and cyberbullying, where taunts serve dominance signaling but risk amplifying echo chambers over constructive rivalry, as observed in platform dynamics since the 2010s.^[36] Empirical data on outcomes, such as increased reported harassment incidents tied to social media adoption, underscore causal links to reduced accountability in modern interactions.^[36]

Forms of Taunting

Verbal Taunts

Verbal taunts consist of spoken language intended to ridicule, belittle, or provoke an individual or group, typically exploiting a perceived power imbalance to inflict emotional harm or assert dominance.^[2] Unlike neutral banter, they aim to demean through insults, sarcasm, or exaggeration, often targeting personal vulnerabilities such as appearance, competence, or social status.^[37] Psychological research identifies verbal taunts as a subset of verbal aggression, where the aggressor seeks to undermine the target's self-esteem or credibility, as evidenced in studies of bullying dynamics.^[38] Neurologically, verbal taunts trigger an immediate attentional and emotional response in the brain, comparable to a mild physical assault, by retrieving negative emotional associations from long-term memory and activating regions linked to social threat and pain processing.^[39] ^[40] This response violates social norms against harm and threatens reputation, prompting defensive reactions that can escalate conflicts.^[39] Empirical data from experimental settings show that such insults heighten arousal and impair cognitive focus, with effects persisting beyond the immediate encounter.^[41] In competitive arenas like sports, verbal taunts often take the form of trash-talking, where athletes use phrases like mocking an opponent's skill or stamina to disrupt concentration or inflate their own confidence.^[42] Studies on athletic performance indicate that exposure to insulting verbal exchanges reduces motivation and execution accuracy, particularly under high-stakes conditions, though some individuals harness it for heightened aggression.^[41] Beyond athletics, verbal taunts appear in interpersonal disputes and developmental contexts, such as peer interactions among youth, where repeated exposure correlates with diminished self-esteem and increased relational withdrawal.^[43] Forms of verbal taunts vary by intent and subtlety: direct examples include name-calling or explicit threats, while indirect variants employ irony, mimicry, or feigned compliments to erode confidence covertly.^[37] In organizational or authoritative settings, they may manifest as belittling remarks that question authority or competence, contributing to higher distress and turnover intentions among recipients.^[44] Overall, the psychological toll mirrors that of physical aggression, with longitudinal research linking chronic verbal taunting to impaired emotional regulation and mental health outcomes in adulthood.^[43]^[45]

Gestural and Non-Verbal Taunts

Gestural and non-verbal taunts consist of hand signals, facial expressions, and body postures intended to provoke, demean, or assert dominance without verbal communication. These actions leverage universal or culturally specific symbols to elicit emotional responses such as anger or shame, often amplifying interpersonal or competitive tensions.^[46] Empirical studies on nonverbal communication indicate that such gestures can intensify conflict by bypassing rational discourse and directly targeting instinctive reactions.^[47] The middle finger gesture, extending the digit upward while clenching others into a fist, traces its origins to ancient Greek and Roman practices where it symbolized phallic aggression, representing an act of sexual dominance to degrade the target.^[48] Historical texts, including Aristophanes' The Clouds from 423 BCE, depict it as a tool for intimidation and mockery.^[49] In modern contexts, it persists as a direct insult across Western societies, frequently employed in confrontations to signal contempt or defiance, with psychological effects including heightened adrenaline and retaliatory impulses.^[50] The thumbs-down signal, pointing the thumb downward from a closed fist, conveys rejection or failure, though its association with ancient Roman gladiatorial judgments—where it purportedly signaled death for the defeated—stems from 19th-century artistic depictions rather than verified historical evidence.^[51] Primary sources from the era, such as Suetonius' accounts, describe obscured thumb gestures without specifying direction, rendering the modern taunting interpretation a cultural evolution rather than direct inheritance.^[52] Today, it appears in sports and debates to mock opponents' shortcomings, as observed in competitive analyses where such signals correlate with disrupted focus and performance dips.^[53] Other prevalent examples include the "loser" sign—forming an 'L' with thumb and forefinger against the forehead—which gained traction in 1990s American pop culture and youth interactions to label inadequacy, often in athletic or social rivalries.^[54] Facial non-verbal taunts, like tongue protrusion or eye-rolling, function similarly by mimicking disgust or childish derision, with cross-cultural psychological research linking them to dominance hierarchies in primates and humans.^[55] These gestures' efficacy derives from their immediacy and ambiguity resistance, enabling rapid provocation while evading verbal rebuttal.^[56]

Symbolic and Material Taunts

Symbolic taunts utilize representational icons or artifacts to mock and demoralize targets, often amplifying psychological impact through cultural symbolism. Burning effigies, for instance, serves as a ritualistic form of derision, where crude likenesses of adversaries are publicly destroyed to signify contempt and ritual dishonor. This method has historical precedents in political protests, such as the 1563 execution in effigy of Don Felipe de Bardaxi in Saragossa, Spain, for blasphemies, where the figure was paraded and burned as a symbolic punishment when the individual evaded capture.^[57] Similarly, in 1659, Spanish authorities burned an effigy of playwright Antonio Enríquez Gómez after his flight from the Inquisition, adapting execution rituals to publicly affirm condemnation.^[58] Material taunts, by contrast, leverage physical objects or biological remains to provoke directly, emphasizing tangible dominance or degradation. In ancient Celtic warfare during the Iron Age, warriors displayed severed heads of enemies on stakes or gateways, as evidenced by archaeological finds in southern Gaul, where such trophies intimidated survivors and asserted territorial control through visceral symbolism of victory.^[59] Headhunting practices extended this into trophy collection across cultures, including Nasca society in ancient Peru, where decapitated heads were ritually prepared and exhibited post-battle to commemorate conquests and deter retaliation.^[60] Inscribed projectiles represent an early fusion of material and symbolic elements; Greek slingers during the Republican era inscribed lead bullets with taunts like "dexai" ("take this") and motifs such as scorpions or lightning bolts, evoking inescapable harm, as recovered from sites like Perusia in 41 BC, where these served to unsettle foes mid-combat beyond physical injury.^[29] Throwing footwear as a material insult persists in certain regions, particularly Arab cultures, where shoes symbolize impurity and subjugation—throwing one equates to smearing dirt on the recipient, a gesture biblical in origin (Psalm 60:8) and amplified in modern protests, such as Iraqi journalist Muntadhar al-Zaidi's 2008 shoe-throwing at U.S. President George W. Bush, interpreted globally as ultimate disdain.^[61] These forms underscore taunting's role in escalating conflicts by blending provocation with cultural resonance, often prioritizing morale disruption over immediate utility.

Cultural and Cross-Cultural Variations

Gesture-Specific Differences

Gestures employed in taunting display pronounced cross-cultural divergences, where a single motion can provoke antagonism in one society while signifying approbation or innocuousness in another. The thumbs-up hand signal, denoting positivity in the United States and much of Europe, equates to an obscene insult in Iran, Afghanistan, and parts of West Africa, often interpreted as a phallic reference used to demean or challenge an adversary.^[62]^[63] Similarly, in Bangladesh and Thailand, it conveys a threat of violence, amplifying its taunting potential in confrontational settings.^[64] The "OK" gesture—formed by touching the thumb to the index finger in a circle—serves as a vulgar taunt in Brazil, Turkey, and Venezuela, symbolizing an anal orifice and implying the target's inadequacy or effeminacy, which heightens its role in interpersonal mockery.^[62]^[63] In contrast, this configuration remains benign or affirmative in North American contexts, underscoring how gestural intent hinges on localized symbolic associations rather than universal form.^[65] Reversing the V-sign (index and middle fingers extended with palm inward) constitutes a severe taunt in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, comparable to the extended middle finger's derisive force in the United States, frequently deployed to incite rivals in sports or disputes.^[62] This orientation traces to historical English mockery of defeated foes, differing from its palm-outward variant symbolizing peace or victory elsewhere.^[66] The moutza, an open-palmed thrust toward the face in Greece, evokes historical shaming rituals and functions as a potent taunt denoting contempt or worthlessness, absent equivalent potency in Western gesture repertoires.^[67] Regional variants further illustrate specificity: the chin flick—brushing fingertips under the chin outward—signals dismissal or "go away" as a taunting rebuff in northern Italy, Belgium, and Tunisia, rooted in expressive Mediterranean nonverbal traditions.^[64] In Japan and Indonesia, palm-up beckoning mimics animal summoning, rendering it insulting when directed at humans and thus unsuitable for human-directed provocation, unlike the palm-down alternative preferred for people.^[68]^[69] The fig sign, thrusting the thumb between index and middle fingers, persists as an obscene taunt in Turkey, Portugal, and Brazil, connoting emasculation or futility, with origins in ancient Roman vulgarity adapted locally.^[62]^[70] These disparities arise from entrenched cultural semiotics, where gestures accrue meanings via historical, religious, or social reinforcement, often leading to miscommunications in multicultural taunting scenarios such as international athletics or diplomacy.^[71] Empirical observations in cross-cultural psychology affirm that such variations stem not from innate universals but from learned conventions, with insulting efficacy calibrated to societal norms of provocation.^[65]

Normative Attitudes Toward Taunting

Societies generally differentiate normative evaluations of taunting based on intent, reciprocity, and context, with playful forms often viewed as acceptable for fostering social bonds and resilience, while one-sided or hostile variants are condemned as harmful or unethical. Empirical distinctions between teasing and bullying highlight that mutual, affectionate teasing can enhance relationships and social skills, whereas persistent taunting aimed at humiliation violates norms of respect and equity.^[72]^[73] This binary informs institutional guidelines, such as those in educational settings, where teasing is permissible if it maintains dignity but escalates to sanctionable bullying when it embarrasses or isolates the target.^[74] Psychological research underscores negative normative attitudes toward malicious taunting, linking retrospective experiences of childhood verbal taunts to elevated adult anxiety, depression, and social distress, with correlations persisting across genders and demographics.^[75]^[76] Longitudinal studies further associate repeated victimization by taunting-like behaviors with disordered eating, low self-esteem, and suicidal ideation in adolescents, prompting ethical imperatives to intervene against power imbalances that amplify harm.^[77]^[78] Conversely, controlled playful teasing aligns with positive norms in developmental psychology, as it prompts norm enforcement, conflict resolution, and emotional calibration without lasting detriment, particularly when participants share high sociometric status and expectation-consistent behaviors.^[3]^[79] Evolutionary accounts bolster tolerant attitudes toward adaptive taunting, positing it as a phylogenetically ancient mechanism—observed in great apes—for signaling dominance, testing social boundaries, and strengthening alliances through mutual amusement or provocation.^[20]^[19] Such functions suggest taunting's normative value in competitive or hierarchical contexts, where it deters aggression or motivates performance, as evidenced by its persistence in primate play despite risks of misinterpretation.^[80] In religious traditions, however, stricter prohibitions prevail; Islamic teachings, for instance, deem taunting incompatible with believer dignity, framing it as a moral failing that erodes communal harmony regardless of outcome.^[81] Contemporary Western norms increasingly pathologize taunting amid anti-bullying campaigns, prioritizing harm mitigation over potential benefits like resilience-building, though critics argue this overlooks teasing's role in navigating real-world social friction.^[82] In sports and interpersonal ethics, taunting evokes mixed views: while often decried as disrespectful and counterproductive to sportsmanship, some analyses defend moderated forms for psychological edge without ethical breach.^[83] This tension reflects broader debates on whether suppressing taunting stifles adaptive social learning, with empirical gaps in long-term outcomes of zero-tolerance approaches fueling skepticism toward overly protective stances.^[4]

In Sports and Athletics

Taunting in sports encompasses verbal provocations, mocking gestures, and celebratory displays aimed at unsettling opponents or asserting dominance, often functioning as a psychological strategy to disrupt focus and elevate emotional arousal.^[84] In professional athletics, such behaviors have historical precedents dating back decades, with leagues formalizing penalties to curb excesses while acknowledging their role in competitive intensity.^[85] Empirical studies demonstrate that taunting, including trash talk, can effectively decrease an opponent's performance by inducing distraction and heightened emotion, thereby providing a measurable edge to the instigator.^[84] In gridiron football, the National Football League (NFL) defines taunting as unsportsmanlike conduct under Rule 12, Section 3, Article 1, encompassing actions like pointing the ball at an opponent or excessive end-zone celebrations such as high-stepping.^[86] This rule, expanded in 2001 and enforced more stringently since 2021, incurs a 15-yard penalty and potential fines, with 37 taunting infractions recorded in 2016 alone amid broader unsportsmanlike conduct trends averaging 60 annually from 2013 to 2016.^[87] College football mirrors this with provisions to negate scored points for pre-touchdown taunts, emphasizing sportsmanship over provocation.^[88] Enforcement data from 2024 indicates such penalties influenced close-game outcomes, underscoring taunting's potential to escalate tensions without physical contact.^[89] Basketball leagues like the NBA penalize taunting via technical fouls for acts such as clapping in an opponent's face or yelling post-basket, as outlined in Rule No. 12 on fouls and penalties, to prevent escalation into altercations reminiscent of the 2004 Malice at the Palace incident.^[90]^[91] These infractions do not require physical contact but target behaviors that belittle or harass, with officials empowered to eject repeat offenders. In combat sports such as boxing and mixed martial arts, trash talking—verbal taunting extended through press conferences—serves dual purposes: psychological intimidation and event promotion, often yielding higher pay-per-view sales by unsettling foes pre-fight.^[92] Fighters like Conor McGregor have leveraged it for mental advantages, though it risks backlash if perceived as crossing into personal attacks on family.^[93] Youth and amateur athletics extend these principles, where taunting via insults or gestures can erode participants' resilience, prompting rules in baseball and other sports to foster fair play over mockery.^[94] Causally, while taunting may build hype and test mental fortitude in elite competitors, unchecked forms correlate with broader unsportsmanlike trends, as evidenced by penalty upticks, though proponents argue suppression stifles the raw psychological warfare inherent to high-stakes rivalry.^[95]^[96]

In Warfare and Interpersonal Conflict

In warfare, taunting has served as a rudimentary form of psychological operations, aimed at eroding enemy morale, provoking impulsive actions, or asserting dominance prior to or during engagements. Ancient examples include Greek slingers during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) who inscribed lead bullets with mocking phrases such as "Catch!" or "Take this!" to intimidate foes and amplify the terror of incoming projectiles.^[97] Similarly, at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE, Spartan King Leonidas reportedly taunted Persian envoys demanding spear surrender with the retort "Molōn labe" ("Come and take them"), a phrase intended to signal defiance and rally his own forces while psychologically undermining the invaders' perceived superiority.^[28] These tactics exploited the human tendency toward emotional reactivity, where verbal barbs could disrupt focus and induce hesitation or rage, potentially leading to tactical errors; historical analyses suggest such provocations were most effective against less disciplined opponents, as elite units often trained to ignore or counter them.^[28] Modern instances persist, as seen in the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian War when Ukrainian border guards on Snake Island radioed a Russian warship demanding surrender with the expletive-laden taunt "Russian warship, go fuck yourself," broadcast widely to boost national resolve and humiliate the aggressor on global media.^[28] In interpersonal conflicts, taunting functions analogously but on a smaller scale, often escalating disputes by targeting personal vulnerabilities to provoke overreactions or submission. Psychological research indicates that aggressive teasing or mocking during arguments—such as ridiculing an opponent's competence or resolve—frequently arises in response to perceived norm violations, intensifying ego conflicts and impairing rational de-escalation.^[98]^[99] Empirical studies of verbal aggression in close-range confrontations show taunting correlates with heightened arousal and retaliatory violence, as it signals contempt and challenges social status, thereby causal in perpetuating cycles of hostility rather than resolving underlying grievances.^[98] In both domains, effectiveness hinges on the target's psychological resilience; resilient individuals may dismiss taunts, while others experience diminished performance through anger-induced errors, underscoring taunting's role as a low-cost dominance strategy rooted in evolutionary signaling of superiority.^[100]

In Child Development and Socialization

Taunting emerges in early childhood as a form of social interaction that tests boundaries and elicits emotional responses, often beginning with non-verbal cues in infancy, such as infants performing unexpected actions to provoke reactions from caregivers, which developmental studies link to the roots of playful provocation.^[101] By toddlerhood, verbal taunts appear in peer play, coinciding with the development of language and theory of mind, where children use simple mocking phrases to navigate group dynamics and assert individuality.^[102] This progression reflects taunting's role in mirroring adult social signaling, adapting from physical play-fighting—common in boys aged 2-5, where 70-80% of interactions include vocal challenges—to more sophisticated verbal exchanges by school age.^[79] In socialization, taunting functions as a mechanism for establishing hierarchies and practicing reciprocity, with empirical observations showing that moderated, playful instances during rough-and-tumble play enhance children's ability to read social cues and regulate aggression.^[79] Peer taunting prompts norm enforcement, as children tease to highlight deviations like clumsiness or rule-breaking, fostering group cohesion and individual resilience; longitudinal data from middle childhood cohorts indicate that children engaging in reciprocal taunting exhibit stronger conflict resolution skills by adolescence compared to those shielded from such interactions.^[4] Evolutionarily, this mirrors primate behaviors where vocal provocations in play signal alliances and test alliances without escalating to violence, aiding human children's preparation for competitive adult environments.^[101] Distinctions between playful and harmful taunting become clearer with age: preschoolers often perceive taunts as uniformly negative, leading to immediate distress, whereas by ages 11-12, children increasingly recognize intent, using taunting prosocially to bond or defuse tension through off-record humor.^[4] However, chronic exposure to unidirectional taunting—lacking reciprocity—correlates with psychosocial deficits, including heightened anxiety, reduced trust in peers, and lower comfort with intimacy in adulthood, as evidenced by retrospective studies of teased children showing elevated internalizing symptoms persisting into young adulthood.^[104] ^[105] Parental and institutional responses to taunting in socialization emphasize mitigation of harm, yet under moderated conditions, it cultivates adaptive traits like emotional toughness; for instance, sibling taunting in early childhood has been associated with improved perspective-taking, though excessive adult involvement risks overprotecting children from essential social friction.^[102] Cross-sectional surveys of 5-7-year-olds reveal that 60-70% view peer taunts as opportunities for comeback rather than pure injury, underscoring taunting's dual potential in building verbal agility and social navigation absent in overly sanitized play environments.^[106]

Controversies, Regulations, and Debates

Legal and Institutional Restrictions

In the United States, taunting generally receives broad protection under the First Amendment as free speech, except in narrow circumstances where it constitutes "fighting words"—face-to-face insults likely to provoke an immediate violent response, as established in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942).^[107]^[108] Courts have interpreted this exception restrictively, requiring words that directly incite breach of the peace rather than mere offense, such that routine taunting, including profanity or gestures, rarely triggers criminal liability absent threats or repeated harassment.^[109] State disorderly conduct statutes, such as Ohio Revised Code Section 2917.11, may apply if taunting recklessly causes public alarm or inconvenience, but prosecutions remain infrequent and often fail if speech is deemed protected.^[110] Civil restrictions arise when taunting escalates to harassment under federal or state laws, particularly if linked to protected characteristics like race or sex, creating a hostile environment per Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.^[111] The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission defines unlawful workplace harassment as conduct severe or pervasive enough to alter employment conditions, but isolated taunts without discriminatory animus do not qualify, emphasizing that mild insults or trash-talking fall short of legal thresholds.^[112] Some jurisdictions, like Colorado, permit reporting of repeated taunting as street harassment if it involves overt threats or following, though enforcement prioritizes physical safety over verbal provocation.^[113] Institutional restrictions impose stricter limits than criminal law, often through internal policies aimed at maintaining order. In professional sports, the National Football League (NFL) enforces a taunting rule under Rule 12, Section 3, penalizing actions that "engender ill will" with a 15-yard penalty and fines up to $17,389 for repeats, as seen in heightened 2024 enforcement that influenced close-game outcomes.^[86]^[114] Schools, via anti-bullying mandates like New York's Dignity for All Students Act (2010), prohibit taunting as verbal harassment, requiring districts to investigate reports and foster discrimination-free environments, with violations leading to disciplinary actions.^[115]^[116] Workplaces similarly regulate taunting under human resources policies to avoid liability, treating persistent ridicule as potential bullying if it disrupts productivity, though general employee conduct codes apply rather than blanket bans.^[117] Proponents of taunting's social utility argue that it serves adaptive functions in human interaction, such as signaling dominance hierarchies, motivating competitive effort, and fostering resilience without resorting to physical aggression. In competitive contexts like sports, experimental studies demonstrate that trash-talking— a form of verbal taunting—heightens rivalry and drives targets to exert greater effort, thereby enhancing performance outcomes.^[118] This motivational effect stems from elevated psychological stakes, where recipients often respond by focusing more intensely on outperforming the taunter, as evidenced in controlled tasks involving resource competition.^[119] Evolutionary perspectives further posit that such verbal provocations historically allowed for status negotiation in social groups, reducing the need for costly violence while clarifying relational dynamics.^[120] Conversely, critics emphasize taunting's potential for psychological harm, particularly when it targets vulnerabilities like appearance or ability, leading to diminished self-esteem and long-term mental health risks. Peer-reviewed analyses of adolescent teasing link frequent exposure to increased symptoms of depression, anxiety, and body dissatisfaction, with effects persisting into adulthood and varying by gender—girls reporting stronger negative associations.^[121] In developmental contexts, what begins as playful teasing can blur into harmful patterns if unbalanced by power differentials or repetition, correlating with elevated obesity risk and social withdrawal in children.^[104] These harms are amplified in non-reciprocal scenarios, distinguishing taunting from mutual banter and aligning it closer to bullying's adverse outcomes, such as impaired academic performance and relational distrust.^[4] The debate hinges on contextual moderators: empirical distinctions reveal that affectionate, reciprocal teasing among peers can build social calibration and emotional toughness, as seen in its prevalence in close relationships where it reinforces bonds rather than erodes them.^[24] However, institutional biases toward pathologizing all provocation—often amplified in sensitivity-focused academic and media narratives—may overlook utility in moderated forms, potentially contributing to reduced tolerance for interpersonal friction. Studies underscore overlap between playful and harmful variants, with intent alone insufficient to predict impact; recipient perception and frequency determine net effects, urging nuanced regulation over blanket suppression.^[4]^[122]

Criticisms of Modern Suppression Efforts

Modern suppression efforts against taunting, including zero-tolerance policies in schools and fines for trash-talking in professional sports leagues, have drawn criticism for conflating playful or competitive verbal provocation with harmful bullying, thereby pathologizing normal social dynamics. Psychologists argue that such policies adopt a legalistic approach, treating teasing as inherently damaging rather than distinguishing it from aggressive bullying based on intent, reciprocity, and context, which leads to over-intervention and fails to address root causes of actual harm.^[123]^[124] For instance, the American Psychological Association has highlighted widespread failures of zero-tolerance bullying policies, noting they often escalate minor incidents without fostering adaptive responses and may exacerbate emotional exhaustion among educators tasked with enforcement.^[125] Critics contend that prohibiting mild taunting undermines resilience development, as exposure to non-malicious verbal challenges in childhood helps children learn emotional regulation, perspective-taking, and social navigation skills essential for adulthood. Research distinguishes "good" teasing—playful, affectionate, and mutual—from bullying, emphasizing that the former promotes bonding and coping mechanisms, whereas suppression efforts risk producing overly sensitive individuals ill-equipped for real-world conflicts.^[126]^[122] Evolutionary perspectives further support this, positing playful teasing as an adaptive behavior rooted in primate play-fighting, which calibrates social hierarchies, tests boundaries, and enhances socio-cognitive abilities like theory of mind without physical risk.^[20] In competitive arenas like sports, efforts to curb trash-talking—such as NBA or NFL penalties for verbal provocations—are faulted for diminishing psychological engagement and entertainment value, as moderate taunting motivates performance through rivalry and distracts opponents without crossing into threats. Studies indicate trash-talking serves as a strategic tool in high-contact sports, signaling confidence and deterring aggression, yet institutional crackdowns prioritize sanitized conduct over the intrinsic motivational benefits observed in locker room dynamics.^[127]^[120] Overall, detractors from fields like evolutionary psychology warn that broad suppression ignores empirical evidence of taunting's role in building toughness, potentially contributing to cultural fragility amid rising mental health concerns linked to overprotection.^[128]^[6]

Cultural Impact and Representation

In Literature and Media

In ancient epic literature, taunting frequently precedes physical combat as a psychological tactic to demoralize opponents or incite rage, as seen in Homer's Iliad, where warriors exchange verbal barbs to assert superiority. For instance, Achilles employs metaphorical taunts against Agamemnon, likening him to worthless husks unfit to rule, highlighting the hierarchical tensions within the Greek camp.^[129] Similarly, gods like Athena and Hera mock Zeus with sarcastic remarks, underscoring divine rivalries that mirror mortal conflicts.^[130] These exchanges, analyzed as verbal abuse in Homeric narrative, function pragmatically to escalate tensions without immediate violence, often blending insult with prophecy of defeat.^[131] Medieval and Norse traditions formalized taunting as flyting, ritualistic verse duels where poets traded obscene insults to demonstrate verbal prowess and social dominance, evident in works like the Poetic Edda.^[132] This practice, akin to Homeric verbal dueling, interfaces words with heroic action, as detailed in comparative studies of epic narratives, where flyting substitutes or preludes physical contests to test wit and resolve disputes.^[133] In Old English literature, such as Beowulf, flyting reinforces warrior ethos by shaming cowardice or boasting lineage. Shakespearean drama elevates taunting to witty repartee, often driving plot through character rivalries, as in Much Ado About Nothing, where Beatrice and Benedick engage in mocking banter that pragmatic analysis identifies as teasing to mask affection.^[134] Insults like "a most notable coward, an infinite and endless liar" from All's Well That Ends Well exemplify the Bard's use of taunts to expose flaws and provoke response, a staple across his comedies and histories.^[135] In Macbeth, taunts underscore psychological torment, with Lady Macbeth goading her husband's ambition by questioning his manhood.^[136] In film, taunting manifests as a trope to heighten tension, notably in Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), where the French guard's barrage of insults—"Your mother was a hamster and your father smelt of elderberries!"—parodies medieval bravado to comedic effect, drawing on historical flyting for satirical demoralization.^[137] Modern depictions, such as villainous monologues in superhero cinema, echo epic traditions by delaying action through verbal provocation, though often critiqued for prolonging narratives without advancing causal plot mechanics.

In Video Games and Digital Entertainment

Taunting in video games encompasses built-in mechanics such as emote buttons or animations designed to provoke opponents psychologically, often without direct gameplay advantages like damage or resource gain. These features emerged in fighting games as early as the 1990s, with titles like Street Fighter Alpha incorporating taunt inputs—typically executed by pressing multiple attack buttons simultaneously—to allow players to mock foes mid-match, signaling dominance or baiting errors.^[138] In Street Fighter 6, released on June 2, 2023, each character possesses up to three unique taunts, which can build tension or demonstrate skill mastery, though they leave the user vulnerable to counterattacks.^[139] In multiplayer genres like first-person shooters (FPS) and multiplayer online battle arenas (MOBAs), taunting manifests through actions such as "tea-bagging"—repeated crouching over a defeated opponent's avatar—or chat messages laden with insults. These behaviors, prevalent since the rise of online play in games like Quake (1996), serve to demoralize rivals and assert superiority, but empirical studies indicate they impair target performance by elevating competitive stakes and inducing frustration, as evidenced by a 2019 experiment where trash talk reduced participants' effort and accuracy in simulated contests.^[5] A 2023 analysis of esports behavior further classified trash talk into verbal, written, and in-game forms, noting its role in escalating psychological pressure without altering core mechanics.^[140] Esports contexts amplify taunting's strategic utility, where professional players deploy emotes or banter during live streams to disrupt focus and entertain audiences, viewing it as integral to competitive culture rather than mere harassment. Research from Central Queensland University in 2024, based on interviews with esports participants, found trash talk fosters player connections and motivation, though it risks crossing into toxicity when perceived as bullying, prompting platform interventions like automated chat filters in League of Legends.^[141] Conversely, organizational psychology studies reveal taunters gain short-term confidence boosts, yet recipients often experience "tilt"—a state of emotional dysregulation leading to suboptimal decisions—as documented in qualitative analyses of MOBAs.^[142]^[143] In broader digital entertainment, taunting extends to streaming platforms like Twitch, where performers exaggerate in-game emotes for viewer engagement, blending psychological tactics with performative spectacle. While proponents argue it enhances immersion and tests mental resilience—aligning with esports training emphasizing emotional regulation—critics highlight its potential to exacerbate aggression, with toxicity linked to player attrition in online communities.^[144]^[145] Overall, taunting persists as a double-edged tool, empirically substantiated for inducing opponent errors in controlled settings but moderated by game developers to curb harmful excess.^[146]

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Teasing changes as it expresses developmental issues from playing peek-a-boo in infancy to expressing personal issues, such as boy/girl relationships, in ...Missing: taunting reviewed
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Prospective Associations between Peer Teasing in Childhood ... - NIH
Being teased and otherwise victimized by peers during childhood increases risk for obesity. However, few prospective studies have considered whether risk ...Missing: taunting socialization
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(PDF) The Relationship Between Childhood Teasing and Later ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Specifically, frequent teasing was associated with less comfort with intimacy and closeness, less comfort in trusting and depending on others, a ...
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[PDF] An investigation of young children's perceptions of teasing within ...
Mar 2, 2010 · The results of this study indicate that peer teasing is a topic of concern for young children and they have unique perspectives and insights ...
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fighting words | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
Fighting words are words meant to incite violence such that they may not be protected free speech under the First Amendment.
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Fighting words are words that have a direct tendency to cause violence, inflict injury, and incite a breach of the peace, and are abusive epithets likely to ...Missing: taunting | Show results with:taunting
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(A) No person shall recklessly cause inconvenience, annoyance, or alarm to another by doing any of the following: (1) Engaging in fighting, in threatening ...Missing: States | Show results with:States
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Harassment | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
To be unlawful, the conduct must create a work environment that would be intimidating, hostile, or offensive to reasonable people. Offensive conduct may include ...Sexual Harassment · Questions and Answers for · Small Business Fact SheetMissing: taunting | Show results with:taunting
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The Best Laws, Advocacy, and Anti-Street Harassment Ordinances
You can report street harassers who follow you, make overtly sexual references to you, or repeatedly taunt you. This Colorado law is one of the best in the ...
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Accountability: Fines & Appeals | NFL Football Operations
The fines collected are donated to the Professional Athletes Foundation to ... Taunting. $11,593. $17,389. Football Into Stands. $8,114. $13,911. Uniform.
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The Dignity Act seeks to provide the State's public elementary and secondary school students with a safe and supportive environment free from discrimination.
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1. No student shall be subjected to harassment or bullying by employees or students on school property or at a school function.
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Trash-talking: Competitive incivility motivates rivalry, performance ...
Trash-talking increases the psychological stakes of competition and motivates targets to outperform their opponents. In Studies 1 and 2, participants in a ...
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Jul 5, 2017 · Across our six studies, we demonstrate that trash-talking influences the targets' performance, perceptions of rivalry, motivation, unethical ...
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May 26, 2018 · Trash-talking is most commonly about the proximately important topic of playing ability while ultimately relevant topics such as physical appearance also ...
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Appearance Teasing and Mental Health: Gender Differences ... - NIH
Mar 20, 2019 · Several studies have shown its negative impact on mental health as well as on body image. While these findings prove stable in various contexts, ...Missing: taunting | Show results with:taunting
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The Good, the Bad, and the Borderline: Separating Teasing from ...
Jul 9, 2009 · The aim of this project is to clarify how teasing and bullying are interrelated, but can be two very distinct acts with different motivations, ...
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Oct 27, 2010 · Bullying and teasing may sometimes feel the same to the victim, but they function very differently.
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A critical review of anti-bullying programs in North American ...
Long-term outcomes of bullying perpetration increase the likelihood of experiencing depression, delinquency, and criminality as adults, as well as intimate ...
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Do U.S. laws go far enough to prevent bullying at school?
Feb 1, 2016 · Especially troubling are the public calls for zero tolerance for bullying despite widespread criticism that zero tolerance is a failed policy. ...
[125]
In Defense of Teasing - The New York Times
Dec 5, 2008 · The reason teasing is viewed as inherently damaging is that it is too often confused with bullying.Missing: anti- banning
[126]
New study of trash talking in sport highlights that it is more than a ...
Sep 14, 2018 · Although trash talking between players before, during and after games is well known, it is surprisingly unstudied by psychologists.
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[PDF] Why Psychology is Failing to Solve the Problem of Bullying
Anti-bullying efforts fail because they use a legal/law enforcement approach instead of a scientific/psychological one, shifting psychology towards law ...
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The Iliad Rage Quotes - AllGreatQuotes
Worthless husks, the men you rule. – Homer. The Iliad, Book 1, lines 264-270. Achilles uses metaphorical language to taunt Agamemnon and compare him to lowly ...
[129]
THE ILIAD of Homer
But Athena and Hera, who were looking on, began to taunt Zeus with their mocking talk, and Athena was first to speak. ... taunting speeches, my good friend ...
[130]
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This paper aims to sketch out a typology and a description of the dynamics of verbal abuse in Homer.
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In presenting the verbal duel as a literary expression of the contest, Ward Parks shows how flyting interfaces words and physical action. He explores the ...
[133]
[PDF] Witty Banter in Shakespeare's "Much Ado About Nothing" and "The ...
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[134]
Shakespeare Insults: 55 Shakespearean Insults & Put Downs
Top 55 Shakespeare Insults · 1. “A most notable coward, an infinite and endless liar, an hourly promise breaker, the owner of no one good quality.” · 2. “Away, ...
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A Modern Perspective: Macbeth | Folger Shakespeare Library
That very gap between noun and verb, the desired prize and the doing necessary to win it, becomes a way of taunting him as a coward: “Art thou afeard / To be ...
[136]
188 Taunting Quotes from Movies (+ Sound Clips)
Aug 26, 2025 · 1 Okay, come on! You want a piece of me? · 2 My men will be ready. Ha-ha! · 3 Prepare to meet Mr. Angry Eyes! · 4 That did it! Nobody throws bricks ...
[137]
Anyone know of any taunts in fighting games that doesn't just simply ...
Mar 29, 2016 · Alpha 2: Ryu's got a special taunt that's a fake fireball. Ken's got one where he falls on his back. Rolento has a small-damage grenade.
[138]
8 Best Taunts In Street Fighter 6 - TheGamer
Apr 7, 2025 · Street Fighter 6 allows you to taunt your opponent in the middle of the match by pressing all of your attack buttons at once. Every character has three taunts.
[139]
Identifying Forms of Trash Talk in Esports Using Behavior ...
Apr 18, 2023 · Actions associated with trash talk were primarily found through verbal and written exchanges though they can occur through in-game mechanics—a ...
[140]
Banter or bullying, research says 'trash talk' is ingrained in esports
Oct 14, 2024 · In fact, esports participants consider trash talk as crucial to player connection and esports culture. CQUniversity PhD graduate Sidney Irwin ...
[141]
Trash Talking - Esports Tower
While one of his studies found that trash-talk can make people more motivated in competitive situations, it also showed that people won't put as much effort ...
[142]
Tilt in esports: Understanding the phenomenon in new digital contexts
The concept of tilt has been defined in unrelated contexts (such as problem gambling) as a state of mental or emotional confusion and frustration which causes a ...
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(PDF) Emotion Regulation in eSports Gaming: A Qualitative Study of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · In this study, we empirically investigated how players experience emotion and regulate emotions in League of Legends, one of the largest eSports games today.
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[PDF] Toxic Behaviour in Online Multiplayer Games: To Play or to Flame?
The literature review finds that toxicity indeed produces adverse social and psychological consequences for victims, leading them to lose interest in gaming.<|separator|>
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Trash Talk vs. Toxicity in Multiplayer Gaming - Modulate.ai
Jan 11, 2024 · With trash talk, the intent is to participate in a competitive gaming atmosphere, engage in friendly banter, and “psych out” competitors to ...<|separator|>